Editing Gospel of Barnabas

{{short description|Pseudepigraphic gospel}}
{{distinguish|Epistle of Barnabas}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{New Testament Apocrypha}}
[[File:The Gospel of Barnabas - Frontispiece - FACSIMILE OF PAGES 1 AND 734 OF THE VIENNA MS.png|thumb|Facsimile of two pages of the Italian manuscript]]
The '''Gospel of Barnabas''' is a [[Biblical apocrypha|non-canonical]], [[Pseudepigrapha|pseudepigraphical]] [[gospel]], written during the [[Late Middle Ages]] and attributed to the early Christian disciple [[Barnabas]], who (in this work) is one of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] of [[Jesus]].<ref>Geneviève Gobillot, ''Évangiles'', in M. A. Amir-Moezzi, ''Dictionnaire du Coran'', ed. Robert Laffont, 2007, p. 291.</ref> It is about the same length as the four canonical [[gospel]]s combined and largely harmonizes stories in the canonical gospels with [[Jesus in Islam|Islamic elements]] such as the [[Islamic views on Jesus' death|denial of Jesus' crucifixion]]. The gospel presents a detailed account of the life of Jesus. It begins with the [[nativity of Jesus]], which includes the [[annunciation]] by the archangel [[Gabriel]] to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] which precedes [[Virgin birth of Jesus|Jesus' birth]]. The gospel follows [[ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], ending with the [[Great Commission|message of Jesus]] to spread his teachings around the world. [[Judas Iscariot]] replaced Jesus at the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]].

The gospel survives in two manuscripts (in Italian and Spanish), both dated to the Middle Ages. It is one of three works with Barnabas' name; the others are the [[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Acts of Barnabas]], although they are not related to each other. The earliest known mention of the Gospel of Barnabas has been discovered in a 1634 manuscript by a [[Morisco]] which was found in [[Madrid]], and the earliest published reference to it was in the 1715 book ''Menagiana'' by the French poet [[Bernard de la Monnoye]]. 

The gospel's origins and author have been debated; several theories are speculative, and none has general acceptance. The Gospel of Barnabas is dated to the 13th to 15th centuries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joosten |first=Jan |title=The Date and Provenance of the "Gospel of Barnabas" |date=2010 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43665026 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=200–215 |doi=10.1093/jts/flq010 |jstor=43665026 |issn=0022-5185}}</ref> much too late to have been written by Barnabas ({{fl.|1st century CE}}). Many of its teachings are synchronous with those in the [[Quran]] and oppose the [[Bible]], especially the [[New Testament]].

== Contents ==
The Gospel of Barnabas, as long as the four canonical gospels ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]) combined, contains 222 chapters and about 75,000 words.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|36}}<ref name="de" /> Its original title, appearing on the cover of the Italian manuscript, is ''The True Gospel of Jesus, Called Christ, a New Prophet Sent by God to the World: According to the Description of Barnabas His Apostle'';<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|36}}<ref name="Rida" />{{rp|215}} The author, who claims to be the biblical [[Barnabas]], wishes "peace and consolation to all them that dwell upon the earth." Then a critique follows of those (including [[Paul the Apostle]]) who are "deceived by Satan into preaching a 'most impious doctrine' by 'calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision&nbsp;... and permitting every unclean meat'."<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|36}}

It appears to be a [[gospel harmony]], focusing on the [[ministry of Jesus|ministry]] and [[passion of Jesus]].<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|36}} The gospel begins with combined elements of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], such as the [[annunciation]] by the archangel [[Gabriel]] to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], the Adoration of the Magi, the [[massacre of the Innocents]], the [[circumcision of Jesus]], and his [[finding in the Temple]].<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|36}} It then jumps to Jesus at age 30, when he goes to the [[Mount of Olives]] with his mother to gather olives; while praying there, he received the gospel from Gabriel.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|37}} After this revelation, he tells his mother that he will no longer live with her. Jesus later goes to [[Jerusalem]] and begins preaching there. He appoints twelve [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] to accompany him during his ministry; the gospel mentions only ten, including Barnabas.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|37}}<ref name="value" />{{rp|34}} The gospel follows teachings attributed to Jesus about the origins of circumcision, condemnation of the uncircumcised, and the life of [[Abraham]] (including [[Abraham in Islam#Youth|his destruction of idols]] and the [[Binding of Isaac|sacrifice]] of his son [[Ishmael]]).<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|37–38}}

The gospel recounts the [[transfiguration of Jesus]] and his proclamation of the prophet, Muhammad, who will come after him.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|38–39}} After a number of his parables and teachings it describes his passion, beginning with his confrontations with the scribes and [[Pharisees]] about the [[Jesus and the woman taken in adultery|woman taken in adultery]].<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|43}} Mary is told by Gabriel about her son's forthcoming [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]] and his protection from it;<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|45}} the high priest, [[Herod Antipas]], and [[Pontius Pilate]] discuss what to do about him.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|43}} Jesus and his disciples hide in [[Nicodemus]]' house, where they have the [[Last Supper]].<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|44}} Judas Iscariot [[Bargain of Judas|betrays]] him for [[thirty pieces of silver]];<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|44}} God then commands Gabriel, [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], and [[Uriel]] to save Jesus by taking him "out by the window that looketh toward the South" to the third heaven.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|44}}<ref name="value" />{{rp|11}}

Judas, whose face and speech are changed to resemble those of Jesus, returns to the house while the other disciples are sleeping.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|44}} He is surprised to know that they think he is Jesus,<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|44}} and he is arrested.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|45}} Pilate orders his crucifixion, and he is placed in [[Joseph of Arimathea]]'s tomb.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|45–46}} Jesus prays for the ability to see his mother and disciples and tell them what actually happened.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|46}} He turns to Barnabas, whom he charges with writing about what occurred.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|47}} The gospel ends with the [[dispersion of the Apostles|dispersion of the disciples]] and another criticism of Paul.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|47–48}}

