Editing Great Chicago Fire

{{short description|1871 conflagration in Illinois, US}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox wildfire
| title               = Great Chicago Fire
| image               = Chicago in Flames by Currier & Ives, 1871 (cropped).jpg
| image_size          = 320px
| caption             = An artist's rendering of the fire, by [[Currier and Ives]]. The view faces northeast across the [[Randolph Street Bridge]]
| reference           =
<!-- ONLY FOR INDIVIDUAL FIRES -->
| date                = {{start date|1871|10|08}} – {{end date|1871|10|10}}
| location            = [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], United States
| coordinates         = {{Coord|41.8693|-87.6418|type:event_region:US-IL|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map         = <!-- USA Illinois -->
| pushpin_map_caption =
| cost                = $222 million (1871 USD)<ref name="DonaldMiller" /><br /> (approx. $5.7 billion in 2025)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1871?amount=222000000 | title=$222,000,000 in 1871 → 2025 &#124; Inflation Calculator}}</ref>
| area                = {{convert|2,112|acres|km2}}
| buildings           = 17,500 buildings
| cause               = Unknown
| landuse             =
| injuries            =
| fatalities          = 300 (estimate)
| perps               =
| motive              = 
}}
The '''Great Chicago Fire''' was a [[conflagration]] that burned in the American city of [[Chicago]] during October 8–10, 1871. The fire killed approximately 300 people, destroyed roughly {{convert|3.3|sqmi|km2|0}} of the city including over 17,000 structures, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless.<ref name=Rayfield1997 /> The fire began in a neighborhood [[Near West Side, Chicago|southwest of the city center]]. A long period of hot, dry, windy conditions, and the wooden construction prevalent in the city, led to the conflagration spreading quickly. The fire leapt the [[Chicago River#South Branch|south branch]] of the [[Chicago River]] and destroyed much of [[Chicago Loop|central Chicago]] and then crossed the [[Chicago River#Main stem|main stem]] of the river, consuming the [[Near North Side, Chicago|Near North Side]].

Help flowed to the city from near and far after the fire. The [[Government of Chicago|city government]] improved building codes to stop the rapid spread of future fires and rebuilt rapidly to those higher standards. A donation from the United Kingdom spurred the establishment of the [[Chicago Public Library]].

==Origin==
[[File:1871 Chicago view before the Great Conflagration.jpg|thumb|right|1871 Chicago view before the 'Great Conflagration']]
[[Image:137 DeKoven Street 1871.png|thumb|right|200px|The O'Leary  family cottage, 137 (now 558) W. DeKoven St. The neighborhood was congested with wooden buildings and industry, causing the fire to spread rapidly. A strong northeastern wind spared the cottage and the buildings to its west. From a stereoptican view by A.H. Abbott, whose studio at 976 (now 2201) N. Clark Street was consumed by the flames.]]
The fire is said to have started at about 8:30&nbsp;p.m. on October&nbsp;8, in or around a small barn belonging to the O'Leary family that bordered the alley behind 137 W. [[DeKoven Street (Chicago)|DeKoven Street]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pierce |first=Bessie Louise |author-link=Bessie Louise Pierce |title=A History of Chicago: Volume III: The Rise of a Modern City, 1871–1893 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |orig-year=1957 |year=2007 |version=Republished |location=Chicago |page=4 |isbn=978-0-226-66842-0}}</ref> The shed next to the barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire. City officials never determined the cause of the blaze,<ref name="owen">{{cite book |first=L.L. |last=Owens |title=The Great Chicago Fire  |publisher=ABDO |page=7 |isbn=978-1604538076|date=2007-08-01 }}</ref> but the rapid spread of the fire due to a long drought in that year's summer, strong winds from the southwest, and the rapid destruction of the water pumping system explain the extensive damage of the mainly wooden city structures. There has been much speculation over the years on a single start to the fire. The most popular tale blames [[Catherine O'Leary|Mrs. O'Leary's]] cow, which allegedly knocked over a lantern; others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern.<ref name="JimMurphy"/> Still other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to [[Great Fires of 1871|other fires in the Midwest that day]].<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>

The fire's spread was aided by the city's use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called [[Framing (construction)#Balloon framing|balloon frame]]. More than two-thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood, with most of the houses and buildings being topped with highly combustible [[tar]] or [[Roof shingle|shingle]] roofs. All of the city's sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood.<ref name="JimMurphy">{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Jim |title=The Great Fire |date=1995 |isbn=9780439203074 |publisher=Scholastic Inc |url=https://archive.org/details/greatfire00jimm }}</ref> Compounding this problem, Chicago received only {{convert|1|in|mm}} of rain from July&nbsp;4 to October&nbsp;9, causing severe [[drought]] conditions before the fire, while strong southwest winds helped to carry flying embers toward the heart of the city.<ref name="DonaldMiller">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Donald |title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America |url=https://archive.org/details/cityofcentury00dona |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0684831381}}</ref>{{rp|144}}

In 1871, the [[Chicago Fire Department]] had 185 [[firefighter]]s with just 17 horse-drawn [[pump|steam pumpers]] to protect the entire city.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|146}} The initial response by the fire department was timely, but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer, the firefighters were initially sent to the wrong place, allowing the fire to grow unchecked.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|146}} An alarm sent from the area near the fire also failed to register at the courthouse where the fire watchmen were, while the firefighters were tired from having fought numerous small fires and one large fire in the week before.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Fire Fiend |newspaper=Chicago Daily Tribune |page=3 |date=October 8, 1871 |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1871/10/08/page/3/article/the-fire-fiend |access-date=November 27, 2007}}</ref> These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a conflagration.

