Editing Hepburn romanization

{{Short description|System of Japanese romanization}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{cleanup lang|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Kana & Romaji Chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Chart of [[kana]] and their Hepburn romanizations]]
{{Japanese writing}}

{{nihongo|'''Hepburn romanization'''|ヘボン式ローマ字|Hebon-shiki rōmaji|lead=yes|{{lit|Hepburn-style [[Latin script|Roman letters]]|lk=yes}}}} is the main system of [[Romanization of Japanese|romanization for the Japanese language]]. The system was originally published in 1867 by American Christian [[missionary]] and physician [[James Curtis Hepburn]] as the standard in the first edition of his Japanese–English dictionary. The system is distinct from other romanization methods in its use of [[English orthography]] to phonetically transcribe sounds: for example, the syllable {{IPA|ja|ɕi|}} ({{lang|ja|し|italic=no}}) is written as ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|shi}}'' and {{IPA|ja|tɕa|}} ({{lang|ja|ちゃ|italic=no}}) is written as ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|cha}}'', reflecting their spellings in English (compare to ''{{Transliteration|ja|nihon-shiki|si}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|ja|nihon-shiki|tya}}'' in the more systematic [[Nihon-shiki romanization|Nihon-shiki]] and [[Kunrei-shiki romanization|Kunrei-shiki]] systems).

In 1886, Hepburn published the third edition of his dictionary, codifying a revised version of the system that is known today as "traditional Hepburn". A version with additional revisions, known as "modified Hepburn", was published in 1908.

Although [[Kunrei-shiki romanization]] is the style favored by the Japanese government, Hepburn remains the most popular method of Japanese romanization. It is learned by most foreign students of the language, and is used within Japan for romanizing personal names, locations, and other information, such as train tables and road signs. Because the system's orthography is based on English phonology instead of a systematic transcription of the [[Kana|Japanese syllabary]], individuals who do not speak Japanese will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.<ref name=hadamitzky />

== History ==
[[File:James Curtis Hepburn.jpg|thumb|[[James Curtis Hepburn]], creator of the system]]
In 1867, American [[Presbyterian Mission Agency|Presbyterian]] missionary doctor [[James Curtis Hepburn]] published the first Japanese–English dictionary, in which he introduced a new system for the [[romanization of Japanese]] into [[Latin script]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sant|first1=John Van|last2=Mauch|first2=Peter|last3=Sugita|first3=Yoneyuki|title=Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQOyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104|date=January 29, 2007|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]]|isbn=978-0-8108-6462-7|page=104|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062931/https://books.google.com/books?id=fQOyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104|url-status=live}}</ref> He published a second edition in 1872 and a third edition in 1886, which introduced minor changes.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Nishiyama|editor-first1=Kunio|editor-last2=Kishimoto|editor-first2=Hideki|editor-last3=Aldridge|editor-first3=Edith|title=Topics in Theoretical Asian Linguistics: Studies in Honor of John B. Whitman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=st18DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292|date=December 15, 2018|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-90-272-6329-2|page=292|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062841/https://books.google.com/books?id=st18DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292|url-status=live}}</ref> The third edition's system had been adopted in the previous year by the {{nihongo3|"Romanization Club"|羅馬字会|Rōmaji-kai}}, a group of Japanese and foreign scholars who promoted a replacement of the [[Japanese script]] with a romanized system.<ref name="Seeley2000">{{cite book|last=Seeley|first=Christopher|title=A History of Writing in Japan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIkuX0US69QC&pg=PA139|date=April 1, 2000|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-2217-0|pages=139–140|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062838/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIkuX0US69QC&pg=PA139|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hepburn romanization, loosely based on the conventions of [[English orthography]] (spelling), stood in opposition to [[Nihon-shiki romanization]], which had been developed in Japan in 1881 as a script replacement.<ref name="Seeley2000" /> Compared to Hepburn, Nihon-shiki is more systematic in its representation of the Japanese [[syllabary]] (''[[kana]]''), as each symbol corresponds to a [[phoneme]].<ref name="Unger1996-53">{{cite book|last=Unger|first=J. Marshall|author-link=James Marshall Unger|title=Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYjmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|date=August 1, 1996|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-510166-9|pages=53–55|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063441/https://books.google.com/books?id=mYjmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the notation requires further explanation for accurate pronunciation by non-Japanese speakers: for example, the syllables {{IPA|ja|ɕi|}} and {{IPA|ja|tɕa|}}, which are written as ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|shi}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|ja|hepburn|cha}}'' in Hepburn, are rendered&nbsp;as ''{{Transliteration|ja|nihon-shiki|si}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|ja|nihon-shiki|tya}}'' in Nihon-shiki.<ref name="Seeley2000" /> After Nihon-shiki was presented to the {{Transliteration|ja|Rōmaji-kai}} in 1886, a dispute began between the supporters of the two systems, which resulted in a standstill and an eventual halt to the organization's activities in 1892.<ref name="Hannas1997">{{cite book|last=Hannas|first=William C.|title=Asia's Orthographic Dilemma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA42|date=June 1, 1997|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0|page=42|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063404/https://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA42|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905, the two factions resurfaced as the {{nihongo3|"Society for the Spread of Romanization"|ローマ字ひろめ会|Rōmaji Hirome-kai}}, which supported Hepburn's style, and the {{nihongo3|"Romanization Society of Japan"|日本のローマ字社|Nihon no Rōmaji-sha}}, which supported Nihon-shiki.<ref name="Hannas1997" /> In 1908, Hepburn was revised by educator [[Kanō Jigorō]] and others of the ''Rōmaji Hirome-kai'', which began calling it the {{nihongo3|"modified Hepburn system"|修正ヘボン式|Shūsei Hebon-shiki}} or {{nihongo3|"standard system"|標準式|Hyōjun-shiki}}.<ref name="Seeley2000" />