== Textual history ==
{{Quote box
| quote  = The complete silence of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions is bothersome. If it was only a secondary text of little importance, this silence could be understood. But a fundamental work, which claims to have been written on the direct orders of Jesus, would have to leave some traces in history.
| author ={{ill|Jacques Jomier|fr}}<ref name="value">{{Cite book <!-- url=http://www.muhammadanism.org/campbell/barnabas_letter_format.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127050314/http://muhammadanism.org/campbell/barnabas_letter_format.pdf |archive-date=2010-11-27 |url-status=live --> |title=Gospel of Barnabas: Its True Value |date=1989 |isbn=1-881085-02-3 |last=Campbell |first=William F. |publisher=Christian Study Centre }}</ref>{{rp|51}}
| width  = 25em
| qalign = center
}}
The Gospel of Barnabas is dated from the 14th<ref name="date" /> to the 17th centuries,<ref name="value" /><sup>:57</sup> too late to have been written by the biblical [[Barnabas]] ({{fl.|1st century CE}}).<ref name="Barnabas" /><sup>:3</sup> It is one of three extant works bearing his name, along with the [[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Acts of Barnabas]].<ref name="Barnabas">{{Cite book |title=Joseph Barnabas: His Life and Legacy |last=Kollmann |first=Bernd |date=2004 |publisher=[[Liturgical Press]] |isbn=978-08-14651-70-4 }}</ref><sup>:53–60</sup> A "Gospel according to Barnabas" was first mentioned in the sixth-century [[Gelasian Decree]], and was condemned as apocryphal.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|25}} Another mention of a gospel using his name is in the seventh-century ''List of the Sixty Books'',<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Apocryphal New Testament: A Collection of Apocryphal Christian Literature in an English Translation |date=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last=Elliott |first=J. K. |isbn=978-01-91068-53-9 }}</ref>{{rp|xxiv}} or the ''Catalogue of the Sixty Canonical Books''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception |editor-last1=Furey |editor-first1=Constance M. |editor-last2=Matz |editor-first2=Brian |editor-last3=McKenzie |editor-first3=Steven L. |editor-last4=Römer |editor-first4=Thomas |editor-last5=Schröter |editor-first5=Jens |editor-last6=Walfish |editor-first6=Barry Dov |editor-last7=Ziolkowski |editor-first7=Eric |last=Nickel |first=Gordon L. |chapter=Barnabas, Gospel of |isbn=978-31-10183-55-9 |date=2009 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] }}</ref>{{rp|533}} Historians are uncertain whether these refer to this Gospel of Barnabas, since no quotes have been preserved for confirmation.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|25}} Jomier believes a forger could have taken the title after the publishing of the Gelasian Decree by printing press.<ref name="Geisler">Geisler, Norman L. & Abdul Saleeb "Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross" Baker Books, 2002, p. 304.</ref>

The earliest reference to the gospel may have been in a 1634 letter<ref name="value" />{{rp|50}} in the [[Biblioteca Nacional de España]] written in Tunisia by Ibrahim al-Taybil (Juan Pérez in Spanish), an Arabic-Spanish translator and author.<ref name="de">{{Cite web |url=https://www.chrislages.de/barnarom.htm |title=The 'Gospel of Barnabas' in recent research |website={{ill|Christlich-Islamische Gesellschaft|de}} |access-date=22 May 2022 |last=Slomp |first=Jan |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407071312/https://www.chrislages.de/barnarom.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> He referred to the "Gospel of Saint Barnabas, where one can find the light".{{efn|Quoted in Spanish: {{lang|es|"&nbsp;... y asi mesmo en Elanjelio de San Barnabé donde de hallara luz."}}<ref name="de" />}}<ref name="de" /> The first published reference to the gospel was by the French poet [[Bernard de la Monnoye]] in his 1715 book, ''Menagiana''.<ref name="Sox">{{Cite book |title=The Gospel of Barnabas |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofbarnabas0000soxd |date=1984 |last=Sox |first=David |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |isbn=0-04-200044-0 |url-access=registration }}</ref>{{rp|26}} Dutch orientalist [[Adriaan Reland]] referred to the gospel's Spanish version in his 1717 {{lang|es|De religione Mohamedica}} (''On the Mohammedan Religion'').<ref>{{Cite book |title=Évangile de Barnabé : fac-similé, traduction et notes |date=1999 |last1=Cirillo |first1=Luigi |last2=Frémaux |first2=Michel |publisher=Beauchesne |isbn=978-27-01013-89-3 |language=fr |trans-title=Gospel of Barnabas: Facsimile, Translation, and Notes }}</ref>{{rp|17}} The following year, a reference to the Italian version appeared in the Irish philosopher [[John Toland]]'s {{lang|la|Nazarenus}}.<ref name="date" /> British Orientalist [[George Sale]] cited the Italian and Spanish manuscripts in his 1734 ''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Koran, Commonly Called the Alcoran of Mohammed: Translated into English Immediately from the Original Arabic with Explanatory Notes Taken from the Most Approved Commentators to which is Prefixed a Preliminary Discourse |date=1734 |last=Sale |first=George |author-link=George Sale |oclc=1135206 |publisher=J. W. Moore }}</ref>{{rp|53}}

=== Manuscripts ===
==== Italian ====
[[File:Balthasar Wigand Josephsplatz 1835.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption|1835 painting of the [[Austrian National Library]], where the Italian manuscript was kept]]
In {{lang|la|Nazarenus}}, Toland said that he was shown the manuscript he called the "Mahometan Gospel" in 1709 in [[Amsterdam]]<ref name="date" /> through an ambassador in the city and the [[Antitrinitarianism|anti-Trinitarian]] scholar Jean Frederic Cramer (counsellor of [[Frederick I of Prussia]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and Its Enemies, 1660–1730 |date=1992 |last=Champion |first=J. A. I. |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-05-21405-36-2 }}</ref>{{rp|125}} His description is not detailed, and provides no information about the gospel's general contents. However, he quotes the opening of the gospel ("The true Gospel of Jesus called Christ, a new prophet sent by God to the world, according to the relation of Barnabas his apostle"); a fragment ("The Apostle Barnabas says, 'He gets the worst of it who overcomes in evil contentions; because he thus comes to have the more sin{{'"}}), and the ending:

<blockquote>Jesus being gone, the Disciples scattered themselves into many parts of Palestine, and of the rest of the world; and the truth, being hated of Satan, was persecuted by falshood, as it ever happens. For certain wicked men, under pretence of being Disciples, preached that Jesus was dead, and not risen again: others preached that Jesus was truly dead, and risen again: others preached, and still continued to preach, that Jesus is the Son of God, among which persons Paul has been deceived. We therefore, according to the measure of our knowledge, do preach to those who fear God, to the end that they may be saved at the last day of divine judgment; Amen. The end of the Gospel.<ref name="Axon">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23949668 |title=On the Mohammedan Gospel of Barnabas |last=Axon |first=William E. A. |author-link=William E. A. Axon |date=April 1902 |pages=441–451 |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1093/jts/os-III.11.441 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |jstor=23949668  }}</ref></blockquote>

