Editing Gesta Danorum

{{short description|12th century work of Danish history}}
{{italic title}}
{{For|the later Danish-language work|Gesta Danorum på danskæ}}
{{more footnotes|date=April 2012}}

[[File:Saxo original 001.jpg|thumb|{{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} ([[Angers Fragment]]), page 1, front.]]
'''{{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}}''' ("Deeds of the [[Danes]]") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th-century author [[Saxo Grammaticus]] ("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian").<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hermanson |first=Lars |date=2005 |title=Friendship and Politics in Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2005_num_83_2_4922 |journal=Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=261–284 |doi=10.3406/rbph.2005.4922}}</ref> It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of [[History of Denmark#Middle Ages|medieval Denmark]] and is an essential source for the nation's early history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kisor |first1=Yvette |last2=Osborn |first2=Marijane |date=2007-07-01 |title=Harthgrepa (from Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, Book I) |url=https://doi.org/10.3200/ANQQ.20.3.61-65 |journal=ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes and Reviews |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=61–65 |doi=10.3200/ANQQ.20.3.61-65 |issn=0895-769X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]].

Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of [[Archbishop]] [[Absalon]], {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} offers singular reflections on European affairs in the [[High Middle Ages]] from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe.

[[Image:Saxo horn version 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bishop Asgar, etching by the Danish-Norwegian illustrator [[Louis Moe]] (1857-1945)]]

== Books ==
The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1–9, which deal with [[Norse mythology]] and semi-legendary Danish history, and Books 10–16, which deal with medieval history. Book 9 ends with [[Gorm the Old]]. The last three books (14–16), which describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against [[Slavic peoples]] (the [[Northern Crusades]]), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes ([[Polabian Slavs]], [[Pomeranians (Slavic tribe)|Pomeranians]]) and [[Slavic mythology|Slavic paganism]]. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple on the island of [[Rügen]].

=== Overview ===
==== Book 1 ====
The first book is mostly Saxo's original work, sharing little with other primary works, but taking some inspiration from Ancient Greek epics. It very briefly covers the rule of the eponymous founder of the Danish nation, [[Dan_(king)|Dan]], but also his brother [[Angul (mythology)|Angul]], his sons [[Humblus|Humble]] and [[Lotherus|Lother]], and Dan's grandson, [[Skjöldr|Skiold]], whose son, [[Gram of Denmark|Gram]] is the first Danish king to be given some detail, his reign revolves around conquering Sweden and Finland, only to die in a battle. Most of the book deals with the adventures of [[Hadingus|Hading]], the son of Gram and [[Finnish people|Finnish]] princess, [[Signe (Finnish princess)|Signe]]. Here the adventure concerns the loss of Denmark to the Swedes as well as Hading's attempts to reclaim it with the help of giants and Odin. The book concludes with Hading's suicide after hearing of his friend's death.

==== Book 2 ====
Book 2 follows adventures of Hading's descendants, who perform cunning raids across the [[Baltic Sea]] and far as England, while encountering many supernatural events and being forced to solve disputes via [[single combat]]. This book includes the stories of kings [[Halga|Helge]] and [[Hrólfr Kraki|Rolf Krake]], which are also told in ''[[Hrólfs saga kraka]]''.

==== Book 3 ====
Book 3 begins with the story of a Swedish prince, [[Höðr|Hother]], in an alternate version of the story of Höðr and the death of the god [[Baldr]] (here presented as a false god named Balderus). Hother eventually does become King in Denmark after the deaths of Rolf Krake and his usurper [[Heoroweard|Hiartuar]].

The second half of the book introduces [[Amleth]], as a grandson of the Danish king [[Hrœrekr Ringslinger|Rorik]]. Amleth's father was murdered by his uncle, the governor of [[Jylland]]. Amleth pretends to be a fool in fear of his uncle who has married his mother. He is sent to Britain by his uncle to be put to death, but secretly rewrites the death warrant and instead marries the daughter of the king. Then he returns to Denmark and kills his uncle. This story was later told by Shakespeare as ''[[Hamlet]]''.