In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission, headed by the Minister of Education, was appointed by the government to devise a standardized form of romanization.<ref name="Unger1996-53" /> The Commission eventually decided on a slightly modified "compromise" version of Nihon-shiki, which was chosen for official use by [[Cabinet of Japan|cabinet]] ordinance on September 21, 1937; this system is known today as [[Kunrei-shiki romanization]].<ref name="Unger1996-53" /> On September 3, 1945, at the beginning of the [[occupation of Japan]] after [[World War II]], [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] issued a directive mandating the use of modified Hepburn by occupation forces.<ref name="Unger1996-78">{{cite book|last=Unger|first=J. Marshall|author-link=James Marshall Unger|title=Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading Between the Lines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYjmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|date=August 1, 1996|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-510166-9|page=78|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063345/https://books.google.com/books?id=mYjmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}</ref> The directive had no legal force, however, and a revised version of Kunrei-shiki was reissued by cabinet ordinance on December 9, 1954, after the end of occupation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, Volume 6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvEpAQAAMAAJ|year=1983|publisher=[[Kodansha]]|isbn=978-0-87011-626-1|page=336}}</ref>

Although it lacks ''[[de jure]]'' status, Hepburn remains the ''[[de facto]]'' standard for multiple applications in Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/03/250d39967042-japan-to-revise-official-romanization-rules-for-1st-time-in-70-yrs.html|title=Japan to revise official romanization rules for 1st time in 70 yrs|agency=[[Kyodo News]]|date=2024-03-24|access-date=2024-08-26|quote=The Hepburn system [...] has long been predominantly used in society as well as in officialdom,[...]}}</ref> As of 1977, many government organizations used Hepburn, including the [[Ministry of International Trade and Industry]]; the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the [[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Japan)|Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport]] requires its use on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Visconti|first=Jacqueline|title=Handbook of Communication in the Legal Sphere|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fheBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA454|date=September 24, 2018|publisher=[[De Gruyter]]|isbn=978-1-61451-466-4|page=454|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063408/https://books.google.com/books?id=fheBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA454|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a survey by the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2022, the Japanese primarily use Hepburn to spell place names.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-02 |title=Akasi or Akashi? Hepburn Most Established of Japan's Different "Rōmaji" Systems |url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-data/h01483/ |website=nippon.com |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303050008/https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-data/h01483/ |archive-date= Mar 3, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=October 1, 2022 |title=Cultural agency now weighing romanization of Japanese words |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14732540 |author1=Momoko Jingu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303052857/https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14732540 |archive-date=Mar 3, 2024 |website=The Asahi Shimbun}}</ref>
Hepburn is also used by private organizations, including ''[[The Japan Times]]'' and the [[Japan Travel Bureau]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Kent|editor-first1=Allen|editor-last2=Lancour|editor-first2=Harold|editor-last3=Daily|editor-first3=Jay E.|title=Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA155|date=May 1, 1977|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-0-8247-2021-6|page=155|access-date=October 18, 2016|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405063412/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA155|url-status=live}}</ref>

''American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese'' (ANSI Z39.11-1972), based on modified Hepburn, was approved in 1971 and published in 1972 by the [[American National Standards Institute]].<ref name="Kudo2010" /> In 1989, it was proposed for [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) standard 3602, but was rejected in favor of Kunrei-shiki.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} ANSI Z39.11-1972 was deprecated as a standard in 1994.<ref name="Kudo2010" />

In January 2024, the [[Cultural Affairs Agency]] proposed revising the 1954 Cabinet ordinance to make Hepburn the standard romanization system of Japan.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/society/general-news/20240131-165580/ | title=Hepburn-Style Romaji Likely to Become Standardized | date=January 31, 2024 }}</ref>