Dated to the end of the sixteenth century,<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4150739 |title=The 'Gospel of Barnabas' and the Diatessaron |date=January 2002 |journal=[[The Harvard Theological Review]] |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.1017/S0017816002041056 |last=Joosten |first=Jan |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=4150739 }}</ref> the manuscript was anonymous.<ref name="Axon" /> Toland observed that it was written on a "Turkish paper delicately gummed and polished", bound in the "Turkish manner", and the fine quality of its ink and orthography{{cn|date=April 2024}} led him to assume that it was at least three hundred years old. In the appendix of his book, Toland wrote: "[I]t was an [[octavo]] volume six inches long, four broad, and one-and-a-half thick, and containing 229 leaves, each of about eighteen and nineteen lines."<ref name="Axon" /> The manuscript was obtained by [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] in 1738 through Cramer, who wrote in a dedicatory preface that no Christian had ever been allowed to see it "although they strove with all means at their disposal to find it and take a look at it".<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|50}} It is currently held by the [[Austrian National Library]].<ref name="date">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43665026 |title=The Date and Provenance of the 'Gospel of Barnabas' |date=April 2010 |last=Joosten |first=Jan |author-link=Jan Joosten (biblical scholar) |journal=[[The Journal of Theological Studies]] |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=200–215 |doi=10.1093/jts/flq010 |jstor=43665026 }}</ref><ref name="de" />

The scholars Lonsdale and Laura Ragg published an English translation of the Italian manuscript by [[Oxford University Press]] in 1907.<ref name="de" /> An Arabic translation, at the initiative of the Egyptian scholar [[Rashid Rida]], was published the following year<ref name="de" /> and became popular in the Muslim world; Saʿādeh, a Christian, translated it.<ref name="Rida">{{Cite book <!-- |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76v0s.9 --> |title=Islamic Reformism and Christianity: A Critical Reading of the Works of Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā and His Associates (1898–1935) |date=2009 |isbn=978-90-47-44146-5 |last=Ryad |first=Umar }}</ref>{{rp|214}} Rida began publishing promotional excerpts and information about the Arabic translation before its publication in July 1907 in his magazine, {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Manār (magazine)|Al-Manār]]}}.<ref name="Rida" />{{rp|218}} The Raggs' English translation (without their critical preface) became popular in 1973 in Pakistan,<ref name="Wipf">{{Cite book |title=The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity |last=Zahniser |first=A. H. Mathias |date=2017 |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |isbn=978-17-25256-26-2 }}</ref>{{rp|80}} when it was published by M. A. Rahim and promoted as the "true gospel of Jesus"<ref name="forgery" /> by local newspapers.<ref name="de" /> In Indonesia, it was translated in 1969, 1970, and 1980;<ref>{{Cite book |title=Menjadi Gereja di Tengah Dunia yang Terluka |trans-title=The Church in a Damaged World |date=2020 |last=Sairin |first=Weinata |publisher=[[Gramedia Pustaka Utama]] |isbn=978-60-20648-13-2 }}</ref>{{rp|129}} the 1970 translation, by {{ill|Husein bin Abu Bakar Al-Habsyi|id}} and Abubakar Basymeleh, was republished with additional footnotes in 1987.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Telaah Kritis Atas Injil Barnabas: Asal-Usul, Historisitas dan Isinya |last=Noorsena |first=Bambang |date=2021 |publisher=Penerbit Andi |trans-title=A Critical Analysis of the Gospel of Barnabas: Origins, Historicity, and its Contents }}</ref>{{rp|91}}<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://jurnal.staialanwar.ac.id/index.php/itqon/article/download/710/81/218 |title=Melacak Sumber dan Keotentikan Penafsiran Muqātil bin Sulaymān tentang Ayat Kisah Penyaliban dan Pengangkatan Nabi ʿĪsā ke Langit |date=February 2019 |journal=Al-Itqal: Jurnal Studi Al-Qur'an |last=Umam |first=Ahmad Jauhari |doi=10.47454/itqan.v5i1.710 |trans-title=Analysing the Sources and Authenticity of Muqātil bin Sulaymān's Interpretation of the Verses on the Crucifixion and Ascension of Jesus to the Heavens |language=id |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=115–140 |doi-broken-date=2 December 2024 |s2cid=241324498 |access-date=2022-05-26 |archive-date=2022-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527120943/https://jurnal.staialanwar.ac.id/index.php/itqon/article/download/710/81/218 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> Translations in Dutch (1990), German (1994), modern Italian, Persian (1927), Spanish, Turkish, and Urdu (1916) have also been published.<ref name="de" /><ref name="influence">{{Cite web |url=http://www.contra-mundum.org/schirrmacher/rationalism.html |title=The influence of German Biblical criticism on Muslim apologetics in the 19th century |last=Schirrmacher |first=Christine |date=1997 |website=contra-mundum.org |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=8 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065525/http://www.contra-mundum.org/schirrmacher/rationalism.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Spanish ====
[[File:Fisher Library, University of Sydney.JPG|thumb|alt=Street view of a modern building|The University of Sydney's Fisher Library, where the Spanish manuscript was discovered]]
The Spanish manuscript was lost for more than a century;<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|25}} Sale became the only source for a detailed description in his 1734 book, ''The Koran''.<ref name="Raggs">{{Cite book |title=The Gospel of Barnabas: Edited and Translated from the Italian Ms. in the Imperial Library at Vienna |date=1907 |last1=Ragg |first1=Lonsdale |last2=Ragg |first2=Laura |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=1085610126 }}</ref>{{rp|xi}} He wrote, "The book is a moderate quarto&nbsp;[...] written in a very legible hand, but a little damaged towards the latter end. It contains two hundred and twenty-two chapters of unequal length, and four hundred and twenty pages."<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|xi}} Sale saw the manuscript while it was still in the possession of rector George Holme.<ref name="Spanish">{{Cite journal |title=The Spanish Gospel of Barnabas |last=Fletcher |first=J. E. |journal=[[Novum Testamentum]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=314–320 |date=October 1976 |doi=10.1163/156853676X00157 |jstor=1560539 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1560539 }}</ref> It later passed to Thomas Monkhouse, a fellow of [[The Queen's College, Oxford]], and was seen by the Reverend Joseph White. White quoted several extracts from the English translation in a 1784 lecture, before the gospel's whereabouts became unknown.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|25}}