==Spread==
[[File:Great Chicago Fire map with starting point cropped with arrow.jpg|thumb|477x477px|1869 map of Chicago, altered to show the area destroyed by the fire (location of O'Leary's barn indicated by red dot and arrow)]]
When firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing toward the central business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River and an area that had previously thoroughly burned would act as a natural [[firebreak]].<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|147}} All along the river, however, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, as well as barges, and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and the temperature rose, causing structures to catch fire from the heat and from burning debris blown by the wind. Around midnight, flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|148}}

With the fire across the river and moving rapidly toward the heart of the city, panic set in. About this time, Mayor [[Roswell B. Mason]] sent messages to nearby towns asking for help. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated and the prisoners jailed in the basement to be released. At 2:30&nbsp;a.m. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed, sending the great bell crashing down.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|148}} Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile (1.6&nbsp;km) away.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|150}}

As more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire's spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a [[fire whirl]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Abbott |first=Karen |title=What (or Who) Caused the Great Chicago Fire? |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-or-who-caused-the-great-chicago-fire-61481977/ |date=October 4, 2012 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=February 24, 2014}}</ref> As hot air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and begins to spin, creating a tornado-like effect. These fire whirls are likely what drove flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the main branch of the [[Chicago River]] to a [[railroad car]] carrying [[kerosene]].<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|152}} The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the city's north side.

Despite the fire spreading and growing rapidly, the city's firefighters continued to battle the blaze. A short time after the fire jumped the river, a burning piece of timber lodged on the roof of the city's [[waterworks]]. Within minutes, the interior of the building was engulfed in flames and the building was destroyed. With it, the city's water mains went dry and the city was helpless.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|152–3}} The fire burned unchecked from building to building, block to block.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

Late in the evening of October 9, it started to rain, but the fire had already started to burn itself out. The fire had spread to the sparsely populated areas of the north side, having thoroughly consumed the densely populated areas.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|158}}

==Aftermath==
[[File:Chicago-fire2.jpeg|thumb|Aftermath of the fire, corner of Dearborn and Monroe Streets, 1871]]
Once the fire had ended, the smoldering remains were still too hot for a survey of the damage to be completed for many days. Eventually, the city determined that the fire destroyed an area about {{convert|4|mi|0}} long and averaging {{convert|3/4|mi|0}} wide, encompassing an area of more than {{convert|2000|acre|ha|0}}.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|159}} Destroyed were more than {{convert|73|mi|km}} of roads, {{convert|120|mi|km}} of sidewalk, 2,000 lampposts, 17,500 buildings, and $222 million in property,<ref name="DonaldMiller"/> which was about a third of the city's valuation in 1871.<ref name=Rayfield1997>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.niu.edu/1997/iht419734.html |title=Tragedy in the Chicago Fire and Triumph in the Architectural Response |last=Rayfield |first=Jo Ann |year=1997 |via=Illinois Periodicals Online |publisher=Illinois History Teacher |access-date=September 25, 2018 }}</ref>

On October 11, 1871, General [[Philip H. Sheridan]] came quickly to the aid of the city and was placed in charge by a proclamation, given by mayor [[Roswell B. Mason]]: <blockquote>"The Preservation of the Good Order and Peace of the city is hereby intrusted to Lieut. General P.H. Sheridan, U.S. Army."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greatchicagofire.org/rescue-and-relief-library/military-rule-chicago.html|title=Military Rule in Chicago|website=The Great Chicago Fire & The Web of Memory|language=en|access-date=January 10, 2020}}</ref></blockquote>To protect the city from looting and violence, the city was put under [[martial law]] for two weeks under Gen. Sheridan's command structure with a mix of regular troops, militia units, police, and a specially organized civilian group "First Regiment of Chicago Volunteers." Former Lieutenant-Governor William Bross, and part owner of the ''Tribune'', later recollected his response to the arrival of Gen. Sheridan and his soldiers: <blockquote>"Never did deeper emotions of joy overcome me. Thank God, those most dear to me and the city as well are safe."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.greatchicagofire.org/rescue-and-relief.html|title=Rescue and Relief|website=The Great Chicago Fire & The Web of Memory|language=en|access-date=January 10, 2020}}</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Philip Sheridan Statue.JPG|thumb|General [[Philip H. Sheridan]], who saved Chicago three times: the Great Fire in October 1871, when he used explosives to stop the spread; again after the Great Fire, protecting the city; and lastly in 1877 during the [[Chicago railroad strike of 1877]], riding in from {{cvt|1000|mi|km}} away to restore order.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-general-sheridan-civil-war-chicago-fire-yellowstone-flashback-tbd-jm-20141211-story.html |title=Why it's called Sheridan Road – or how the general saved Chicago |first=Ron |last=Grossman |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=December 11, 2014 |access-date=June 26, 2021}}</ref>]]

For two weeks Sheridan's men patrolled the streets, guarded the relief warehouses, and enforced other regulations. On October 24 the troops were relieved of their duties and the volunteers were mustered out of service.<ref name=":0" />