== Variants ==
[[File:Toyooka Station Sign (cropped).jpg|thumb|250px|Former [[Japan National Railways]]-style board of [[Toyooka Station (Hyōgo)|Toyooka Station]]. For the two adjacent stations, "[[Gembudō Station|GEMBUDŌ]]" follows the Hepburn romanization system, but "[[Kokufu Station|KOKUHU]]" follows the [[Nihon-shiki romanization|Nihon-shiki]]/[[Kunrei-shiki romanization]] system.]]
There are many variants of the Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are as follows:
* '''Traditional Hepburn''', as defined in various editions of Hepburn's dictionary, with the third edition (1886)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hep3.html|script-title=ja:和英語林集成第三版|trans-title=Digital 'Japanese English Forest Collection'|publisher=Meiji Gakuin University|website=Meiji Gakuin University Library|orig-year=2006|date=March 2010|access-date=August 10, 2017|language=ja|archive-date=October 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022013225/http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hep3.html|url-status=live}}</ref> often considered authoritative<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/mgda/index5_j.html |title=明治学院大学図書館 - 『和英語林集成』デジタルアーカイブス |publisher=Meijigakuin.ac.jp |access-date=June 29, 2012 |archive-date=December 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216222332/http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/mgda/index5_j.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> (although [[historical kana usage|changes in kana usage]] must be accounted for). It is characterized by the rendering of syllabic ''n'' as ''m'' before the consonants ''b'', ''m'' and ''p'': for example, {{Transliteration|ja|Shimbashi}} for {{nihongo2|新橋}}.
* '''Modified Hepburn''', also known as '''Revised Hepburn''', in which (among other changes) the rendering of syllabic ''n'' as ''m'' before [[bilabial consonant]]s is no longer used: ''{{Transliteration|ja|Shinbashi}}'' for {{nihongo2|新橋}}. The version of the system published in the third (1954) and later editions of ''[[Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary]]'' are often considered authoritative; it was adopted in 1989 by the [[Library of Congress]] as one of its [[ALA-LC romanization]]s,<ref name="Kudo2010">{{cite journal |last=Kudo |first=Yoko |date=January 28, 2011 |title=Modified Hepburn Romanization System in Japanese Language Cataloging: Where to Look, What to Follow |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01639374.2011.536751 |format=pdf |journal=Cataloging & Classification Quarterly |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=97–120 |doi=10.1080/01639374.2011.536751 |s2cid=62560768 |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229064352/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01639374.2011.536751 |url-status=live }}</ref> and is the most common variant of Hepburn romanization used today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/asiaref/japan/online/rom_hist.htm |title=UHM Library : Japan Collection Online Resources |publisher=Hawaii.edu |date=October 6, 2005 |access-date=June 29, 2012 |archive-date=February 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226172935/http://www.hawaii.edu/asiaref/japan/online/rom_hist.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:
* {{nihongo|'''Railway Standard'''|鉄道掲示基準規程|Tetsudō Keiji Kijun Kitei}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://homepage1.nifty.com/tabi-mo/font_kitei2.htm#10 |title=鉄道掲示基準規程 |publisher=Homepage1.nifty.com |access-date=July 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301033237/http://homepage1.nifty.com/tabi-mo/font_kitei2.htm#10 |archive-date=March 1, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which mostly follows Modified Hepburn, except syllabic ''n'' is rendered as in Traditional. [[Japan Railways]] and other major railways use it for station names.
* {{nihongo|'''Road Sign Romaji (Hepburn)'''|道路標識のローマ字(ヘボン式)|Dōrohyōji no rōmaji (Hebonshiki)}}, used for road signs, which otherwise follows Modified Hepburn closely but specifies that macrons are not to be used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kictec.co.jp/varieties-road-sign/hebon-romaji/|script-title=ja:道路標識のローマ字(ヘボン式) の綴り方|trans-title=How to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs|website=Kictec|date=June 14, 2012|access-date=August 10, 2017|language=ja|archive-date=April 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420041720/http://www.kictec.co.jp/varieties-road-sign/hebon-romaji/|url-status=live}}</ref> <!--how to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs, which follows Modified Hepburn. It is used for road signs. (This sentence needs to be fixed)-->
* {{nihongo|'''Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard'''|外務省旅券規定|Gaimushō Ryoken Kitei}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ezairyu.mofa.go.jp/passport/hebon.html|title=ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|access-date=May 16, 2022|archive-date=August 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810185158/https://www.ezairyu.mofa.go.jp/passport/hebon.html|url-status=live}}</ref> a permissive standard that renders the syllabic ''n'' as ''m'' before ''b'', ''m'' and ''p''. Most of the long vowels are not rendered, and macrons are not used above the letter. Moreover, this standard explicitly allows the use of {{nihongo|"non-Hepburn romaji"|非ヘボン式ローマ字|hi-Hebon-shiki rōmaji}} in personal names with special approval,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ezairyu.mofa.go.jp/passport/hebon.html|title=ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表 (Hebon-shiki Romanization) |website=ezairyu.mofa.go.jp |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> notably for passports. In particular, the long vowel ''ō'' can be romanized ''oh'', ''oo'' or ''ou'' (''Satoh'', ''Satoo'' or ''Satou'' for {{nihongo2|佐藤}}).

Details of the variants can be found below.