A Spanish Gospel of Barnabas was found at the [[University of Sydney]]'s [[Fisher Library]], among the books of Australian politician [[Charles Nicholson]], in 1976.<ref name="Spanish" /> A copy of Sale's manuscript, made between 1736 and 1745,<ref name="value" />{{rp|50}}{{efn|The transcriber (probably English), who identified themselves as "M. Hone", wrote: "Transcribed from ms [manuscript] in possession of Revd Mr. Edm. Callamy who bought it at the Decease of Mr. George Sale 17[36] and now gave me at the Decease of Mr. [[John Nickolls]] 1745."<ref name="value" />{{rp|50}}}} is incomplete and has differences from the Italian manuscript;<ref name="Spanish" /> the [[Page header|subheaders]] of chapters 1–27 are missing.<ref name="date" /> Only the first third of chapter 120 exists, ending on page 116 with a note: "Cap. 121 to 200 wanting".<ref name="Spanish" /> The next page continues with chapter 200, chapter 199 in the Italian manuscript (a discrepancy which continues until chapter 222 in the Spanish manuscript, 221 in the Italian).<ref name="Spanish" /> The Spanish 218th chapter has different lines, and the subheader {{lang|es|"En que se cuenta la passion de Judas Traydor"}} ("In which the passion of Judas the Betrayer is recounted").<ref name="Spanish" /> The Italian chapter 222 is missing from the Spanish manuscript. J. E. Fletcher, who discovered the latter, published his findings in the October 1976 issue of {{lang|la|[[Novum Testamentum]]}}.<ref name="Spanish" />

Scholars note parallels in the manuscript to a series of Morisco forgeries (collectively known as the [[Lead Books of Sacromonte]]),<ref>{{Cite book |title=Muslims in Spain: 1500 to 1614 |date=15 September 2008 |last=Harvey |first=Leonard Patrick |author-link=Leonard Patrick Harvey |isbn=978-02-26319-65-0 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] }}</ref>{{rp|289}}<ref name="de" /> which may date it to the 16th century.<ref name="date" /> Claiming to be a translation of an Italian manuscript{{snd}}probably not the extant one{{snd}}it opens with a prologue by Fra Marino (likely a pseudonym).<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|51}} According to Fra Marino, he first encountered writings by the [[Church Fathers|Church Father]] [[Irenaeus]] which criticized Paul and referred to the Gospel of Barnabas. While with his friend [[Pope Sixtus V]] at a [[Vatican City]] library, he then found a copy of the Gospel of Barnabas and converted to Islam after reading it.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|9}}<ref name="forgery" /> Mustafa de Aranda, an [[Aragonese people|Aragonese]] Muslim who lived in Istanbul (then Constantinople), is identified in the translator's note as the translator of the Italian manuscript into Spanish.<ref name="date" /> Nothing further is known about this,<ref name="de" /> and none of Irenaeus' writings mentioned the gospel.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/240429/ |title=The 'Wahubiri wa Kislamu' (Preachers of Islam) in East Africa |last=Ahmed |first=Chanfi |journal=[[Africa Today]] |volume=54 |issue=4 |date=Summer 2008 |pages=3–18 |doi=10.2979/AFT.2008.54.4.2 |jstor=27666928 |s2cid=145192048 }}</ref> Through the [[University of Granada]], Luis Bernabé Pons published the incomplete Spanish manuscript (with missing parts derived from the Italian manuscript) in a 1998 book entitled {{lang|es|El texto morisco del Evangelio de San Bernabé}} (''The Moorish Text of the Gospel of Saint Barnabas'').<ref name="date" />

==== Syriac ====
[[File:Ethnography Museum of Ankara.jpg|thumb|alt=Exterior photo of a large building with a domed roof|The Ethnography Museum of Ankara, where a Syriac copy is being held]]

In 1985, Turkish media reported that an alleged [[Syriac language|Syriac]]-language copy of the Gospel of Barnabas had been found in the city of [[Hakkâri (city)|Hakkâri]]. <ref name="true" />
In February 2012, the Turkish press reported that the [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey)|Ministry of Culture and Tourism]] confirmed that a 52-page biblical manuscript thought to be the Gospel of Barnabas had been deposited at the [[Ethnography Museum of Ankara]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/turkish-authorities-claim-to-have-seized-early-biblical-text/ |title=Turkish Authorities Claim to Have Seized Early Biblical Text |date=27 February 2012 |website=[[Biblical Archaeology Society]] |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423042720/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/turkish-authorities-claim-to-have-seized-early-biblical-text/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The manuscript was reportedly found in Cyprus in 2000 in a police anti-smuggling operation, and had been in a police repository since then.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/vatican-requests-1500-year-old-bible-from-turkey_n_1296672 |title=Vatican Requests 1,500-Year-Old Bible Held In Turkey |last=Hibbard |first=Laura |date=23 February 2012 |work=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=23 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123192219/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/23/vatican-requests-1500-year-old-bible-from-turkey_n_1296672.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Photographs of a cover page were widely published, on which can be read an inscription in a neo-Aramaic hand: "In the name of our Lord, this book is written on the hands of the monks of the high monastery in Nineveh, in the 1,500th year of our Lord."<ref name="hoax">{{Cite news |url=https://www.lastampa.it/vatican-insider/en/2012/03/05/news/the-gospel-of-barnabas-hoax-1.36491112 |title=The Gospel of Barnabas 'hoax' |date=5 March 2012 |work=[[Vatican Insider]] |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219103017/http://www.lastampa.it/2012/03/04/vaticaninsider/eng/world-news/the-gospel-of-barnabas-hoax-dmytRSmf9UhiPZJZJx60SL/pagina.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Authorship and origins ==
[[File:Dante Luca.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Dante Alighieri, looking at a book|Some researchers believe that phrases in Barnabas resemble those used by [[Dante Alighieri]].]]
The Gospel of Barnabas is probably of [[Late Middle Ages|late-medieval]] or later origin,<ref name="de" /> since its author is familiar with works written during this period.<ref name="value" />{{rp|36}} Nothing is known about its author, however; many hypotheses have been made, but none are conclusive.<ref name="date"/> Researchers who argue for an Italian origin<ref name="value" />{{rp|52–53}} note its similarities to [[Dante Alighieri]]'s early-14th-century ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.<ref name="de" /> Barnabas says that God made nine heavens, in contrast to the Quran's [[Seven Heavens#Islam|seven]], and uses Dante's catchphrase {{lang|it|"Dei falsi e bugiardi"}} ("false and lying gods") three times.<ref name="forgery">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/22980858 |journal=Islamic Writings: The Student Journal of the Islamic College |title=The Gospel of Barnabas: A Muslim Forgery? |last=Inloes |first=Amina |author-link=Amina Inloes |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=2016 |pages=49–65 |access-date=2022-05-23 |archive-date=2022-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523122334/https://www.academia.edu/22980858/The_Gospel_of_Barnabas_A_Muslim_Forgery |url-status=live }}</ref> Others also find textual similarities between passages in the gospel and late-medieval vernacular [[Gospel harmony|harmonies]] of the canonical gospels.<ref name="date"/><ref name="de" />