Of the approximately [[Demographics of Chicago|324,000]] inhabitants of Chicago in 1871, 90,000 Chicago residents (about 28% of the population) were left homeless. 120 bodies were recovered, but the death toll may have been as high as 300.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/news/chicago-fire-1871-and-great-rebuilding/|title=The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the 'Great Rebuilding' |work=National Geographic|date=January 25, 2011 |access-date=February 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/great-chicago-fire|title=Chicago Fire of 1871|website=[[History.com]]|date=August 21, 2018 |language=en|access-date=February 19, 2019}}</ref> The county [[coroner]] speculated that an accurate count was impossible, as some victims may have drowned or had been incinerated, leaving no remains.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-01-25|title=The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the 'Great Rebuilding'|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/chicago-fire-1871-and-great-rebuilding/|access-date=2022-02-02|website=National Geographic Society|language=en}}</ref>

In the days and weeks following the fire, monetary donations flowed into Chicago from around the country and abroad, along with donations of food, clothing, and other goods. These donations came from individuals, corporations, and cities. New York City gave $450,000 along with clothing and provisions, [[St. Louis]] gave $300,000, and the [[Court of Common Council|Common Council of London]] gave 1,000 guineas, as well as £7,000 from private donations.<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/historyofgreatfi00good_0/page/n6 The Great Fires in Chicago and The West]'', by a Chicago Clergyman, Published by J.W. Goodspeed, Chicago, 1871</ref> In [[Greenock]], Scotland (pop. 40,000) a town meeting raised £518 on the spot.<ref>{{cite news|title= The Chicago Fire|newspaper=[[The Greenock Telegraph]]|date=17 October 1871}}.</ref> [[Cincinnati]], [[Cleveland]], and [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], all commercial rivals, donated hundreds and thousands of dollars. [[Milwaukee]], along with other nearby cities, helped by sending fire-fighting equipment. Food, clothing and books were brought by train from all over the continent.<ref>{{cite journal |first=John J. |last=Pauly | author-link = John J. Pauly|title=The Great Chicago Fire as a National Event |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |volume=36 |number=5 |date=Winter 1984 |page=671 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |jstor=2712866 |doi=10.2307/2712866 }}</ref> Mayor Mason placed the [[Chicago Relief and Aid Society]] in charge of the city's relief efforts.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|162}}

Operating from the [[First Baptist Congregational Church|First Congregational Church]], city officials and [[alderman|aldermen]] began taking steps to preserve order in Chicago. [[Price gouging]] was a key concern, and in one ordinance, the city set the price of bread at 8¢ for a {{convert|12|oz|adj=on}} loaf.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pierce |first=Betty Louise |title=A History of Chicago: The Rise of a Modern City |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1957 |page=7}}</ref> Public buildings were opened as places of refuge, and saloons closed at 9 in the evening for the week following the fire. Many people who were left homeless after the incident were never able to get their normal lives back since all their personal papers and belongings burned in the conflagration.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

After the fire, A. H. Burgess of London proposed an "English Book Donation", to spur a free library in Chicago, in their sympathy with Chicago over the damages suffered.<ref name=CPL /> Libraries in Chicago had been private with membership fees. In April 1872, the City Council passed the ordinance to establish the free [[Chicago Public Library]], starting with the donation from the United Kingdom of more than 8,000 volumes.<ref name=CPL>{{cite web |url=https://www.chipublib.org/cpl-history/ |title=CPL History, 1871–1872 |publisher=Chicago Public Library |access-date=September 26, 2018 }}</ref>

The fire also led to questions about development in the United States. Due to Chicago's rapid expansion at that time, the fire led to Americans reflecting on industrialization. Based on a religious point of view, some said that Americans should return to a more old-fashioned way of life, and that the fire was caused by people ignoring traditional morality. On the other hand, others believed that a lesson to be learned from the fire was that cities needed to improve their building techniques. [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] observed that poor building practices in Chicago were a problem:<ref name=Pauly673/>

<blockquote>Chicago had a weakness for "big things", and liked to think that it was outbuilding New York. It did a great deal of commercial advertising in its house-tops. The faults of construction as well as of art in its great showy buildings must have been numerous. Their walls were thin, and were overweighted with gross and coarse misornamentation.</blockquote>

[[File:Cheer up.jpg|thumb|''Chicago Tribune'' editorial]]

Olmsted also believed that with brick walls, and disciplined firemen and police, the deaths and damage caused would have been much less.<ref name=Pauly673>{{cite journal |first=John J. |last=Pauly |title=The Great Chicago Fire as a National Event |journal=American Quarterly |volume=36 |number=5 |date=Winter 1984 |pages=673–674 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |doi=10.2307/2712866 |jstor=2712866}}</ref>

Almost immediately, the city began to rewrite its fire standards, spurred by the efforts of leading insurance executives, and fire-prevention reformers such as [[Arthur C. Ducat]]. Chicago soon developed one of the country's leading fire-fighting forces.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-01-25|title=The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the 'Great Rebuilding'|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/chicago-fire-1871-and-great-rebuilding/|access-date=2022-02-02|website=National Geographic Society|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:World Columbian Exposition - White City - 1.JPG|thumb|More than 20 years after the Great Fire, 'The World Columbian Exposition of 1893', known as the 'White City', for being lit up with newly invented light bulbs and electric power.]]
Business owners and land speculators such as [[Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard]] quickly set about rebuilding the city. The first load of lumber for rebuilding was delivered the day the last burning building was extinguished. By the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] 22 years later, Chicago hosted more than 21 million visitors. The [[Palmer House Hilton|Palmer House]] hotel burned to the ground in the fire 13 days after its grand opening. Its developer, [[Potter Palmer]], secured a loan and rebuilt the hotel to higher standards, across the street from the original, proclaiming it to be "The World's First Fireproof Building".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-03|title=Of Grids and the Great Chicago Fire|url=https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/of-grids-and-the-great-chicago-fire/|access-date=2021-09-15|website=The MIT Press Reader|language=en}}</ref>

