Editing H. H. Kung

{{Short description|Chinese banker and politician (1880–1967)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Kong (surname)|Kung]]|Hsiang ({{lang|zh|祥}})|lang=Chinese}}{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = H. H. Kung
| native_name         = {{nobold|孔祥熙}}
| image               = HHKung.jpg
| alma_mater          = [[Oberlin College]] ([[B. A.|BA]])<br />[[Yale University]] ([[M. A.|MA]])
| office1             = [[Premier of the Republic of China]]
| term1               = 1 January 1938 – 11 December 1939
| president1          = [[Lin Sen]]
| 1blankname1         = {{nowrap|Vice Premier}}
| 1namedata1          = [[Zhang Qun]]
| predecessor1        = [[Chiang Kai-shek]]
| successor1          = [[Chiang Kai-shek]]
| office2             = [[List of vice premiers of the Republic of China|Vice Premier of the Republic of China]]
| term2               = 11 December 1939 – 4 June 1945
| premier2            = [[Chiang Kai-shek]]<br />[[T. V. Soong]]
| predecessor2        = [[Zhang Qun]]
| successor2          = [[Weng Wenhao]]
| term3               = 4 November 1933 – 1 January 1938
| premier3            = [[Lin Sen]]
| predecessor3        = [[T. V. Soong]]
| successor3          = [[Zhang Qun]]
| party               = [[Kuomintang]]
| birth_name          = Kung Hsiang-hsi
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1880|9|11|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Taigu County|Taigu]], [[Shanxi]], [[Qing dynasty|Qing Empire]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1967|8|16|1880|9|11|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Han Yu-mei|1910|1913|end=died}}
* {{marriage|[[Soong Ai-ling]]|1914}}
}}
| children            = 4, including [[Kung Ling-i]] and [[David Kung Ling-kan]]
}}
[[File:H. H. Kung.jpg|thumb|H. H. Kung autograph signature on a letter dated 13 September 1954]]

'''Kung Hsiang-hsi''' ({{zh|c=孔祥熙|p=Kǒng Xiángxī|w=K'ung<sup>3</sup> Hsiang<sup>2</sup>-hsi<sup>1</sup>}}; 11 September 1880 – 16 August 1967), often known as '''Dr. H. H. Kung''', also known as Dr. Chauncey Kung, was a Chinese [[banker]] and [[politician]]. He married [[Soong Ai-ling]], the eldest of the three [[Soong sisters]]; the other two married [[President of the Republic of China|President]] [[Sun Yat-sen]] and [[President of the Republic of China|President]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Together with his brother-in-law, [[T. V. Soong|Soong Tse-ven]], he was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the [[Kuomintang]]-led [[Nationalist government]] of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in the 1930s and 1940s.

==Biography==

===Early life===
[[File:Taigu Kong Xiangxi Jiuju 2013.08.27 09-37-13.jpg|thumb|left|The Kung family residence in [[Taigu County]], [[Shanxi|Shanxi Province]]]]

Kung was born during the late [[Qing dynasty]] into a prosperous banking and trading family in [[Taigu County]], [[Shanxi|Shanxi Province]], where he attended a mission school in spite of his family's doubts. He then attended North China Union College in [[Tongzhou District, Beijing|Tongzhou]], near [[Beijing]], where he took courses in mathematics, physics and  chemistry, subjects which were not offered in traditional Chinese schools. Upon hearing of the [[Boxer Rebellion|Boxer]] attacks, he returned to Taigu, but his family prevented him from leaving the house. After the [[Taiyuan Massacre]], which included members of the [[Oberlin Band (China)|Oberlin Band]], he carried letters from several of the murdered missionaries to Beijing by hiding them between the layers of his cloth shoes. Returning to Taigu, by using the powers of the [[Boxer Indemnity]], he distributed relief to the families of those killed, buried the dead, and confiscated the estate of a family which had supported the Boxers.<ref>Carl Jacobson, "H. H. Kung: Strengthening China through Education and the 'Oberlin Spirit'" [http://www.oberlin.edu/library/digital/shansi/bios.html]</ref>