The gospel has been hypothesized as having Spanish origins or connections.<ref name="value" />{{rp|52–53}}<ref name="de" /> Spanish academic [[Mikel de Epalza]] suggested that the Italian manuscript was created by a Spaniard, with elements of Tuscan and Venetian dialects. Epalza said that the author may have been a Spanish student at the [[University of Bologna]] (where the dialects were spoken), since Spaniards commonly studied there during the Middle Ages.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|63–64}} Analysis indicates linguistic errors in the manuscript, demonstrating the author's unfamiliarity with Italian.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|64, 144}}{{efn|In chapters 3 and 4, for instance, the phrase "immense shine" were translated into three different spellings: {{lang|it|"immenso splondere"}}, {{lang|it|"imenso splondere"}}, and {{lang|it|"inmenso splondere"}}; instead of {{lang|it|anno}} (year), this manuscript uses {{lang|it|hanno}}.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|64}}}} Author David Fox wrote about Arabic gospel forgeries written in 1588 by two Moriscos in [[Granada]], theorizing that the Gospel of Barnabas may have been another Morisco forgery.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|64}}<ref name="de" />

This theory also leads other researchers to advocate a Spanish priority; they believe that the preface in the Spanish manuscript was a fabrication,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiegers |first=G. A. |date=April–June 1995 |title=Muhammad as the Messiah: A comparison of the polemical works of Juan Alonso with the Gospel of Barnabas |journal=Bibliotheca Orientalis |volume=LII |issue=3/4 |pages=245–292 |issn=0006-1913 }}</ref> a "mere literary device".<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Islamic Image of Paul and the Origin of the Gospel of Barnabas |date=1996 |journal=[[Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam]] |url=https://www.academia.edu/45438218 |volume=20 |pages=200–228 |issn=0334-4118 |last=van Koningsveld |first=Pieter |access-date=2022-05-26 |archive-date=2022-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526015246/https://www.academia.edu/45438218/The_Islamic_Image_of_Paul_and_the_Origins_of_the_Gospel_of_Barnabas |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Luis Bernabé Pons, the [[Lead Books of Sacromonte]] (found in Granada in 1595) were meant to begin the Gospel of Barnabas.<ref name="de" /> The books, written on round [[lead]] leaves, deal with the arrival of [[James the Great]] and his disciples in Spain.<ref name="de" /> The books say that James was tasked to hide them in Spain, where a priest (helped by Arabians) would discover them.<ref name="de" /> The "great conqueror king of the Arab kings"{{snd}}probably referring to the [[Ottoman Empire]]{{snd}}later summoned a council in [[Cyprus]], the traditional site of Barnabas' martyrdom.<ref name="de" /> Pons said that Barnabas' name was used because the Lead Books were "suspected and scrutinized" for Islamic/Jewish content, including the {{transliteration|ar|[[Shahada]]}}.<ref name="de" /> The plan failed when the Moriscos were [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|expelled]] between 1609 and 1614.<ref name="de" />

{{Quote box
| quote  = It was done by somebody, whether a priest, secular, monk or layman, who had an amazing knowledge of the Latin Bible&nbsp; [...] And like Dante, he was particularly familiar with the Psalter. It was the work of somebody whose knowledge of the Christian Scriptures was exceeding his familiarity with the Islamic religious Scriptures. It was more probable; therefore, that he was a convert from Christianity.
| source =—Lonsdale and Laura Ragg, on the gospel's origins<ref name="Rida" />{{rp|23}}
| width  = 25%
}}
A comparison of the Italian and Spanish texts indicates several places where the Spanish reading appears secondary; words or phrases necessary for meaning are missing from the Spanish text, but appear in the Italian.<ref>{{Cite book |title=El texto morisco del Evangelio de San Bernabé |trans-title=The Moorish Text of the Gospel of Saint Barnabas |language=es |last=Pons |first=Luis F. Bernabé |publisher=[[University of Granada]] |isbn=84-338-2418-X |date=1998 }}</ref>{{rp|155}} Biblical scholar [[Jan Joosten (biblical scholar)|Jan Joosten]] hypothesized a lost Italian original, which he dated to the mid-14th century and may have been used by both manuscripts. Joosten noted that the Spanish text adapts a number of "Italianisms". The Italian text uses the conjunction {{lang|it|pero}} ("therefore"), and the Spanish text reads {{lang|es|pero}} ("however"); the Italian word is the one required in the context. Only the Spanish reading makes sense in several passages, however, and many features of the Italian text are not found in the Spanish.<ref name="date"/>

Jan Slomp wrote in ''[[Islamochristiana]]'' that the names in the Spanish manuscript (Fra Marino and Mustafa de Aranda) may refer to the same person, since converts at the time often changed their names.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|65}} Slomp said that they may have been a Jew, with the name "Fra Marino" based on {{lang|es|[[marrano]]}}: a derisive term for {{lang|es|[[converso]]s}} (Jewish converts to Catholicism).<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|62}} Other theories about an Arabic original are based on Sale's description of an Arabic gospel popular among Muslims, attributed to Barnabas, which he had never seen.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|50–51}} The Raggs assumed that Sale misunderstood Toland's challenge to Muslims in ''Nazarenus'' to produce a gospel similar to Barnabas'.<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|xvi}}{{efn|Toland wrote, "You are particularly desired to enquire after the Gospel of Barnabas: for such a book is in the possession of his most serene Highness Prince Eugene of Savoy, and was undoubtedly written [...] by a profest Mahometan; as the Summaries of the Chapters, and the Arabic Notes on the margin of the Italian Translation, are the work of a zealous adversary to Christianity. And if you should happen to meet with this book, you are diligently to enquire, whether they acknowledge it as divine, whether it be the onely Gospel they admit? or, in case they have any more of this kind, whicli are Apocryphal, and which authentic, in their account?"<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|lxix–lxx}}}} No further proof for it exists, and Sale's conjecture has been generally dismissed by researchers.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|50–51}}