==== Book 4 ====
After killing his uncle and securing the support of his people in doing so, Amleth returns to Britain. His father-in-law sends him to woo (on the King's behalf) the Scottish Queen [[Hermuthruda|Hermutrude]], who is famous for murdering all her suitors. However, Hermutrude refuses to marry the King and instead marries Amleth, making the King into Amleth's enemy. Amleth is killed by the new King of Denmark, [[Wihtlæg|Wiglek]], who then marries Hermutrude. Many subsequent kings follow.

==== Book 5 ====
Book 5 covers the life of just a single king, [[Frotho III]], and focuses on his empire-building and the exploits of his brilliant Norwegian advisor, [[Erick the Eloquent]] (later King of Sweden). Ultimately Frotho ends up ruling over Britain, Scandinavia, the Slavs, and the Huns. Other tales from Norse legend are included in this book, within Frotho's lifetime, including the story of [[Hjaðningavíg|Hedin and Hogni]] and the story of [[Hjalmar and Ingeborg|Hialmar]] and [[Örvar-Oddr|Arrow-Odd]]. Saxo says that it was during Frotho's reign that [[Jesus]] came to Earth, and there was [[Fróði's Peace|uninterrupted peace around the world]]. Frotho is eventually killed by a sorceress in the form of a sea-cow.

==== Book 6 ====
Follows the adventurers of the legendary hero, [[Starkad]] who is disappointed in the decadent ways of Frothi III's descendants.

==== Book 7 ====
Is a collection of short and unrelated love stories, many of these ventures feature [[shieldmaiden]]s.

==== Book 8 ====
Covers the famous [[Battle of Brávellir]], between [[Harald Wartooth]] and [[Sigurd Ring]]. Danish involvement in the [[Saxon wars]] against [[Charlemagne]],  voyages to [[Bjarmaland|Biarmia]], and the death of Starkad.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malm |first=Mats |date=1992 |title=The otherworld journeys of the eighth book of Gesta Danorum |url=https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/4966665 |journal=The Otherworld Journeys of the Eighth Book of Gesta Danorum |language=en |pages=159–173}}</ref>

==== Book 9 ====
The book deals with [[Ragnar Lothbrok]] and his rising empire, he appoints many of his sons to govern parts of his empire all the way from [[Scotland]] to [[Scythia]].
{{Kings of Gesta Danorum family tree}}

== History ==

=== Chronology ===
When exactly {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King [[Canute VI]] of Denmark subduing [[Pomerania]] under Duke [[Bogislaw I]], in 1186. However the preface of the work, dedicated to Archbishop [[Anders Sunesen]], mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the [[Elbe]] in 1208.

Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with [[Absalon]]'s appointment to archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and ''Absalon'' has greater importance than King [[Valdemar I of Denmark|Valdemar I]], this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years.

It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13. [[Svend Aagesen]]'s history of Denmark, ''[[Brevis Historia Regum Dacie]]'' (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons," which would be King [[Sweyn Estridson]], in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface.

=== Manuscripts ===
The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the [[Angers Fragment]], [[Lassen Fragment]], [[Kall-Rasmussen Fragment]] and [[Plesner Fragment]]. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from {{Circa|1275}}. All four fragments are in the collection of the [[Danish Royal Library]] in [[Copenhagen]], Denmark.

The text has, however, survived. In 1510–1512, [[Christiern Pedersen]], a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo's works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo's work came from a summary located in ''[[Chronica Jutensis]]'', from around 1342, called ''[[Compendium Saxonis]]''. It is also in this summary that the name {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown.

Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop [[Birger Gunnersen]] of [[Lund]], Skåne (Skåne is now part of [[Sweden]], but at the time was still part of Denmark), which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer [[Jodocus Badius]], {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} was refined and printed.