In the summer of 1901, [[Luella Miner]], a missionary and Oberlin graduate, arranged for Kung to travel to Oberlin for further study. Upon landing in [[San Francisco]], however, because of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]], Kung and his companion were locked up for several weeks before the Chinese Consul-General posted bond, and they were then not allowed to go to Oberlin for another year. Their railway passage took them into Canada, but only by strong intervention from an Ohio congressman{{who|date=June 2018}} were they allowed to re-enter the United States. Kung graduated from Oberlin in 1906, then proceeded to take a master's degree in chemistry from [[Yale University]].<ref>Jacobson, "H. H. Kung."</ref>

After completing his education abroad, Kung returned to his home province in China. During the 1911 [[Xinhai Revolution]], Kung mobilized forces in support of [[Yan Xishan]], helping Yan to overthrow the authority of the Qing imperial government in Shanxi. After 1911, Kung became one of Yan's most trusted advisors, and Yan was soon recognized as the military governor of Shanxi by [[Yuan Shikai]], and effectively controlled Shanxi until 1949, when the [[Communist Party of China|Communists]] took control of mainland China. Kung's influence on Yan's thinking from 1911 onward was significant, and was a major factor in Yan's subsequent determination to modernize Shanxi. The reforms that Yan subsequently conducted won Yan widespread acclaim, and Shanxi gained a reputation during the [[Warlord Era]] as being the "Model Province".<ref>Gillin 22, 45</ref>

After 1911, Kung helped to establish Ming Hsien, a complex of Christian schools in Taigu on the land Kung had acquired through the Boxer Indemnity. Kung became principal, and married Han Yu-mei, a fellow graduate of the North China Union College, who died of tuberculosis. In 1913, he met [[Soong Ai-ling]], one of the [[Soong sisters]], and married her the following year. Supporters in Oberlin established the [[Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association]], to which Kung made regular and substantial contributions.<ref name="Boorman">"H.H. Kung," Howard Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968) Vol II pp. 264-65.</ref>

In 1922, Shanxi experienced a serious famine. Kung worked closely with the [[American Red Cross]] and missionary organizations like [[American Mission Board]] and the [[China International Famine Relief Commission]] to deliver relief supplies and to improve Shanxi's infrastructure to make the delivery of relief easier. According to foreign members of the Famine Relief Commission, the collective efforts of all involved were successful in preventing what otherwise would have been an "appalling calamity", and by 1923 conditions in Shanxi returned to normal.<ref>Gillin 37</ref>

In the summer of 1926 Kung returned to the United States; during this trip he represented China at the [[Sesquicentennial Exposition|Philadelphia Sesquicentennial]] celebrations, and Oberlin bestowed Kung an [[Legum Doctor|LL.D]]. degree.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=1927-01-24 |title=Education: Great-Grandson 72 |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,786707,00.html |access-date=2023-01-14 |issn=0040-781X}}</ref>

===Minister in the Nationalist government===
Kung was an early supporter of [[Sun Yat-sen]] and the [[Kuomintang|Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party)]], including early leaders such as [[Wang Jingwei]].  He developed close family ties. His wife was a sister of [[T. V. Soong|Soong Tse-ven]]. [[Soong Ching-ling]], another sister, married Sun Yat-sen in 1915 and [[Chiang Kai-shek]] became Kung's brother-in-law in 1927 when he married [[Soong Mei-ling]].<ref name="Boorman"/> The [[Soong sisters]] and their husbands had the reputation of being one of the [[Four big families of the Republic of China|Four Big Families]] of the time.<ref name="Boorman"/>

Kung began his career in the Nationalist government of the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] as Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,928965,00.html |title=Foreign News: Chiang's Cabinet |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=October 29, 1928}}</ref> in the Wuhan Nationalist Government, led by Wang Jingwei during the [[Northern Expedition]] as a leftist rival to Chiang's faction. After the fall of Wang's government, Kung served as the Minister of Industry and Commerce from 1928-1931 in the Nanking Government, and later as the [[List of finance ministers of the Republic of China|Minister of Finance]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,852022,00.html |title=U.S. At War: The Mission of Daddy Kung |magazine=Time |date=July 3, 1944}}</ref> from 1933–1944.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,766397,00.html |title=China: Thirteen Billion Blessings |magazine=Time |date=February 16, 1942}}</ref> Kung was governor of the [[Central Bank of China]] from 1933 to 1945, and also chairman of the [[China Development Finance Corporation]] from its creation in 1934.