== Analysis ==

=== Anachronisms and factual errors ===
[[File:Thedecapolis.png|thumb|alt=Map of the Holy Land|Map of the [[Decapolis]]]]
The Gospel of Barnabas contains historic anachronisms, as well as geographical and other factual errors.<ref name="de" /><ref name="value" />{{rp|27, 43}} According to the Raggs, they prove its medieval origins<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|433}} and the author's ignorance of first-century Judea.<ref name="value" />{{rp|24}} Anachronisms include:<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|38–39}}<ref name="value" />{{rp|19, 21–29}}

* In chapter three, Pontius Pilate is said to have governed Judea and [[Annas]] and [[Caiaphas]] were the high priests when Jesus was born ({{Circa|4 BC}}). Annas became high priest in AD 6, and his son-in-law Caiaphas succeeded him in AD 18. Pilate did not become procurator until AD 26–27.
* In chapter 15, during the first year of Jesus' ministry, it is said that the "[[feast of Tabernacles]] was near". In chapter 30, the author writes of the Senofegia which would also take place that year; Tabernacles and Senofegia are synonymous. 
* In chapters 20–21, it is said that Jesus and his disciples arrived in Nazareth after embarking on the Sea of Galilee and "went up to Capernaum"; Capernaum was on the shore, and Nazareth more than 15 miles inland.
* In chapters 42 and 96, Jesus said: "I am not the Messiah". The authors appear to not realise that the Greek ''Christ'' and the Hebrew ''Messiah'' are synonymous; both mean "the anointed one".
* In chapter 63, [[Nineveh]] is described as near the Mediterranean Sea; it was {{convert|400|mi}} away, in [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq).
* In chapter 65, Jesus is said to go to the "[[Pool of Bethesda|Probatica]]" pool. According to the author, it is so called "because the angel of God every day troubled the water, and whosoever first entered the water after its movement was cured of every kind of infirmity"; {{transliteration|grc|probatikḗ}}, Greek for the Aramaic {{transliteration|arc|bethesda}}, means "of the sheep".
* In chapter 82, it is said that a [[Biblical jubilee|jubilee]] occurs every hundred years; the Jewish jubilee is every fifty years. [[Pope Boniface VIII]] proclaimed 1300 as the first [[Jubilee in the Catholic Church|Christian jubilee]], and the next jubilee would take place a hundred years later.
* In chapter 99, [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] is said to be near the [[Jordan River]]; in reality, it is more than {{convert|30|mi}} away.
* In chapter 144, the word ''[[Pharisee]]'' is said to mean "seeking God"; derived from the Hebrew, it means "separated". In the next chapter, it is said that the [[Pharisees]] began when the Canaanites had power in Judea; this would have been in the 11th century BC or earlier; the Pharisees, a Jewish religious movement, began no earlier than the second century BC.
* In chapter 152, it is said that wine barrels were in use during Jesus' time; large jars ([[pithoi]]) were used then to store wine.
* In chapters 214 and 217, the "pagan" Herod Antipas is said to rule Jerusalem and Judea; his authority was in Galilee, and he followed the Jewish religion.

=== {{anchor|Anti-Pauline tones}}Anti-Pauline tone ===
Scholarly analysis indicates that the Gospel of Barnabas had an anti-Pauline tone, most clearly shown in its prologue and epilogue; these depict Paul preaching a perverted version of Jesus' teachings, and as "deceived" in thinking that Jesus was God (or the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]]).<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|12, 20–21}}<ref name="Blachirst">{{Cite journal |url=https://depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html |journal=[[Journal of Higher Criticism]] |title=Barnabas and the Gospels: Was There an Early Gospel of Barnabas? |date=Spring 2000 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |last=Blackhirst |first=R. |issn=1075-7139 |access-date=2022-06-03 |archive-date=2020-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220215957/https://depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In his ''Connecting with Muslims: A Guide to Communicating Effectively'' (2014), Lebanese author and Christian missionary Fouad Masri called the gospel anachronistic; in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Barnabas was Paul's best friend and not an enemy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Connecting with Muslims: A Guide to Communicating Effectively |date=2014 |last=Masri |first=Fouad |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-08-30895-90-8 }}</ref>{{rp|165–166}} For the ''[[Journal of Higher Criticism]]'', R. Blackhirst wrote that the [[Epistle to the Galatians]] account of conflict between Paul and Barnabas may have been why the gospel's author attributed it to Barnabas.<ref name="Blachirst" />

=== Parallels with the Quran ===

==== Crucifixion of Jesus ====
{{further|Islamic views on Jesus' death}}
In the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus was not crucified. Judas Iscariot (whose face was made to resemble his) replaced him on the cross, and Jesus was raised into heaven by God.<ref name="value" />{{rp|2}}<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|xxvii}} This agrees with the mainstream interpretations of [[An-Nisa]] 157–158, affirming that Jesus was not crucified but instead his lookalike was:

<blockquote>and for boasting, “We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.” But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so. Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt. They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions. They certainly did not kill him. Rather, Allah raised him up to Himself. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qur'an |pages=103}}</ref>
<br />
— Qur'ān 4:157-158</blockquote>

In its narrative of Jesus' crucifixion, the gospel is thought to be influenced by (or adopt) [[docetism]]: a [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] doctrine that Jesus' human form was an illusion.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|98}}<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|xlvii}} David Sox wrote that the Gospel of Barnabas' portrayal of Judas Iscariot is more sympathetic than that in the canonical gospels, where he is cast as a villainous betrayer; in Christian tradition, his name is synonymous with one who deceives under the guise of friendship.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|94–95}} The Raggs said that since the alleged substitution in the Quran is unnamed and unexplained, the author of the gospel attempted to fill this void.<ref name="Raggs" />{{rp|xxvii}}

Ghulam Murtaza Azad described the gospel as a medieval forgery in ''Islamic Studies'', but found its narrative more reasonable than that of the canonical gospels: "A man who is not religious minded can hardly believe that a person who wrought such great miracles could not save himself from humiliation and cross. The Christians say that he was crucified in order to save mankind from their sins. This explanation of crucifixion is strange and difficult to understand. And stranger than that is that the traitor was saved and the master was hanged." Although it would appear that the canonical gospels do not portray Judas as being saved. <ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847219 |title=An Introduction to the Gospel of Barnabas |date=Winter 1982 |last=Azad |first=Ghulam Murtaza |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=71–96 |jstor=20847219 }}</ref> In his ''Understand My Muslim People'' (2004), Abraham Sarker wrote that the narrative is popular in Quranic [[exegesis]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Understand My Muslim People |date=2004 |last=Sarker |first=Abraham |publisher=Barclay Press |isbn=978-15-94980-02-2 }}</ref>{{rp|129–130}}