===Obsolete variants===
The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the third and later versions include:
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}

==== Second version ====
* {{nihongo2|エ}} and {{nihongo2|ヱ}} were written as ''ye'': [[Yedo]]
* {{nihongo2|ズ}} and {{nihongo2|ヅ}} were written as ''dzu'': [[kudzu]], tsudzuku
* {{nihongo2|キャ}}, {{nihongo2|キョ}}, and {{nihongo2|キュ}} were written as ''kiya'', ''kiyo'' and ''kiu''
* {{nihongo2|クヮ}} (modern: {{nihongo2|カ}}) was written as ''kuwa''<ref>{{cite book|title=A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary|author=James Curtis Hepburn|year=1872|publisher=American Presbyterian mission press|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433081858254;view=1up;seq=326|pages=286–290|edition=2nd|access-date=December 16, 2013|archive-date=January 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101221254/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433081858254;view=1up;seq=326|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Col-break}}

==== First version ====
The following differences are in addition to those in the second version:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/japaneseenglishe00hepb_0|title=Japanese-English and English-Japanese dictionary.|first=J. C. (James Curtis)|last=Hepburn|date=December 10, 1872|publisher=Shanghai, American Presbyterian mission press|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
* {{nihongo2|ス}} was written as ''sz''.
* {{nihongo2|ツ}} was written as ''tsz''.
* {{nihongo2|ズ}} and {{nihongo2|ヅ}} were written as ''du''.
{{Col-end}}

== Features ==
The main feature of Hepburn is that its [[orthography]] is based on English [[phonology]]. More technically, when syllables that are constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain an "unstable" consonant in the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that better matches the real sound as an English-speaker would pronounce it. For example, {{nihongo2|し}} is written ''shi'' not ''si''. This transcription is thus only partly phonological.

Some linguists such as [[Harold E. Palmer]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]] and [[Otto Jespersen]] object to Hepburn, contending that the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=松浦四郎|date=October 1992|title=104年かかった標準化|journal=標準化と品質菅理 -Standardization and Quality Control|volume=45|pages=92–93|publisher=Japanese Standards Association}}</ref> Since the vowel sounds in Hepburn are similar to the vowel sounds in Italian, and the consonants similar to those of many other languages, in particular English, speakers unfamiliar with Japanese will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.<ref name=hadamitzky>{{cite web|last1=Hadamitzky|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Spahn|first2=Mark|title=Romanization systems|url=https://www.hadamitzky.de/english/lp_romanization_sys.htm|website=Wolfgang Hadamitzky: Japan-related Textbooks, Dictionaries, and Reference Works|access-date=August 10, 2017|date=October 2005|archive-date=January 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124095310/http://www.hadamitzky.de/english/lp_romanization_sys.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Long vowels ===
In Hepburn, vowel combinations that form a long sound are usually indicated with a [[macron (diacritic)|macron]] (◌̄). Other adjacent vowels, such as those separated by a [[morpheme]] boundary, are written separately:

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Vowels part of the same morpheme
!
!in traditional Hepburn<ref name="3rd">{{cite book|title=A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary.|author=James Curtis Hepburn|year=1886|publisher=Z. P Maruyama & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvEWAAAAYAAJ|access-date=April 12, 2011|edition=Third}}</ref>
!in modified Hepburn<ref name="kenkyusha">{{cite book|title=Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary|year=1974|publisher=[[Kenkyūsha]]|edition=Fourth}}</ref>
|-
!A + A
|'''''aa''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|婆|ばあ}}さん}} – ''obaasan'' 'grandmother'<br>(ba + a)
|'''''ā''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|婆|ばあ}}さん}} – ''obāsan'' 'grandmother'<br>(ba + a)
|-
!I + I
| colspan="2" |'''''ii''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|新|にい}}{{Ruby|潟|がた}}}} – [[Niigata (city)|''Niigata'']]<br>(ni + i)
|-
!U + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ū''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|数|すう}}{{Ruby|学|がく}}}} – ''sūgaku'' 'mathematics'<br>(su + u)
|-
!E + E
|'''''ee''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|姉|ねえ}}さん}} – ''oneesan'' 'older sister'<br>(ne + e)
|'''''ē''''': {{nihongo2|お{{Ruby|姉|ねえ}}さん}} – ''onēsan '' 'older sister'<br>(ne + e)
|-
!O + O
| colspan="2" |'''''ō''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|遠|とお}}{{Ruby|回|まわ}}り}} – ''tōmawari'' 'detour'<br>(to + o)
|-
!O + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ō''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|勉|べん}}{{Ruby|強|きょう}}}} – ''benkyō'' 'study'<br>(kyo + u)
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|+Vowels part of separate morphemes
!
!In traditional<ref name="3rd"/> and modified Hepburn<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
|-
! A + A
| colspan="2" |'''''aa''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|邪|じゃ}}{{Ruby|悪|あく}}}} – ''ja'' + ''aku'' – ''jaaku'' 'evil'
|-
! I + I
| colspan="2" |'''''ii''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|灰|はい}}{{Ruby|色|いろ}}}} – ''hai'' + ''iro'' – ''haiiro'' 'grey'<br>(also terminal adjectives: {{nihongo2|いい}} – ''i'' + ''i'' – ''ii'' 'good')
|-
! U + U
| colspan="2" |'''''uu''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|湖|みずうみ}}}} – ''mizu'' + ''umi'' – ''mizuumi'' 'lake'<br>(also terminal verbs: {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|食|く}}う}} – ''ku'' + ''u'' – ''kuu'' 'to eat')
|-
! E + E
| colspan="2" |'''''ee''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|濡|ぬ}}れ{{Ruby|縁|えん}}}} – ''nure'' + ''en'' – {{Transliteration|ja|nureen}} 'open veranda'
|-
! O + O
| colspan="2" |'''''oo''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|小|こ}}{{Ruby|躍|おど}}り}} – ''ko'' + ''odori'' – ''koodori'' 'dance of joy'
|-
! O + U
| colspan="2" |'''''ou''''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|仔|こ}}{{Ruby|牛|うし}}}} – ''ko'' + ''ushi'' – ''koushi'' 'calf'<br>(also terminal verbs: {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|迷|まよ}}う}} – ''mayo'' + ''u'' – ''mayou'' 'to get lost')
|}