In 1956, the remaining structures on the original O'Leary property at 558 W. [[DeKoven Street (Chicago)|DeKoven Street]] were torn down for construction of the Chicago Fire Academy, a training facility for Chicago firefighters, known as the Quinn Fire Academy or Chicago Fire Department Training Facility. A bronze [[sculpture]] of stylized flames, entitled ''Pillar of Fire'' by [[Egon Weiner]], was erected on the point of origin in 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://webapps1.chicago.gov/landmarksweb/web/landmarkdetails.htm?lanId=1272 |title=Chicago Landmarks |access-date=December 14, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504194842/http://www.cityofchicago.org/Landmarks/S/SiteChicagoFire.html |archive-date=May 4, 2009 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==Surviving structures==
[[File:pre fire house in Chicago on Fullerton 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A pre-fire house in Chicago on Cleveland Avenue (photographed in 2016)]]
<!-- Do not add St. Ignatius High School, Old St. Patrick's Church, or Holy Family Church. Although they pre-date the fire, they were not in the burnt area. St. Ignatius is at 1076 W. Roosevelt Rd, which is west of Morgan St on what is called 12th Street on the map in this article.-->
The following structures from the burned district are still standing:

*[[St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago|St. Michael's Church, Old Town]]
*[[Chicago Water Tower]]
*[[Chicago Avenue Pumping Station]] 
*Police Constable Bellinger's cottage at 21 Lincoln Place (2121 North Hudson, today).<ref name="wbez.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.wbez.org/blog/john-r-schmidt/2011-07-19/cider-house-story-89141 |title=The Cider House and the Great Fire |last=Schmidt |first=John R. |date=July 19, 2011 |website=[[WBEZ]] Blogs |access-date=April 4, 2018 |archive-date=December 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224160831/http://www.wbez.org/blog/john-r-schmidt/2011-07-19/cider-house-story-89141 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
*2323 and 2339 North Cleveland Avenue also survived the blaze.<ref name="wbez.org" />

St. Michael's Church and the Pumping Station were both gutted in the fire, but their exteriors survived, and the buildings were rebuilt using the surviving walls. Additionally, though the inhabitable portions of the building were destroyed, the bell tower of [[St. James Cathedral (Chicago)|St. James Cathedral]] survived the fire and was incorporated into the rebuilt church. The stones near the top of the tower are still blackened from the soot and smoke.

==Panorama of damage==
{{Panorama
|image   = File:Attributed to George N. Barnard - Untitled (Chicago after the Chicago Fire) - Google Art Project.jpg
|height  = 200
|alt     = 
|caption = Attributed to George N. Barnard
}}

==Precise start==
[[File:Mrs OLeary's cow.jpg|thumb|An 1871 illustration from ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' depicting Mrs. O'Leary milking the cow]]
Almost from the moment the fire broke out, various theories about its cause began to circulate.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/recollectionsaf00critgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/recollectionsaf00critgoog/page/n92 81] |quote=Milk Punch. |title=Recollections of a Fire Insurance Man: Including His Experience in U.S. Navy (Mississippi Squadron) During the Civil War |first=Robert Siderfin |last=Critchell |year=1909 |publisher=The author |access-date=April 4, 2018 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDc5AQAAMAAJ&q=Milk+Punch&pg=PA50 |title=The Great Chicago Fire: What Part Did the Celebrated O'Leary Cow Play in Disaster? |journal=Fire Protection Service |number=82 |publisher=National Underwriter Company |page=10 |date=October 8, 1921 |access-date=April 4, 2018 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED257108.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED257108.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Mrs. O'Leary's Cow and Other Newspaper Tales about the 1871 Great Chicago Fire |last=Fedler |first=Fred |date=August 1985 |publisher=Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication}}</ref><ref name=BalesSchwartz />{{rp|56, 90, 232}} The most popular and enduring legend maintains that the fire began in the O'Leary barn as Mrs. O'Leary was milking her cow. The cow kicked over a lantern (or an oil lamp in some versions), setting fire to the barn. The O'Leary family denied this, stating that they were in bed before the fire started, but stories of the cow began to spread across the city. [[Catherine O'Leary]] seemed the perfect [[scapegoat]]: she was a poor, Irish Catholic immigrant. During the latter half of the 19th century, [[anti-Irish sentiment]] was strong in Chicago and throughout the United States. This was intensified as a result of the growing political power of the city's Irish population.<ref name="DonaldMiller"/>{{rp|442}}