==== Prediction of Muhammad ====
{{further|Jesus in Islam#Precursor to Muhammad}}
In accordance with [[As-Saff]] 6, Muslims believe that Jesus was the forerunner of Muhammad and predicted Muhammad's coming:

<blockquote>And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, “O children of Israel! I am truly Allah’s messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad.”&nbsp;Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, “This is pure magic.”
<br />—Qur'ān 61:6 <ref>{{Cite book |title=Qur'an |pages=522}}</ref></blockquote>

In Islam, the word {{transliteration|ar|ahmad}} (Arabic for "the praised one") refers to Muhammad.<ref name="de" /><ref name="answer" />{{rp|157}} The Gospel of Barnabas contains a number of sayings attributed to Jesus, who Muslims believe predicted the coming of Muhammad.<ref name="value" />{{rp|2}} The gospel places Jesus as being a forerunner for [[Muhammad]];<ref name="Wipf" />{{rp|90}}

==== Nontrinitarianism ====
{{further|Islamic view of the Trinity|Nontrinitarianism}}
According to the [[Nicene Creed]], the concept of the Trinity means that [[Monotheism|God is one]] and also exists [[Consubstantiality|consubstantially]] as three persons ([[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]], and Holy Spirit); Jesus is the Son.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|232–267}}</ref> [[Trinity|Trinitarianism]] is rejected by Islam, which believes in the concept of {{transliteration|ar|[[tawhid]]}} (indivisible oneness) and considers the Trinity a {{transliteration|ar|[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]}} equating God with his creation.<ref name="answer" />{{rp|46, 135–136}} Muslims believe that, like other [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophets]], Jesus was human and never claimed to be God.<ref name="answer" />{{rp|223}} The Gospel of Barnabas contains statements, attributed to Jesus, in which he denies being the Son of God.<ref name="value" />{{rp|7}} The gospel says that Jesus appeared to be crucified as punishment for people who claimed his divinity, and Muhammad was sent later to expose the transgressions by the Christians for worshipping Jesus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Licona|first=Michael R.|author-link=Michael R. Licona|date=2009|title=Using the Death of Jesus to Refute Islam|url=https://theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/jisca/02-1_087.pdf|journal=Journal of the International Society of Christian Apologetics|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–110|issn=2572-9322|access-date=2022-05-30|archive-date=2015-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030113225/http://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/jisca/02-1_087.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Perspectives==

=== Christian ===
The Gospel of Barnabas was not accepted by Christians,<ref name="true" /> who consider it inferior to the four canonical gospels and a forgery.<ref name="de" /><ref name="answer" />{{rp|307}} According to Togardo Siburian of the {{ill|lt=Bandung Theological Seminary|Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Bandung|id}}, it is often used "by [Muslim] propagandists in a guerrilla manner to prey on Christians with weak theological commitments. This is what is said to be the efficacy of the book, as new material for the stealth 'Islamization' or ‘Judaisation’ of Christian churches today."<ref name="profile">{{Cite journal |url=http://sttb.ac.id/download/stulos/stulos-v19-no02/09-Profil-Kritis-Buku-Injil-Barnabas.pdf |title=Profil Kritis Buku yang Disebut 'Injil Barnabas' |last=Siburian |first=Togardo |date=July 2021 |journal=Stulos |pages=248–272 |issn=1858-4683 |language=id |trans-title=A Critical Profile of a Book Known as the 'Gospel of Barnabas' |volume=19 |issue=2 |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-date=2022-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527120942/http://sttb.ac.id/download/stulos/stulos-v19-no02/09-Profil-Kritis-Buku-Injil-Barnabas.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jan Joosten (biblical scholar)|Jan Joosten]] called it a "[[Hotchpot|hotchpotch]] of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim materials".<ref name="date" /> J. N. J. Kritzinger wrote for ''Religion in Southern Africa'' that the gospel is an obstacle to Christian–Muslim [[interfaith dialogue]], and neither side should use it to discredit the other's religion.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24763798 |title=A Critical Study of the Gospel of Barnabas |date=January 1980 |issue=1 |volume=1 |last=Kritzinger |first=J. N. J. |jstor=24763798 |journal=Religion in South Africa |pages=49–65 }}</ref> Christian theologian [[Norman Geisler]] criticised Muslims who use it to validate their arguments:

<blockquote>It is not surprising that Muslim apologists appeal to the Gospel of Barnabas in that it supports a central Islamist teaching in contrast to the New Testament. It claims that Jesus did not die on the cross&nbsp;[...] Rather, it argues that Judas Iscariot died in Jesus' stead&nbsp;[...] having been substituted for him at the last minute. This view has been adopted by many Muslims, since the vast majority of them believe that someone else was substituted on the cross for Jesus.<ref name="answer" />{{rp|296}}</blockquote>

Jan Slomp wrote that it was difficult to understand the absence of mentions of the gospel in early Islamic writings if it had existed since antiquity,<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|19}} a view shared by A. H. Mathias Zahniser in his ''The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity'' (2017).<ref name="Wipf" />{{rp|93–94}} Slomp called it a "conscious attempt at imitating a ''[[Diatessaron]]''".<ref name="Sox" /><sup>:35</sup> Egyptian [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] philosopher {{ill|lt=Georges Chehata Anawati|جورج قنواتى|arz}} wrote for the 1971 ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', "The appearance of a forgery entitled the Gospel of Barnabas put into the hands of the Muslim polemicists&nbsp;[...] a new weapon whose effects on the ordinary public, and even on some insufficiently informed members of universities are felt even today."<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|32}} A critical book, William F. Campbell's ''The Gospel of Barnabas: Its True Value'', was published in 1989.<ref name="value" />