All other vowel combinations are always written separately:
* '''E + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|制|せい}}{{Ruby|服|ふく}}}} – ''sei'' + ''fuku'' – ''seifuku'' 'uniform' (despite E + I often being pronounced as a long E)
* '''U + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|軽|かる}}い}} – ''karu'' + ''i'' – ''karui'' 'light (in weight)'
* '''O + I''': {{nihongo2|{{Ruby|甥|おい}}}} – ''oi'' – ''oi'' 'nephew'

==== Loanwords ====
In foreign [[loanword]]s, long vowels followed by a ''[[chōonpu]]'' (ー) are indicated with macrons:
* {{nihongo2|セーラー}}: ''se'' + (ー) + ''ra'' + (ー) = ''sērā'' 'sailor'
* {{nihongo2|タクシー}}: ''ta'' + ''ku'' + ''shi'' + (ー) = ''takushī'' 'taxi'
* {{nihongo2|コンクール}}: ''ko'' + ''n'' + ''ku'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''konkūru'' 'competition'
* {{nihongo2|バレーボール}}: ''ba'' + ''re'' + (ー) + ''bo'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''barēbōru'' 'volleyball'
* {{nihongo2|ソール}}: ''so'' + (ー) + ''ru'' = ''sōru'' 'sole (of a shoe, etc.)'

Adjacent vowels in loanwords are written separately:
* {{nihongo2|バレエ}}: ''ba'' + ''re'' + ''e'' – ''baree'' 'ballet'
* {{nihongo2|ミイラ}}: ''mi'' + ''i'' + ''ra'' – ''miira'' 'mummy'
* {{nihongo2|ソウル}}: ''so'' + ''u'' + ''ru'' – ''souru'' 'soul', '[[Seoul]]'

==== Variations ====
There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating long vowels with a macron. For example, {{nihongo2|東京}} ({{nihongo2|とうきょう}}) is properly romanized as ''Tōkyō'', but can also be written as:
* ''Tokyo'' – not indicated at all. Common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English, and the ''de facto'' convention for Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan.
* ''Tôkyô'' – indicated with [[circumflex accent]]s, as in the alternative [[Nihon-shiki romanization|Nihon-shiki]] and [[Kunrei-shiki romanization|Kunrei-shiki]] romanizations. They are often used when macrons are unavailable or difficult to input, due to their visual similarity.<ref name="tebiki">{{cite book|script-title=ja:ローマ字手引き|trans-title=RÔMAJI TEBIKI|author=Fujino Katsuji|year=1909|publisher=Rômaji-Hirome-kai|language=ja}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:昭和29年内閣告示第1号 ローマ字のつづり方|trans-title=Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1954 - How to write Romanization|date=December 9, 1954|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|language=ja|publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]|author=Cabinet of Japan|author-link=Cabinet of Japan|access-date=May 19, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529171936/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19541209001/k19541209001.html|archive-date=May 29, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ''Tohkyoh'' – indicated with an ''h'' (only applies after ''o''). This is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn", as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports.<ref name="tokyo">{{cite web|url=http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/ |title=PASSPORT_ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表 |trans-title=Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization |author=Bureau of Citizens and Culture Affairs of Tokyo |author-link=Tokyo Metropolitan Government |language=ja |access-date=December 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205110946/http://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.jp/hebon/ |archive-date=December 5, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="cisco">{{cite web|url=http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/a_hihebon_romaji.pdf|script-title=ja:ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表|trans-title=Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization|author=Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco|language=ja|access-date=December 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513035601/http://www.sf.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/a_hihebon_romaji.pdf|archive-date=May 13, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="detroit">{{cite web|url=http://www.detroit.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/jp/ryouji/EXAMPLE%20OF%20APPLICATION%20FORM%20FOR%20PASSPORT.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.detroit.us.emb-japan.go.jp/pdf/jp/ryouji/EXAMPLE%20OF%20APPLICATION%20FORM%20FOR%20PASSPORT.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Example of Application Form for Passport|author=Consulate-General of Japan in Detroit|language=ja|access-date=December 13, 2011}}</ref>
* ''Toukyou'' – written using [[kana]] spelling: ''ō'' as ''ou'' or ''oo'' (depending on the kana). This is also known as ''[[Wāpuro rōmaji|wāpuro]]'' style, as it reflects how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with [[Latin script|Roman character]]s. ''Wāpuro'' more accurately represents the way that ''ō'' is written in kana by differentiating between {{nihongo2|おう}} (as in {{nihongo2|とうきょう}} ({{nihongo2|東京}}), ''Toukyou'' in ''wāpuro'') and {{nihongo2|おお}} (as in {{nihongo2|とおい}} ({{nihongo2|遠い}}), ''tooi'' in ''wāpuro''); however, it fails to differentiate between long vowels and vowels separated by a morpheme boundary.
*''Tookyoo'' – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as the ''Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary''<ref name="pocket">{{cite book |author=Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary |url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198607482/ref=sib_dp_pop_fc?ie=UTF8&p=S001#reader-link |title=Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary (9780198607489): Shigeru Takebayashi, Kazuhiko Nagai: Books | date=March 9, 2007 |publisher=Amazon.com | isbn=978-0-19-860748-9 |access-date=June 29, 2012 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308022156/https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198607482/ref=sib_dp_pop_fc?ie=UTF8&p=S001#reader-link |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''Basic English Writers' Japanese-English Wordbook'' follow this style, and it is also used in the [[JSL romanization|JSL]] form of romanization.