Furthermore, the United States had been distrustful of Catholics (or [[papists]], as they were often called) since its beginning, carrying over attitudes in England in the 17th century;<ref>{{cite book|last=Mannard |first=Joseph G. |title=American Anti-Catholicism and its Literature |year=1981 |url=http://www.geocities.com/chiniquy/Literature.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021021221720/http://www.geocities.com/chiniquy/Literature.html |archive-date=October 21, 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=John P. |last=Kaminski |title=Religion and the Founding Fathers  |journal=Annotation (National Historical Publications and Records Commission) |date=March 2002 |volume=30 |number=1 |issn=0160-8460 |url=http://www.archives.gov/nhprc/annotation/march-2002/religion-founding-fathers.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327032730/http://www.archives.gov/nhprc/annotation/march-2002/religion-founding-fathers.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-03-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/12/america-history-of-hating-catholics |title=America's Dark and Not-Very-Distant History of Hating Catholics |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=September 12, 2015 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=September 25, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Robert Emmett |last=Curran |title=Papist Devils: Catholics in British America, 1574–1783 |year=2014 |pages=201–202 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |isbn= 978-0813225838}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=John Tracy |last=Ellis |title=American Catholicism |url=https://archive.org/details/americancatholic00john |url-access=registration |orig-year=1956 |year=1969 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> as an Irish Catholic, Mrs. O'Leary was a target of both anti-Catholic and anti-Irish sentiment. This story was circulating in Chicago even before the flames had died out, and it was noted in the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'''s first post-fire issue. In 1893 the reporter Michael Ahern retracted the "cow-and-lantern" story, admitting it was fabricated, but even his confession was unable to put the legend to rest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cromie |first=Robert |title=The Great Chicago Fire |publisher=Rutledge Hill Press |year=1994 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-55853-264-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/greatchicagofire0000crom }}</ref> Although the O'Learys were never officially charged with starting the fire, the story became so engrained in local lore that Chicago's city council officially exonerated them—and the cow—in 1997.<ref name=Mills1997>{{Cite news |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-10-06-9710070022-story.html |title=Mrs. O'Leary, Cow Cleared by City Council Committee |last=Mills |first=Steve |date=October 6, 1997 |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]] |access-date=September 25, 2018}}</ref>

Amateur historian Richard Bales has suggested the fire started when Daniel "Pegleg" Sullivan, who first reported the fire, ignited hay in the barn while trying to steal milk.<ref name=BalesSchwartz>{{Cite book |last1=Bales |first1=Richard F. |contributor-first=Thomas F. |contributor-last=Schwartz |contribution=Foreword |title=The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow |publisher=McFarland |year=2005 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |isbn=978-0-7864-2358-3}}</ref>{{rp|127–130}} Part of Bales's evidence includes an account by Sullivan, who claimed in an inquiry before the Fire Department of Chicago on November 25, 1871, that he saw the fire coming through the side of the barn and ran across [[DeKoven Street (Chicago)|DeKoven Street]] to free the animals from the barn, one of which included a cow owned by Sullivan's mother.<ref name=Bales2004>{{cite web |title=Was Daniel "Peg Leg" Sullivan the Real Culprit? {{!}} the Cause of the Great Chicago Fire |date=May 12, 2004 |last=Bales |first=Richard |url=http://www.thechicagofire.com/pegleg.php |website=thechicagofire.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223092044/http://www.thechicagofire.com/pegleg.php|archive-date=February 23, 2007}}</ref> Bales's account does not have consensus. The Chicago Public Library staff criticized his account in their web page on the fire.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Chicago Fire |publisher=Chicago Public Library |year=2009 |url=http://www.thechicagofire.com/ |access-date=September 30, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505073618/http://www.thechicagofire.com/ |archive-date=May 5, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Despite this, the Chicago city council was convinced of Bales's argument and stated that the actions of Sullivan on that day should be scrutinized after the O'Leary family was exonerated in 1997.<ref name=Mills1997 /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/12864/did-cow-really-cause-great-chicago-fire |title=Did a Cow Really Cause the Great Chicago Fire? |last=Soniak |first=Matt |date=June 23, 2014 |website=[[Mental Floss]] |access-date=April 4, 2018}}</ref>

Anthony DeBartolo reported evidence in two articles of the ''Chicago Tribune'' (October 8, 1997, and March 3, 1998, reprinted in ''Hyde Park Media'') suggesting that Louis M. Cohn may have started the fire during a craps game.<ref name=DeBartoloHydePark>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydeparkmedia.com/cohn.html |title=Who Caused The Great Chicago Fire: The Cow? Or Louis M. Cohn? |first=Anthony |last=DeBartolo |work=Hyde Park Media |url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124132959/http://www.hydeparkmedia.com/cohn.html |archive-date=November 24, 2005}}</ref><ref name=DeBartoloOct1997>{{cite news |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-10-08-9710080167-story.html |title=Col. Mustard with A Bic? |last=DeBartolo |first=Anthony |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=October 8, 1997 |access-date=September 25, 2018}}</ref><ref name=DeBartoloMar1998>{{cite news |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1998-03-03-9803030082-story.html |title=Odds Improve That A Hot Game of Craps in Mrs. O'Leary's Barn Touched Off Chicago Fire |last=DeBartolo |first=Anthony |date=March 3, 1998 |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |access-date=September 25, 2018}}</ref> Following his death in 1942, Cohn bequeathed $35,000 which was assigned by his executors to the [[Medill School of Journalism]] at [[Northwestern University]]. The bequest was given to the school on September 28, 1944,<ref name=DeBartoloOct1997 /> and the dedication contained a claim by Cohn to have been present at the start of the fire. According to Cohn, on the night of the fire, he was gambling in the O'Learys' barn with [[James Patrick O'Leary|one of their sons]] and some other neighborhood boys. When Mrs. O'Leary came out to the barn to chase the gamblers away at around 9:00, they knocked over a lantern in their flight, although Cohn states that he paused long enough to scoop up the money. The argument is not universally accepted.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2006-10-06-0610060372-story.html# |title=The Great Debate over the Great Fire |last=Potash |first=Larry |date=October 6, 2006 |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |access-date=September 25, 2018}}</ref>