In 1927 one of his first acts in government was to balance the national budget. To raise the capital required, Kung increased the taxes on cigarettes by 50%. Several Shanghai cigarette factories protested against these taxes with shutdowns. Kung also threatened to increase the salt tax by 28%.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,746553,00.html |title=China: Balance or Bust |magazine=Time |date=December 18, 1933}}</ref>

Kung joined the central executive committee of the KMT in 1931. He served as [[Premier of the Republic of China]] from 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939. Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during the [[Bretton Woods Conference]] at the Mount Washington Hotel, in New Hampshire, United States. This conference established the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD), which today is part of the [[World Bank]] Group.

After his move to the central government, Kung continued to advocate for good relations between Chiang Kai-shek and Yan Xishan. Yan's opposition to Chiang during the 1930 [[Central Plains War]] caused Yan to formally retire from all positions of leadership in Shanxi, and to flee to [[Dalian]]. Kung's tireless advocacy for Yan within the central government was successful, as Chiang allowed Yan to return to Shanxi in 1931. Chiang clearly recognized Yan as the ''de facto'' ruler of Shanxi by 1934.<ref>Gillin 120, 124</ref>

In 1933, Kung spent weeks in Germany, a German business delegation accompanied him back to China, among them Vizeadmiral a. D. Walther Kinzel, who represented Zeiss, Rheinmetall, Krupp and Loewe. In June 1933, [[Hans von Seeckt]] published the memorandum to Marshal [[Chiang Kai-shek]] on his program to industrialize and militarize China. In 1934, Kung stated, in response to the American "nationalization of silver", that "We also would like to nationalize silver but for China this is impossible because our Government is hampered by extraterritorial treaties. We do not want the price to skyrocket, for silver is vital to our national life."<ref name="Time2">{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,747712,00.html |title=China: Chiang on Lid |magazine=Time |date=August 20, 1934}}</ref>

Kung directed the creation of the fiat currency [[History of Chinese currency|fabi]], which replaced the silver standard in 1935.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Coble |first=Parks M. |title=The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War |date=2023 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-009-29761-5 |location=Cambridge New York, NY |author-link=Parks M. Coble}}</ref>{{Rp|page=10}} The fabi experienced from inflation and hyperinflation, and its collapse during Kung's tenure resulted in his legacy as minister of finance being viewed poorly.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|pages=57–58}}

===Diplomacy with Axis powers===
[[File:Kung and hitler.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Kung traveled once again to Germany in 1937, attempting to enlist German aid against the [[Empire of Japan]].]]
In 1937, as the Minister of Finance of the Republic of China, Kung and two other KMT officials visited Germany and were received by [[Adolf Hitler]] on 13 June.<ref>Hitler and Domarus 903</ref> Hitler told Kung, "I understand that people in China think the [[Soviet Union]] is their friend. But from our talk I understand that you, Herr Doktor, realize the danger of Communist doctrines." Kung also convinced Hitler to cancel a scheduled speech at a Nazi conference by [[Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu|Prince Chichibu]], the [[Hirohito|Japanese Emperor]]'s brother. Kung said, "I was able to make Hitler understand that Japan wanted to dominate the world... I was able to make Hitler think twice before getting too close to Japan."<ref>Pakula 340</ref> While he was in Germany, Kung stated his "deep satisfaction" with Hitler.<ref>Powell 432</ref>

Hitler, [[Hermann Göring]] and [[Hjalmar Schacht]] bestowed upon Kung an honorary degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. Hitler, Göring, and Schacht earmarked for Chinese students {{Reichsmark|100,000|link=yes}} for studying in Germany after they persuaded an industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Kung, in favor of commercial credits, refused an international loan offer by Hitler.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,788183,00.html |title=Business: Kung's Credits |magazine=Time |date=July 12, 1937}}</ref>