=== Particles ===
In '''traditional''' and '''modified''':
* When {{nihongo2|は}} is used as a particle, it is written ''wa''.

In '''traditional Hepburn''':
* When {{nihongo2|へ}} is used as a particle, Hepburn originally recommended ''ye''.<ref name="3rd"/> [[Historical kana orthography|This spelling is obsolete]], and it is commonly written as ''e'' (Romaji-Hirome-Kai, 1974<ref name="hyouzyunC">{{cite web |url=http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hyouzyunC.html |title=標準式ローマ字つづり―引用 |access-date=February 27, 2016 |archive-date=October 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022012426/http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hyouzyunC.html |url-status=live }}{{self-published source|date=February 2016}}</ref>).
* When {{nihongo2|を}} is used as a particle, it is written ''wo''.<ref name="3rd"/>

In '''modified Hepburn''':<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
* When {{nihongo2|へ}} is used as a particle, it is written ''e''.
* When {{nihongo2|を}} is used as a particle, it is written ''o''.

=== Syllabic ''n'' ===
In '''traditional Hepburn''':<ref name="3rd"/>
:Syllabic ''n'' ({{nihongo2|ん}}) is written as ''n'' before consonants, but as ''m'' before [[labial consonant]]s: ''b'', ''m'', and ''p''. It is sometimes written as ''n-'' (with a hyphen) before vowels and ''y'' (to avoid confusion between, for example, {{nihongo2|んあ}} ''n + a'' and {{nihongo2|な}} ''na'', and {{nihongo2|んや}} ''n + ya'' and {{nihongo2|にゃ}} ''nya''), but its hyphen usage is not clear. <!-- see talk page -->
* {{nihongo2|案内（あんない）}}: ''annai'' – guide
* {{nihongo2|群馬（ぐんま）}}: ''Gumma'' – [[Gunma]]
* {{nihongo2|簡易（かんい）}}: ''kan-i'' – simple
* {{nihongo2|信用（しんよう）}}: ''shin-yō'' – trust

In '''modified Hepburn''':<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
:The rendering ''m'' before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with ''n''. It is written ''n''' (with an apostrophe) before vowels and ''y''.
* {{nihongo2|案内（あんない）}}: ''annai'' – guide
* {{nihongo2|群馬（ぐんま）}}: ''Gunma'' – Gunma
* {{nihongo2|簡易（かんい）}}: ''kan'i'' – simple
* {{nihongo2|信用（しんよう）}}: ''shin'yō'' – trust

=== Long consonants ===
Elongated (or "[[gemination|geminate]]") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a [[sokuon]], {{nihongo2|っ}}; for consonants that are digraphs in Hepburn (''sh'', ''ch'', ''ts''), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except for ''ch'', which is replaced by ''tch''.<ref name="3rd"/><ref name="kenkyusha"/>
* {{nihongo2|結果（けっか）}}: ''kekka'' – result
* {{nihongo2|さっさと}}: ''sassato'' – quickly
* {{nihongo2|ずっと}}: ''zutto'' – all the time
* {{nihongo2|切符（きっぷ）}}: ''kippu'' – ticket
* {{nihongo2|雑誌（ざっし）}}: ''zasshi'' – magazine
* {{nihongo2|一緒（いっしょ）}}: ''issho'' – together
* {{nihongo2|こっち}}: ''kotchi'' (not ''kocchi'') – this way
* {{nihongo2|抹茶（まっちゃ）}}: ''matcha'' (not ''maccha'') – [[matcha]]
* {{nihongo2|三つ（みっつ）}}: ''mittsu'' – three