An alternative theory, first suggested in 1882 by [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]] in ''[[Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel]]'', is that the fire was caused by a [[meteor shower]]. This was described as a "fringe theory" concerning [[Biela's Comet#Meteoric impacts|Biela's Comet]]. At a 2004 conference of the Aerospace Corporation and the [[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]], engineer and physicist Robert Wood suggested that the fire began when a fragment of [[Biela's Comet]] impacted the Midwest. Biela's Comet had broken apart in 1845 and had not been observed since. Wood argued that four large fires took place, all on the same day, all on the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] (see [[#Related events|related events]]), suggesting a common root cause. Eyewitnesses reported sighting spontaneous ignitions, lack of smoke, "balls of fire" falling from the sky, and blue flames. According to Wood, these accounts suggest that the fires were caused by the [[methane]] that is commonly found in comets.<ref>{{cite web |first=Robert |last=Wood |title=Did Biela's Comet Cause the Chicago and Midwest Fires? |date=February 3, 2004 |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |url=http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMPDC04_865/PV2004_1419.pdf |access-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325065110/http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMPDC04_865/PV2004_1419.pdf |archive-date=March 25, 2009 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

[[Meteorite]]s are not known to start or spread fires and are cool to the touch after reaching the ground, so this theory has not found favor in the scientific community.<ref name="Calfee">{{cite journal |last=Calfee |first=Mica |title=Was It A Cow Or A Meteorite? |journal=Meteorite Magazine |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |url=http://www.fireserviceinfo.com/cow-comet.html |access-date=November 10, 2011}}</ref><ref name = "NASA">{{cite web |title=Meteorites Don't Pop Corn |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 27, 2001 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast27jul_1/ |access-date=November 10, 2011 |archive-date=October 27, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027151027/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast27jul_1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Methane-air mixtures become flammable only when the methane concentration exceeds 5%, at which point the mixtures also become explosive, a situation unlikely to occur from meteorites.<ref name="ToolBox">{{cite web |title =Gases – Explosive and Flammability Concentration Limits |publisher=Engineering Tool Box |url=http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/explosive-concentration-limits-d_423.html |access-date=November 13, 2011}}</ref><ref name="FactSheet">{{cite web |title=Landfill Gas |work=Environmental Health Fact Sheet |publisher=[[Illinois Department of Public Health]] |url=http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/factsheets/landfillgas.htm |access-date=November 13, 2011}}</ref> Methane gas is lighter than air and thus does not accumulate near the ground;<ref name="FactSheet"/> any localized pockets of methane in the open air rapidly dissipate. Moreover, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely outcome, due to the low [[tensile strength]] of such bodies, would be for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to a [[meteor air burst]] like the [[Tunguska event]].<ref name = "Beech">{{cite journal |last=Beech |first=M. |title=The Problem of Ice Meteorites |journal=Meteorite Quarterly |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=17–19 |date=November 2006 |url=http://hyperion.cc.uregina.ca/~astro/Ice_Mets.pdf |access-date=November 13, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927074403/http://hyperion.cc.uregina.ca/~astro/Ice_Mets.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The specific choice of Biela's Comet does not match with the dates in question, as the 6-year period of the comet's orbit did not intersect that of the Earth until 1872, one full year after the fire, when a large meteor shower was observed. A common cause for the fires in the Midwest in late 1871 is that the area had had a dry summer, so that winds from the front that moved in that evening were capable of generating rapidly expanding blazes from available ignition sources, which were plentiful in the region.<ref name="Gess">{{cite book |last1=Gess |first1=Denise |last2=Lutz |first2=William |title=Firestorm at Peshtigo: A Town, Its People, and the Deadliest Fire in American History |publisher=Macmillan |year=2003 |location= New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ALzHG4sRmAC&pg=PA1 |isbn=978-0-8050-7293-8 |oclc=52421495}}</ref><ref name=BalesSchwartz />{{rp|111}}

==Related events==
{{further information|Great Fires of 1871}}
On that hot, dry, and windy autumn day, three other major fires occurred along the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] at the same time as the Great Chicago Fire. Some {{convert|250|mi|km}} to the north, the [[Peshtigo Fire]] consumed the town of [[Peshtigo, Wisconsin]], along with a dozen other villages. It killed 1,200 to 2,500 people and charred approximately {{convert|1.5|e6acre|km2|abbr=unit}}. The Peshtigo Fire remains the deadliest in American history<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/10/10/the-night-america-burned-the-deadliest-and-most-overlooked-fire-in-u-s-history/ |title='The night America burned': The deadliest – and most overlooked – fire in U.S. history |last=Rosenwald |first=Michael S.| date=December 6, 2017 |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=February 23, 2018 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> but the remoteness of the region meant it was little noticed at the time, because one of the first things that burned were the telegraph lines to Green Bay.<ref name="sun">{{cite web |last=Tasker |first=G. |title=Worst fire largely unknown |newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=October 10, 2003 |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2003/10/10/worst-fire-largely-unknown/ |access-date=October 9, 2013}}</ref>