Kung also met Hjalmar Schacht while in Germany. Schacht told him that "German-Chinese friendship stemmed in good part from the hard struggle of both for independence." Kung said, "China considers Germany its best friend... I hope and wish that Germany will participate in supporting the further development of China, the opening up of its sources of raw materials, the upbringing of its industries and [its] means of transportation."<ref>Buss 405</ref>

Kung also visited U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and Italian leader [[Benito Mussolini]] in 1937.<ref>Wang 166</ref> Kung said, "I thought Mussolini was doing great things for Italy... We got along well. I thought he would be a good ally of our Government."<ref>Pakula 341</ref>

===During the Second Sino-Japanese War===
By the time of the [[Second Sino Japanese War]] (1937–45), Kung had achieved a reputation as an exceptionally powerful and manipulative figure within the [[Nationalist government]], sometimes in alliance with his brother-in-law, [[T. V. Soong|Soong Tse-ven]] and his sister-in-law, [[Soong Mei-ling]], and sometimes in rivalry with them.<ref name="Boorman"/> By the time the Nationalist government had moved to [[Chongqing]], Kung was running his own secret service. [[Zhou Enlai]], while serving as the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]]'s ambassador to the KMT in Chongqing, was notably successful in gaining the confidence of Kung's advisor, Hu Egong, allowing Zhou to conduct his intelligence work more efficiently.<ref>Barnoun and Yu 80</ref>

In January 1938, Kung, a 75th-generation descendant of [[Confucius]], greeted his relative, [[Kung Te-cheng]], who was also a descendant of Confucius, after Kung Te-cheng had fled to [[Hankou]] after the Japanese invasion of [[Shandong]]. After Kung Te-cheng fled, the Japanese blew up his residence on [[Mount Tai]]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine addressed Kung Te-cheng by the title "[[Duke Yansheng|Duke Kung]]", and referred to his residence as the "ducal seat".<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,758870,00.html |title=Foreign News: Warlike Confucian |magazine=Time |date=January 17, 1938}}</ref>

After a string of Japanese mishaps in 1938, Kung gave a radio address in which he stated that "God is helping China!" Kung's radio speech came after reports that a Japanese attempt to seize Hankou had failed; and, with constant Chinese guerrilla activity, Chinese forces had seized territory captured by Japan.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,789138,00.html |title=War in China: Stars Mark the Spots |magazine=Time |date=August 29, 1938}}</ref>

In 1944, Kung gave a speech at China House in New York with one of [[Mencius]]'s direct descendants, [[Paul Chih Meng|Meng Chih]]. Both were alumni of American universities.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,885702,00.html |title=Education: China House |magazine=Time |date=September 4, 1944}}</ref>

Chiang had lost confidence in Kung by 1944, likely because of widespread reports of corruption by Kung.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=57}} Kung became unpopular among many different factions of the Kuomintang and was removed from politics.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|pages=57–58}} Among other issues, Kung was one of the Nationalist government insiders implicated in corruption during the 1942-1943 American Dollar Bond scandal.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} After the 1941 Japanese declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom, the two allies sought to support China in a concrete way despite logistical limitations following the loss of [[British Burma]].<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} The two countries loaned significant amounts of money to the Nationalist government.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} The Nationalist government decided to use USD$200 million to absorb excess fabi in an effort to curb inflation.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} In theory, Chinese purchasers would use fabi to buy bonds at the official exchange rate and be paid in dollars when the bonds were redeemed following victory over Japan.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} The American Dollar Bonds were issued on March 24, 1942.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=73}} The public response was poor, with few bond sales.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=74}} In October 1943, Kung sent a secret memorandum to Chiang Kai-shek asking that the bond sales end.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=74}} Subscriptions were closed on October 15, 1943 and a central bank official falsely announced that all bonds had been sold.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=74}} Secretly, insiders then purchased the remaining bonds using currency acquired on the black market.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=74}} The result was a windfall for Nationalist government insiders including  Kung, [[Long Yun]], [[Wei Tao-ming|Wei Daoming]], members of the [[Soong sisters|Soong family]], and others.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=74}}