=== Islamic ===
==== Acceptance ====
Some have identified it as the [[Gospel in Islam|Injil]], one of four [[Islamic holy books]] sent by God.<ref name="issues">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43251232 |title=Theological Issues in Christian–Muslim Dialogue |date=May 2008 |issue=1021 |volume=89 |pages=311–323 |last=Hewer |first=Chris |doi=10.1111/j.1741-2005.2008.00223.x |journal=[[New Blackfriars]] |jstor=43251232 }}</ref>{{efn|Nothing is known about the characteristics of the Injil.<ref name="issues" /> While Muslim scholars in general consider it referring to the four canonical gospels,<ref name="value" />{{rp|1–2}} some think that it should be a single gospel revealed by God to Jesus—not written by human authors—and fragments of it survive in these canonical gospels.<ref name="answer" />{{rp|215–216}} Cases have been made by several Muslim scholars, including [[Ahmed Deedat]], for connecting the Injil with the Gospel of Barnabas.<ref name="issues" />}} About the gospel's generally-positive reception in the Muslim world, Scottish orientalist [[W. Montgomery Watt]] said that it is not uncommon for Muslims to be persuaded to believe in it without question; some are unaware of the scholarly consensus that it is a forgery.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Muslim–Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions |date=1991 |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimchristiane0000watt |url-access=registration |isbn=0-415-05410-9 }}</ref>{{rp|117–118}} According to German scholar [[Christine Schirrmacher]], Muslim positivity about the gospel is based on its claim of being written by an eyewitness and disagreement (favoured by Islam) with mainstream Christian doctrines.<ref name="true">{{Cite web |url=https://www.islaminstitut.de/english/publications/Gospel_of_barnabas.htm |title=The 'Gospel of Barnabas' – Has the True Gospel of Jesus Been Found? |last=Schirrmacher |first=Christine |author-link=Christine Schirrmacher |website=IslamInstitut.de |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192247/http://www.islaminstitut.de/english/publications/Gospel_of_barnabas.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Among Muslims, the gospel was first cited by Indian scholar [[Rahmatullah Kairanawi]] in his {{transliteration|ar|Ijaz-i Isawi}} (1853).<ref name="influence" /> It became more popular after the 1908 publication of [[Rashid Rida]]'s Arabic translation.<ref name="Rida" />{{rp|214}} According to Pakistani scholar [[Abul A'la Maududi]], the Gospel of Barnabas is "more genuine than the four canonical gospels".<ref name="de" /> Rida agreed that it was "superior" to the canonical gospels in its "divine knowledge, glorification of the Creator, and knowledge of ethics, manners and values".<ref name="Rida" />{{rp|235}} During a 1940 course at [[Al-Azhar University]], Egyptian intellectual [[Muhammad Abu Zahra]] challenged Christians to study and refute the gospel: "The most significant service to the religions and to humanity would be that the church take the trouble to study the gospel according to Barnabas and refute it and to bring us the proofs on which this refutation is based."<ref name="value" />{{rp|2}}

At a 1976 Christian–Muslim dialogue in Libya, each Muslim delegate first received copies of the Gospel of Barnabas and the Quran; the gospel was withdrawn after a protest by the Vatican.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|11}}<ref name="sura" />{{rp|100}} Rahim published ''Jesus: A Prophet of Islam'', defending the gospel, in 1979.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|12}} M. A. Yusseff wrote in ''The Dead Sea Scrolls, The Gospel of Barnabas, and the New Testament'' (1985) that no other gospels can equal its authenticity.<ref name="answer">{{Cite book |title=Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross |last1=Geisler |first1=Norman |author-link1=Norman Geisler |last2=Saleeb |first2=Abdul |date=1993 |isbn=0-8010-3859-6 |publisher=[[Baker Books]] }}</ref>{{rp|295}} A 2007 Iranian film, ''[[The Messiah (2007 film)|The Messiah]]'', was apparently based on the gospel and was the first film to depict Jesus from Christian and Islamic perspectives.<ref name="mixed" /> It had a mixed critical response, praised for "generating interfaith dialogue"<ref name="mixed">{{Cite news |url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/muslim-s-cross-less-jesus-film-draws-mixed-reactions.html |title=Muslim's Cross-Less Jesus Film Draws Mixed Reactions |last=Vu |first=Michelle A. |date=21 March 2008 |work=[[The Christian Post]] |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527121052/https://www.christianpost.com/news/muslim-s-cross-less-jesus-film-draws-mixed-reactions.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but criticised for its controversial account of the crucifixion.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2010/08/lebanon-iranian-director-calls-controversy-over-jesus-serial-political.html |title=Lebanon: Iranian director's Jesus film pulled |last1=Gallagher |first1=Patrick |last2=Lutz |first2=Meris |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=27 May 2022 |date=16 August 2010 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506134714/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2010/08/lebanon-iranian-director-calls-controversy-over-jesus-serial-political.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Director [[Nader Talebzadeh]] said, "I pray for Christians. They've been misled. They will realize one day the true story."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-apr-29-fg-jesus29-story.html |title=Jesus through the lens of Islam |date=29 April 2008 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |last=Fleishman |first=Jeffrey |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721105954/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-apr-29-fg-jesus29-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Rejection ====
The Gospel of Barnabas is criticized by Muslim scholars,<ref name="answer" />{{rp|298}} who reject it partially<ref name="sura">{{Cite book |title=The Qur'an and the Cross—A Study of Al-Nisa (4):157: 'and They Did Not Kill Him and Did Not Crucify Him, But It Was Made to Appear So to Them' |date=2020 |publisher=[[LIT Verlag]] |last=O'Brien |first=Jack |isbn=978-36-43910-82-0 }}</ref>{{rp|101}} or completely.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://religiondispatches.org/muslim-gospel-revealing-the-christian-truth-excites-the-da-vinci-code-set/ |title='Muslim Gospel' Revealing the 'Christian Truth' Excites The Da Vinci Code Set |date=22 May 2014 |work=[[Religion Dispatches]] |last=Reed |first=Annette Yoshiko |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031104258/https://religiondispatches.org/muslim-gospel-revealing-the-christian-truth-excites-the-da-vinci-code-set/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to American scholar [[Amina Inloes]], the many differences between the gospel and the Quran dilute its importance.<ref name="forgery" /> In the January 1977 issue of the ''Islamic World League'' journal, Syrian writer Yahya al-Hashimi called it a polemic by a Jew to generate hostility between Christians and Muslims.<ref name="Sox" />{{rp|115}}<ref name="de" /> Al-Hashimi said that there was no need to use apocryphal gospels to prove that Muhammad was a prophet, because he believed Muhammad had been foretold by Jesus as the [[Paraclete#Islam|Paraclete]] in the [[Gospel of John]].<ref name="de" /> Egyptian literary critic [[Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad]] cited several reasons to reject the gospel, including the use of [[Andalusi Arabic]] phrases and teachings which conflict with the Quran.<ref name="value" />{{rp|34}}<ref name="de" />

== See also ==
* [[Toledot Yeshu]]
* [[Acts of Barnabas]]
* [[Epistle of Barnabas]]

== Footnotes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|The Gospel of Barnabas/The Gospel of Barnabas|Gospel of Barnabas}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:14th-century Christian texts]]
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[[Category:Apocryphal Gospels]]
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[[Category:Christianity and Islam]]
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[[Category:Pontius Pilate]]
[[Category:Barnabas]]
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