=== Printing ===
[[File:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|thumb|right|Front page of [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s Saxo version, [[Paris]] 1514.]]
The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo's works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, on 15 March 1514 under the title of ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae'' ("History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes"). The edition features the following [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]]: ...''impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana.'' (the [[Ides of March]], 1514).

The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin:
<blockquote>''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.''</blockquote>

English language:
<blockquote>''Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a [[Zealand]]er and also provost of the church of [[Roskilde]], over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.''</blockquote>

==== Latin versions====
The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae''. There exist a number of different translations today, some complete, some partial.
* {{citation | author = Christiern Pedersen | author-link = Christiern Pedersen | year = 1514 | title = Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae | publisher = Badius Ascensius, Jodocus, 1462-1535 | url = https://archive.org/stream/den-kbd-pil-130017585852-001#page/n426 }}
* {{citation | author = Johannes Oporinus | author-link = Johannes Oporinus | year = 1534 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI | url = https://www.e-rara.ch/bau_1/content/titleinfo/889377 }}
* {{citation | author = Philip Lonicer | author-link = Philip Lonicer | year = 1576 | title = Danica Historia Libris XVI | url = https://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/Vta2/bsb10143750/bsb:BV001546433?page=9 }}
* {{citation | author = Stephan Hansen Stephanius | author-link = Stephan Hansen Stephanius | year = 1645 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EVN4cgiYw8kC }}
* {{citation | author = Christian Adolph Klotz | author-link = Christian Adolph Klotz | year = 1771 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Historiae Danicae libri XVI }}
* {{citation | author = Peter Erasmus Müller | author-link = Peter Erasmus Müller | year = 1839 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica }}
* {{citation | author = Alfred Holder | author-link = Alfred Holder | year = 1886 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum | publisher = Strassburg, K. J. Trübner | url = https://archive.org/details/saxonisgrammati01saxogoog }}
* {{citation | author = Jørgen Olrik | author-link = Jørgen Olrik | author2 = Hans Ræder | author-link2 = Hans Ræder | year = 1931 | title = Saxonis Gesta Danorum }}
* {{citation | author = Karsten Friis-Jensen | author-link = Karsten Friis-Jensen | year = 2005 | title = Gesta Danorum }}

==== Danish translations====
* Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost
* Jon Tursons, lost, never published ca. 1555
* {{citation | author = Anders Sørensen Vedel | author-link = Anders Sørensen Vedel | year = 1575 | title = Den Danske Krønicke | publisher = Kjøbenhavn, Trykt hos B. Luno | url = https://archive.org/details/dendanskekrnike00sechgoog  }}
* {{citation | author = Sejer Schousbölle | author-link = Sejer Schousbölle | year = 1752 | title = Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica }}
* {{citation | author = N. F. S. Grundtvig | author-link = N. F. S. Grundtvig | year = 1818–1822 | title = Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus | url =  https://runeberg.org/saxo/ }}
* {{citation | author = Frederik Winkel Horn | author-link = Frederik Winkel Horn | year = 1898 | title = Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike | url =  http://heimskringla.no/wiki/Danmarks_krønike }}
* {{citation | author = Jørgen Olrik | author-link = Jørgen Olrik | year = 1908–1912 | title = Sakses Danesaga }}
* {{citation | author = Peter Zeeberg | author-link = Peter Zeeberg | year = 2000 | title = Saxos Danmarkshistorie }} , 2 volumes