Across the lake to the east, the town of [[Holland, Michigan]], and other nearby areas burned to the ground.<ref name=Wilkins2012>{{cite web |last=Wilkins |first=A. |title=October 8, 1871: The Night America Burned |work=[[io9]] |publisher=[[Gawker Media]] |date=March 29, 2012 |url=http://io9.com/5897629/october-8-1871-the-night-america-burned |access-date=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Some {{convert|100|mi|km}} to the north of Holland, the lumbering community of [[Manistee, Michigan|Manistee]] also went up in flames<ref name="Co1882">{{cite book |title=History of Manistee, Mason and Oceana counties, Michigan |chapter=The Great Fire of 1871 |chapter-url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mimanist/ManHist14.html |year=1882 |place=Chicago |publisher=H. R. Page & Co.}}</ref> in what became known as the [[Great Michigan Fire]].<ref name = Wilkins2012/>

Farther east, along the shore of [[Lake Huron]], the [[Port Huron Fire of 1871|Port Huron Fire]] swept through [[Port Huron, Michigan]] and much of [[Michigan]]'s [[The Thumb|"Thumb"]]. On October 9, 1871, a fire swept through the city of [[Urbana, Illinois]], {{convert|140|mi|km}} south of Chicago, destroying portions of its downtown area.<ref>{{cite web |title=History Of The Urbana Fire Department |publisher=Urbana Firefighters Local 1147 |date=March 7, 2008 |url=http://www.iafflocal1147.org/?zone=/unionactive/view_article.cfm&HomeID=74831&page=About20Us |access-date=November 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425154714/http://www.iafflocal1147.org/?zone=%2Funionactive%2Fview_article.cfm&HomeID=74831&page=About20Us |archive-date=April 25, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> [[Windsor, Ontario]], likewise burned on October 12.<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web |title=The Timeline: Fire of 1871 |work=Settling Canada's South: How Windsor Was Made |publisher=[[Windsor Public Library]] |year=2002 |url=http://209.202.75.197/digi/chi/timeline.asp?Lang=english |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026073802/http://209.202.75.197/digi/chi/drawpage.asp?RelationID=fire |archive-date=October 26, 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 14, 2008}}</ref>

The city of [[Singapore, Michigan]], provided a large portion of the lumber to rebuild Chicago. As a result, the area was so heavily deforested that the land deteriorated into barren sand dunes that buried the town, and the town had to be abandoned.<ref>{{cite book |last=Royce |first=Julie Albrecht |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMLjOnGC_pAC&pg=PA58 |title=Traveling Michigan's Sunset Coast |pages=58–59 |publisher=Dog Ear Publishing |isbn=978-1598583212 |access-date=May 3, 2014}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* The [[University of Illinois at Chicago]] athletic teams have been nicknamed [[UIC Flames|Flames]] since 1982, in commemoration of the Great Chicago Fire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History: UIC mascots |publisher=The University of Illinois at Chicago |url=https://www.uic.edu/about/history/Home/UIC+History+And+More.htm |access-date=September 26, 2018}}</ref>
* Although set in Philadelphia, [[Theodore Dreiser]]'s 1912 novel ''[[The Financier]]'' portrays the nationwide impact the 1871 Chicago fire had on the stock markets and the financial world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dreiser |first1=Theodore |editor1-last=Mulligan |editor1-first=Roark |title=The Financier: The Critical Edition |year=2010 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/39xnt7am9780252035043.html |access-date=January 15, 2018}}</ref>
* The 1938 film ''[[In Old Chicago]]'' is centered on the fire, with a highly fictionalized portrayal of the O'Leary family as the main characters.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/In-Old-Chicago|title=In Old Chicago {{!}} film by King [1937]|newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=October 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012021408/https://www.britannica.com/topic/In-Old-Chicago|archive-date=October 12, 2016|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* A ''[[Dudley Do-Right]]'' segment in ''[[The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends]]'' featured a bear character named ''Stokey'' who was hypnotized by [[Snidely Whiplash|the segment's villain]] and lights fires instead of preventing fires. In the end of the segment, Do-Right took Stokey to Chicago to stay with a friend, but the bear ends up starting major fires, with the implication that he started the Great Chicago Fire. The segment was later banned for more than four decades due to protests from the [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]] who disliked the parody of ''[[Smokey Bear]]'' shortly after its original airing in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stokey the Bear|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/00/08/27/bib/000827.rv100040.html|date=2000-08-27|website=New York Times|language=en}}</ref>  
* In 1974, the [[Chicago Fire (WFL)|Chicago Fire]] football team played in the short-lived [[World Football League]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wfl.charlottehornetswfl.com/season_book_1974/|title=World Football League|website=wfl.charlottehornetswfl.com|access-date=2019-04-08}}</ref> Another Chicago Fire played in the [[American Football Association (1979–1982)|American Football Association]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://funwhileitlasted.net/2015/08/12/1981-chicago-fire/|title=Chicago Fire, American Football Association|last=AC|date=2015-08-12|website=Fun While It Lasted|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-08}}</ref>
* The 1976 made-for-TV movie ''[[Time Travelers (1976 film)|Time Travelers]]'' has two doctors sent back to 1871 Chicago to find a cure for a disease thought lost to the fire. The Fire is shown starting when flames burst out from the O'Leary's barn and various attempts to stop the fire with a fire carriage and dynamiting buildings are depicted.
* Events of the 1986 novel ''Illinois!'' by [[Noel Gerson]] writing as Dana Fuller Ross occur around the Great Chicago Fire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Dana Fuller |author-link=Noel Gerson |title=Illinois! (Wagons West, book 18) |isbn=978-0553260229 |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1986 |url=https://archive.org/details/illinois00ross }}</ref>
* The 1987 [[WMS Industries|Williams]] pinball "Fire!" was inspired by the Great Chicago Fire.<ref>{{cite web |title=Williams 'Fire! (Champagne Edition)' |url=https://www.ipdb.org/machine.cgi?id=860 |publisher=Internet Pinball Machine Database |access-date=26 June 2022}}</ref>
* The 1995 book ''[[The Great Fire (children's novel)|The Great Fire]]'' by [[Jim Murphy (author)|Jim Murphy]] tells the story of the fire for children, and was a [[Newbery Medal|Newbery Honor]] book in 1996.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Jim|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30070801|title=The great fire|date=1995|publisher=Scholastic Incorporated |isbn=978-0-590-47267-8|language=English|oclc=30070801}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1999-11-30|title=1996 Newbery Medal and Honor Books|url=https://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/newberymedal/newberyhonors/1996newberymedal|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC)|language=en}}</ref>
* A 1998 episode of the American television series ''[[Early Edition]]'' depicted Gary Hobson finding himself back in time in 1871 trying to prevent the fire. While he initially succeeds and stops the fire after the lantern is kicked over, subsequent events lead to the fire restarting, preserving the historical event while changing its origin.
* The [[Major League Soccer]] team [[Chicago Fire FC|Chicago Fire]] was founded on October 8, 1997, the 126th anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicago-fire.com/club/history|title=Chicago Fire History|date=February 23, 2012|website=MLS (Major League Soccer)}}</ref>
* In 2014, the city of Chicago and Redmoon Theater partnered to create The Great Chicago Fire Festival. Held on October 4, 2014, the event fell victim to technical difficulties as replicas of 1871 houses on floating barges in the Chicago River failed to ignite properly due to electrical problems and heavy rain on the preceding days.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-met-great-chicago-fire-festival-1005-20141005-11-story.html |title=Some feel burned by Great Chicago Fire Festival |date=October 5, 2014 |last=Pratt |first=Gregory |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |access-date=September 26, 2018}}</ref>
* [[The Beach Boys]]' instrumental track titled "[[The Elements: Fire|Mrs. O'Leary's Cow]]" was inspired by the fabled cause of the Great Chicago Fire, and served as the representation for the [[Fire (classical element)|classical element fire]] on their abandoned project ''[[Smile (Beach Boys album)|Smile]]''.
* Adopted on April 4, 1917, the [[flag of Chicago]] represents the Great Chicago fire with one of the four red stars present on the flag.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Chicago Flag |url=https://www.architecture.org/learn/resources/architecture-dictionary/entry/the-chicago-flag/ |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=www.architecture.org |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Chicago}}
*[[Dwight L. Moody]] – 19th-century evangelist whose church was burned down in the fire
*[[Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire]] – A similar event in 1911
*[[Our Lady of the Angels School fire]] — another disastrous structural fire in Chicago, 87 years later