In November 1944, Chiang replaced Kung with [[Yu Hongjun]] as the new minister of finance.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|pages=75–76}} Kung continued to hold positions as the vice president of the [[Executive Yuan]] and head of the Central Bank of China until he was likewise removed from those positions in spring 1945.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=76}} Chiang nonetheless appointed Kung as the chair of the Central Bank's Board of Directors in an effort to [[Face (sociological concept)|save face]].<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=76}} In a further effort to protect Kung, Chiang dismissed lower level finance ministry officials as scapegoats and blocked newspapers from publishing allegations of Kung's corruption in the American Dollar Bond scandal.<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=79}}

Among the KMT factions which criticized Kung in the period leading to his resignation was the [[Gexin movement]].<ref name=":022"/>{{Rp|page=138}}

==Personal life==
After the KMT retreated to [[Taiwan]] in 1949 at the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]], Kung moved to the United States. He died in 1967 in [[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]], [[New York (state)|New York]].

Kung had a habit of smoking [[Cheroot|stogie]]s.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,747553,00.html |title=China: Swath to Success |magazine=Time |date=July 23, 1934}}</ref> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine claimed that Kung smoked "15 [[Habanos S.A.|Havana cigar]]s" a day.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,746242,00.html |title=China: Soong Out |magazine=Time |date=November 6, 1933}}</ref> He was a Christian.<ref name="Time1">{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,929380,00.html |title=China: Christian Majority |magazine=Time |date=January 7, 1929}}</ref><ref name="Time2" />

Kung was a 75th generation descendant of [[Confucius]], as indicated by the [[generation name]] ''hsiang'' (祥; ''xiáng'').<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,732100,00.html |title=China: Potent Mrs. Chiang |magazine=Time |date=November 26, 1928}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1937.html |title=Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-Shek |magazine=Time |date=January 3, 1938 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329012515/http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1937.html |archive-date=March 29, 2007}}</ref> Kung's father was ({{zh|c=孔繁慈|p=Kǒng Fáncí|w=K'ung Fan-tsi|labels=no}}; 1861–1911), a 74th generation descendant of Confucius, indicated by the generation name ''fan'' (繁; ''fán'').

Kung first marriage was to Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914, Kung married his second wife, [[Soong Ai-ling]], the eldest of the [[Soong sisters]].<ref>Iyler 1</ref> Kung and Soong had two sons and two daughters:<ref name="Lee2003">{{cite book|author=Lily Xiao Hong Lee|title=中國婦女傳記詞典: The Twentieth Century, 1912-2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOGdnCPJSOMC&pg=PA477|year=2003|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-0798-0|pages=477–}}</ref>
* [[Kung Ling-i]] ([[w:zh:孔令儀|孔令儀]]; Kong Lingyi), daughter
* [[David Kung Ling-kan]] ([[w:zh:孔令侃|孔令侃]]; Kong Lingkan), son<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,763229,00.html |title=China: Kung Fu-tze Say |magazine=Time |date=February 26, 1940}}</ref>
* Kung Ling-chun ([[w:zh:孔令俊|孔令俊]]; Kong Lingjun),<ref name="Wakeman2003">{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYYYQYK6FAYC&pg=PA334|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92876-3|pages=334–}}</ref> daughter, also known as Kung Ling-wei (孔令偉)
* Kung Ling-chie ([[w:zh:孔令傑|孔令傑]]; Kong Lingjie), son. His son Gregory Kung (Kung Teh-chi) (Kong Deji) (孔德基) was born from his marriage to [[Debra Paget]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com/tw/lscq/news/2008/09-08/1375220.shtml|title = 孔祥熙长女孔令仪：豪门家族的最后贵族}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.barrons.com/articles/kung-auction-recalls-soong-sisters-legacy-1432888097|title=K'ung Auction Recalls Soong Sisters' Legacy}}</ref><ref name=i>{{cite news|last1=Bacon|first1=James|title=Debra Paget Weds Oilman, Nephew of Madame Chiang|newspaper=Independent |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2595390/independent/|agency=Independent|date=21 April 1962|page=11|via = [[Newspapers.com]]|access-date = 11 June 2015}} {{Open access}}</ref>

The children all have the generation name ''ling'' (令; ''lìng'') in their names to indicate that they are 76th generation descendants of Confucius.