==== English translations====
* {{citation | author = Oliver Elton | author-link = Oliver Elton | year = 1894 | title = The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus | url = https://archive.org/details/firstninebookso00saxo }}
* {{citation | editor = Hilda Ellis Davidson| editor-link = Hilda Ellis Davidson |translator = Peter Fisher | translator-link = Peter Smith (translator) | year = 1979–1980 | title = Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofdanes0001saxo/page/n4/mode/1up}} (Volume 1: English text; volume 2: Commentary by Hilda Ellis Davidson)
* {{citation | author = Eric Christiansen | author-link = Eric Christiansen | year = 1980–1981 | title = Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum herorumque historia, books X-XVI }}
* {{citation | author = William F. Hansen | author-link = William F. Hansen | year = 1983 | title = Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet }}
* {{citation | editor = Karsten Friis-Jensen | editor-link = Karsten Friis-Jensen | translator = Peter Fisher |translator-link = Peter Fisher (translator) | year = 2015 | title = Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum The History of the Danes }} (Volume 1: Books I-X; Volume 2: Books XI-XVI).

==== Other translations====
* {{citation | author = Hermann Jantzen | author-link = Hermann Jantzen | year = 1900 | title = Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte | publisher = Leipzig, W. Engelmann | url = https://archive.org/details/erluterungenzud01herrgoog }}
* {{citation | author = Ludovica Koch | author-link = Ludovica Koch | author2 =Maria Adele Cipolla | author-link2 = Maria Adele Cipolla | year = 1993 | title = Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi }}
* {{citation | author = Yukio Taniguchi | author-link = Yukio Taniguchi | year = 1993 | title = Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki }}
* {{citation | author = Santiago Ibáñez Lluch | author-link = Santiago Ibáñez Lluch | year = 1999 | title = Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa }}
* {{citation | author = Андрей С. Досаев | author-link = Andrey Dosayev | year = 2017 | title = Саксон Грамматик. Деяния данов }} [Full translation on [[Russian language|Russian]] by Andrey Dosaev in two vols.]
* Daniel Palmqvist (2021), ''Gesta Danorum, Saxo Grammaticus, En del av Sveriges historia''.<ref>Published by Cultura Aetatis 2021. ISBN 978-91-984633-9-2</ref> [The first nine of the 16 books translated into Swedish].

{{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} is also translated partially in other English, [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]] releases.

== Hamlet ==
{{Main|Sources of Hamlet}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2009}}
Certain aspects of {{Lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} formed the basis for [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Hamlet]]''. Saxo's version, told of in Books 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''. In Saxo's version, two brothers, [[Horwendill|Orvendil]] and [[Feng (Claudius)|Fengi]] are given the rule over [[Jutland]] by King [[Hrærekr slöngvanbaugi|Rørik Slyngebond]] of the Danes.  Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik's daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in ''Hamlet''). Amleth is their first and only child.