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Berg |first=Scott W. |title=The Burning of the World: The Great Chicago Fire and the War for a City's Soul |year=2023 |publisher=Pantheon |location=New York |isbn=978-0804197847 }}
*''Chicago and the Great Conflagration'' – Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, 1871, 528 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-608-41016-3}}.
* ''History of the Great Fires in Chicago and the West''. Rev. [[Edgar J. Goodspeed]], [[Doctor of Divinity|D.D.]], 677 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-173-32335-6}}.
* Morris, Roy Jr., ''Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan'', Crown Publishing, 1992, {{ISBN|0-517-58070-5}}.
*"People & Events: The Great Fire of 1871". [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/peopleevents/e_fire.html The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127004834/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/peopleevents/e_fire.html |date=January 27, 2017 }}. Retrieved September 3, 2004.
*''The Great Conflagration'' – James W. Sheahan and George P. Upton, 1871, 458 pp.
*{{cite journal |last=Shaw |first=William B. |date=October 5, 1921 |title=The Chicago Fire – Fifty Years After |journal=[[The Outlook (New York)|The Outlook]] |volume=129 |pages=176–178 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA176 |access-date=2009-07-30 }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Carl |title=Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Fire, the Haymarket Bomb, and the Model Town of Pullman |year=1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-76416-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Carl |title=Chicago's Great Fire: The Destruction and Resurrection of an Iconic American City |year=2020 |publisher=[[Grove Atlantic]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-802-14811-7 }}
* "Mrs. O'Leary's Comet: Cosmic Causes of the Great Chicago Fire" by Mel Waskin (1985) {{ISBN|978-0-897-33181-4}}.
*Tarshis, Lauren (2015). ''I Survived the Great Chicago Fire, 1871''. Scholastic Inc.ISBN 0545658462.

==External links==
{{commons category|Great Chicago Fire of 1871}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050711004730/http://www.chicagohs.org/fire/intro/gcf-index.html The Great Chicago Fire] 1996, Chicago Historical Society
* [http://greatchicagofire.org/ Great Chicago Fire & the Web of Memory]

{{Chicago}}
{{Chicago Landmark memorials and monuments}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Great Chicago Fire| ]]
[[Category:1871 fires in the United States]]
[[Category:1871 in Illinois]]
[[Category:Urban fires in the United States|Chicago]]
[[Category:Chicago Landmarks]]
[[Category:Fires in Chicago|Great Chicago Fire]]
[[Category:1870s in Chicago]]
[[Category:October 1871]]