The Kung family residential compound, a well-preserved example of mid-[[Qing dynasty]] architecture, is now a tourist attraction in [[Taigu County]], [[Shanxi]].

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Biography|Taiwan}}
* [[Soong sisters]]
* [[Chiang Kai-shek]]
* [[History of the Republic of China]]
* [[Military of the Republic of China]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC&q=zhou+enlai ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life'']. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. {{ISBN|962-996-280-2}}.  Retrieved 12 March 2011.
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJu9ZbmwzY0C&q=h+h+kung+hitler&pg=PA405|title=War and Diplomacy in Eastern Asia|author=Buss, Claude A.|year=2007|edition=reprint|publisher=Read Books|isbn=978-1-4067-7514-3|access-date=21 May 2011}}
* Gillin, Donald G.  ''Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province 1911-1949''.  Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.  1967.
* {{cite magazine |author-link=Pico Iyer |last=Iyer |first=Pico |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,1048340,00.html |title=Books: The Wild East |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=April 12, 2005 |access-date=November 8, 2022}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lastempressmadam00paku_0|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/lastempressmadam00paku_0/page/340 340]|quote=h h kung hitler.|title=The Last Empress: Madame Chiang Kai-Shek and the Birth of Modern China|author=Hannah Pakula|year=2009|edition=illustrated|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-4893-8|access-date=21 May 2011}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqcTAAAAIAAJ&q=Dr.+Kung,+according+to+a+local+report,+not+only+expressed+to+the+Fuehrer+his+%22+deep+satisfaction%22+at+the+London+Tribune+congratulate+Hitler+at+all+if+devotion+to+the+cause+of+%22democracy%22+is+more+than+just+an+empty+phrase+|title=The China Monthly Review, Volumes 90-91|year=1939|publisher= Powell, J.W.|access-date=21 May 2011}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=VqcTAAAAIAAJ&q=and+Dr.+HH+Kung,+president+of+the+Executive+Yuan+in+China.+Dr.+Kung,+according+to+a+local+report,+not+only+expressed+to+the+Fuehrer+his+%22deep+satisfaction%22+at+the+London+Tribune+congratulate+Hitler+at+all+if+devotion+to+the+cause+of]
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYGw2QYA3swC&q=h+h+kung+hitler&pg=PA166|title=Modern China: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and nationalism|author1=Parks Coble |author2="H.H. Kung |author3=" in |editor=Wang Ke-wen |year=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-8153-0720-9|access-date=21 May 2011}}

==Further reading==
* Seagrave, Sterling. ''The Soong Dynasty''. Corgi Books, 1996. {{ISBN|0-552-14108-9}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kong Xiangxi|H. H. Kung}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=H. H. Kung |sopt=t}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/010700}}
*[https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_13527768 Finding aid to the H.H. Kung papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kung, H. H.}}
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1967 deaths]]
[[Category:Descendants of Confucius]]
[[Category:Chinese Christians]]
[[Category:Chinese bankers]]
[[Category:Chinese people of World War II]]
[[Category:Oberlin College alumni]]
[[Category:Republic of China politicians from Shanxi]]
[[Category:Premiers of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Vice premiers of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Yale Law School alumni]]
[[Category:Politicians from Jinzhong]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Shanxi]]
[[Category:Chinese anti-communists]]
[[Category:Chinese Civil War refugees]]
[[Category:People from Locust Valley, New York]]
[[Category:Chinese International Olympic Committee members]]
[[Category:Taiwanese people from Shanxi]]
[[Category:Governors of the Central Bank of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Bretton Woods Conference delegates]]