== Romanization charts ==
{| border="0" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="2px" style="width:100%;" class="wikitable" lang="ja"
|-
! colspan="5"  style="background:#becfeb; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; width:50%;"| [[Gojūon]]
! colspan="3" rowspan="2"  style="text-align:center; background:#d4d4d4; width:50%;"| [[Yōon]]
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#becfeb; text-align:center;"
|あ ア ''a''||い イ ''i''||う ウ ''u''||え エ ''e''||お オ ''o''
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|か カ ''ka''||き キ ''ki''||く ク ''ku''||け ケ ''ke''||こ コ ''ko''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きゃ キャ ''kya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きゅ キュ ''kyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|きょ キョ ''kyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|さ サ ''sa''||し シ ''shi''||す ス ''su''||せ セ ''se''||そ ソ ''so''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しゃ シャ ''sha''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しゅ シュ ''shu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|しょ ショ ''sho''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|た タ ''ta''||ち チ ''chi''||つ ツ ''tsu''||て テ ''te''||と ト ''to''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちゃ チャ ''cha''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちゅ チュ ''chu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ちょ チョ ''cho''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|な ナ ''na''||に ニ ''ni''||ぬ ヌ ''nu''||ね ネ ''ne''||の ノ ''no''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にゃ ニャ ''nya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にゅ ニュ ''nyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|にょ ニョ ''nyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|は ハ ''ha''||ひ ヒ ''hi''||ふ フ ''fu''||へ ヘ ''he''||ほ ホ ''ho''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひゃ ヒャ ''hya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひゅ ヒュ ''hyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ひょ ヒョ ''hyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ま マ ''ma''||み ミ ''mi''||む ム ''mu''||め メ ''me''||も モ ''mo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みゃ ミャ ''mya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みゅ ミュ ''myu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|みょ ミョ ''myo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|や ヤ ''ya''|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ||ゆ ユ ''yu''|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ||よ ヨ ''yo''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ら ラ ''ra''||り リ ''ri''||る ル ''ru''||れ レ ''re''||ろ ロ ''ro''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りゃ リャ ''rya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りゅ リュ ''ryu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|りょ リョ ''ryo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|わ ワ ''wa''||{{red|ゐ ヰ ''i''}}&nbsp;†|| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ||{{red|ゑ ヱ ''e''}}&nbsp;†||{{blue|を ヲ ''o''}}&nbsp;‡
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="4"| ||ん ン ''n''&nbsp;/''n{{'}}''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="3"|
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|が ガ ''ga''||ぎ ギ ''gi''||ぐ グ ''gu''||げ ゲ ''ge''||ご ゴ ''go''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎゃ ギャ ''gya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎゅ ギュ ''gyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぎょ ギョ ''gyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ざ ザ ''za''||じ ジ ''ji''||ず ズ ''zu''||ぜ ゼ ''ze''||ぞ ゾ ''zo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じゃ ジャ ''ja''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じゅ ジュ ''ju''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|じょ ジョ ''jo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|だ ダ ''da''||ぢ ヂ ''ji''||づ ヅ ''zu''||で デ ''de''||ど ド ''do''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢゃ ヂャ ''ja''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢゅ ヂュ ''ju''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぢょ ヂョ ''jo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ば バ ''ba''||び ビ ''bi''||ぶ ブ ''bu''||べ ベ ''be''||ぼ ボ ''bo''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びゃ ビャ ''bya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びゅ ビュ ''byu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|びょ ビョ ''byo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
|ぱ パ ''pa''||ぴ ピ ''pi''||ぷ プ ''pu''||ぺ ペ ''pe''||ぽ ポ ''po''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴゃ ピャ ''pya''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴゅ ピュ ''pyu''
| style="background:#f3f5de;"|ぴょ ピョ ''pyo''
|}

* Each entry contains [[hiragana]], [[katakana]], and Hepburn romanization, in that order.
* † — The characters in {{red|red}} are historical characters and are obsolete in modern Japanese.<ref name="usage1946">{{cite web|url=http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~lf4a-okjm/genkan21.htm |script-title=ja:昭和21年内閣告示第33号 「現代かなづかい」 |trans-title=Japanese Cabinet Order No.33 in 1946 - Modern kana usage |date=November 16, 1946 |author=Cabinet of Japan |language=ja |access-date=May 25, 2011 |author-link=Cabinet of Japan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011006222929/http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~lf4a-okjm/genkan21.htm |archive-date=October 6, 2001}}</ref><ref name="usage1986">{{cite web|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/t19860701002/t19860701002.html|script-title=ja:昭和61年内閣告示第1号 「現代仮名遣い」|trans-title=Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1986 - Modern kana usage|date=July 1, 1986|author=Cabinet of Japan|publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]|language=ja|access-date=May 25, 2011|author-link=Cabinet of Japan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524004651/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/t19860701002/t19860701002.html|archive-date=May 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> In modern Hepburn romanization, they are often undefined.<ref name="kenkyusha"/>
* ‡ — The characters in {{blue|blue}} are rarely used outside of their status as a particle in modern Japanese,<ref name="tebiki"/> and romanization follows the rules [[#Particles|above]].

=== Extended katakana ===
These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.