Fengi becomes resentful of his brother's marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father's murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful King of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation| editor-last = Fisher | editor-first =  Peter | editor-first2 = Hilda Ellis | editor-last2 = Davidson | title =  Saxo Grammaticus The History of the Danes, Book I-IX | volume = I: Text | publisher =  D. S. Brewer | location= Cambridge | year=  1979}}
*{{citation| editor-last = Fisher | editor-first =  Peter | editor-first2 = Hilda Ellis | editor-last2 = Davidson | title =  Saxo Grammaticus The History of the Danes, Book I-IX | volume = II: Commentary | publisher = D. S. Brewer | location=Cambridge | year=  1980}}
* {{citation| editor-first = Oliver| editor-last =Elton | editor-link = Oliver Elton | editor-first2 = Frederick York | editor-last2 = Powell |  editor-link2= Frederick York Powell | first = Saxo | last = Grammaticus | author-link = Saxo Grammaticus | year = 1894 | url  = https://archive.org/details/firstninebookso00saxo | title = The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus| publisher = David Nutt | location=London }} 
* {{citation| editor-first = Oliver| editor-last =Elton | editor-link = Oliver Elton | editor-first2 = Frederick York | editor-last2 = Powell | editor-link2 =Frederick York Powell | editor-first3 = Rasmus B.| editor-last3 = Anderson | editor-link3 =Rasmus B. Anderson | editor-first4 = J.W. | editor-last4 = Buel | first = Saxo | last = Grammaticus | author-link = Saxo Grammaticus | year = 1905 | title = The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus in Two Volumes | publisher = Norroena Society }} 
**In two volumes : {{citation|title = Volume 1 | url = https://archive.org/details/ninebooksofdanis01saxouoft | year= 1905 }} ; {{citation|title = Volume 2 | url = https://archive.org/details/ninebooksofdanis02saxouoft | year= 1905 }} , [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1150 e-text both volumes without appendixes or indices ]
* {{citation| author =Saxo Grammaticus | url = http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/ | title = Gesta Danorum | date = 24 September 1999 | publisher = Det Kongelige Bibliotek | language = la }} ,  (table of contents in Danish).
* {{citation| first = Helle | last =  Stangerup | title = Saxo Hans værk – Hans verden | publisher =  Høst & Søn forlag | year=  2004 | isbn = 87-14-29949-6 | language = da }}
* {{citation| title = Apoteker Sibbernsens Saxobog| publisher = Reitzels Forlag | location=Copenhagen| year=  1927 }}
* {{citation| first = Frederik Winkel | last = Horn | author-link = Frederik Winkel Horn | title = Saxo Grammaticus Danmarks Krønike |  publisher = Chr. Flors Boghandel | location=Copenhagen | year =  1911 | language = da }}; [https://heimskringla.no/wiki/Danmarks_kr%C3%B8nike online]
* {{citation| first1 = Jørgen |last1 = Olrik | author-link = Jørgen Olrik | first2= H. | last2= Ræder | title = Saxonis Gesta Danorum | publisher =  Levin & Munkesgaard | location=Copenhagen| year=  1931 }}
*  {{citation| first = Anders Sørensen | last = Vedel | author-link = Anders Sørensen Vedel | title = Den Danske Krønicke Saxo-oversættelse 1575 udgivet i facsimile| publisher =G. E. C Gad | location=Copenhagen | language = da | year =  1967 }}; also [https://archive.org/details/dendanskekrnike00sechgoog online] at the Internet Archive
* {{citation| first = Curt | last = Weibull | author-link = Curt Weibull | title = Saxo. Kritiska undersökningar i Danmarks historia från Sven Estridsens död till Knut VI | publisher =  Lund, Blekingska boktryckeriet| year=  1915 | journal = Historisk Tidskrift för Skåneland | volume =  6 | number = 1–3 }}

{{refend}}

== External links ==
*[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Danish_History Gesta Danorum] in English translation at Wikisource (only Book I-IX; Book X-XVI are unavailable)
*[http://wayback-01.kb.dk/wayback/20100504154321/http://www2.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/index.htm The Latin original in a critical edition by Olrik and Raeder (1931)] at the Royal Danish Library (see [https://aigis.igl.ku.dk/aigis/2007,1/DB-Sax.pdf here] for differences between it and the newest edition by Karsten Friis-Jensen).
*[https://archive.org/details/saxonisgrammati01saxogoog/page/n10 The Latin original in A. Holder's edition (1886)]
*[https://archive.org/details/den-kbd-pil-130017585852-001/page/n34/mode/2up The Latin original in Christiern Pedersen's first complete print edition]
*{{Commons category-inline|Gesta Danorum}}
* {{citation | url = https://www.usask.ca/english/icelanders/proverbs_Saxo.html | title = Proverbs and proverbial materials in Saxo's 'Gesta Danorum' | access-date = 2017-08-18 | archive-date = 2018-10-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181004121357/http://www.usask.ca/english/icelanders/proverbs_Saxo.html | url-status = dead }}

{{norsemythology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:12th-century history books]]
[[Category:12th-century books in Latin]]
[[Category:Sources on Germanic paganism]]
[[Category:Chronicles about Denmark]]
[[Category:Danish non-fiction books]]
[[Category:12th century in Denmark]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Ragnar Lodbrok]]