Digraphs with <span style="background:#fc9;">orange</span> backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and those with <span style="background:#9cf;">blue</span> backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, suggested by the [[Cabinet of Japan]]'s [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19910628002/k19910628002.html|title=平成3年6月28日内閣告示第2号:外来語の表記|trans-title=Japanese cabinet order No.2 (June 28, 1991):The notation of loanword|author=Cabinet of Japan|publisher=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]]|access-date=May 25, 2011|author-link=Cabinet of Japan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106125953/http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k19910628002/k19910628002.html|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Katakana combinations with <span style="background:#eee8aa;">beige</span> backgrounds are suggested by the [[American National Standards Institute]]<ref name="ansi">{{cite web |url=http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/ansiz3911.html |title=米国規格(ANSI Z39.11-1972)―要約 |access-date=February 27, 2016 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215902/http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/ansiz3911.html |url-status=live }}{{self-published source|date=February 2016}}</ref> and the [[BSI Group|British Standards Institution]] as possible uses.<ref name="bs">{{cite web |url=http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/bs4812.html |title=英国規格(BS 4812 : 1972)―要約 |access-date=February 27, 2016 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224521/http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/bs4812.html |url-status=live }}{{self-published source|date=February 2016}}</ref> Ones with <span style="background:#e1a1ff;">purple</span> backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.<ref name="hyouzyunC"/>

{| border="0" style="width:50%;" cellpadding="2px" cellspacing="2px" class="wikitable" lang="ja"
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
| style="background:#e1a1ff;"|イィ ''yi''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|イェ ''ye''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ウァ ''wa''*
|ウィ ''wi''
| style="background:#e1a1ff;"|ウゥ ''wu''*
|ウェ ''we''
|ウォ ''wo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ウュ ''wyu''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
|ヴァ ''va''
|ヴィ ''vi''
|ヴ ''vu''⁑
|ヴェ ''ve''
|ヴォ ''vo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"
|ヴャ ''vya''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
| style="background:#9cf;"|ヴュ ''vyu''
|ヴィェ ''vye''
|ヴョ ''vyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|キェ ''kye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ギェ ''gye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
|クァ ''kwa''
|クィ ''kwi''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|クェ ''kwe''
|クォ ''kwo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|クヮ ''kwa''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="4"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9cf;"|グァ ''gwa''
|グィ ''gwi''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|グェ ''gwe''
|グォ ''gwo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|グヮ ''gwa''
|colspan="4"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#fc9;"|シェ ''she''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#fc9;"|ジェ ''je''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|
| style="background:#e1a1ff;"|スィ ''si''
|colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|
| style="background:#e1a1ff;"|ズィ ''zi''
|colspan="3"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#fc9;"|チェ ''che''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#fc9; text-align:center;"
|ツァ ''tsa''
| style="background:#9cf;"|ツィ ''tsi''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|ツェ ''tse''
|ツォ ''tso''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ツュ ''tsyu''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
| style="background:#fc9;"|ティ ''ti''
| style="background:#9cf;"|トゥ ''tu''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#9cf; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|テュ ''tyu''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e7f5de; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
| style="background:#fc9;"|ディ ''di''
| style="background:#9cf;"|ドゥ ''du''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#fc9; text-align:center;"
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|デュ ''dyu''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;" colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ニェ ''nye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ヒェ ''hye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ビェ ''bye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ピェ ''pye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#fc9; text-align:center;"
|ファ ''fa''
|フィ ''fi''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|フェ ''fe''
|フォ ''fo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"
|フャ ''fya''
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
| style="background:#9cf;"|フュ ''fyu''
|フィェ ''fye''
|フョ ''fyo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
| style="background:#e1a1ff;"|ホゥ ''hu''
|colspan="2"|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|ミェ ''mye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"
|colspan="3"|
| style="background:#eee8aa;"|リェ ''rye''
|
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e1a1ff; text-align:center;"
|ラ゚ ''la''
|リ゚ ''li''
|ル゚ ''lu''
|レ゚ ''le''
|ロ゚ ''lo''
|-  style="vertical-align:top; background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"
|{{green|ヷ ''va''}}⁂
|{{green|ヸ ''vi''}}⁂
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|{{green|ヹ ''ve''}}⁂
|{{green|ヺ ''vo''}}⁂
|}

* * — The use of {{nihongo2|ウ}} in these two cases to represent ''w'' is rare in modern Japanese except for Internet slang and transcription of the Latin sound {{IPA|[w]}} into katakana. E.g.: [[w:ja:ミネルウァ|ミネル'''ウァ''']] (''Mineru'''wa''''' "[[Minerva]]", from Latin ''MINER'''VA''''' {{IPA|[mɪˈnɛr'''wa''']}}); [[w:ja:ウゥルカーヌス|'''ウゥ'''ルカーヌス]] ('''''Wu'''rukānusu'' "[[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]]", from Latin '''''VV'''LCANVS'', '''''Vu'''lcānus'' {{IPA|['''wʊ'''lˈkaːnʊs]}}). The ''wa''-type of foreign sounds (as in ''watt'' or ''white'') is usually transcribed to ワ (''wa''), while the ''wu''-type (as in ''wood'' or ''woman'') is usually to ウ (''u'') or ウー (''ū'').
* ⁑ — {{nihongo2|ヴ}} has a rarely used [[hiragana]] form in {{nihongo2|ゔ}} that is also ''vu'' in Hepburn romanization systems.
* ⁂ — The characters in {{green|green}} are obsolete in modern Japanese and very rarely used.<ref name="usage1946"/><ref name="usage1986"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Japan|Language}}
* [[List of ISO romanizations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hep1.html Preface of first edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization]
* [http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hep3.html Preface of third edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization]

{{Japanese romanization}}
{{Japanese language}}

[[Category:Japanese writing system]]
[[Category:Romanization of Japanese]]
[[Category:Writing systems introduced in the 1860s]]