Editing Gerund

{{Short description|Nonfinite verb form}}
{{Distinguish|text=the [[Gerundive]]}}

In [[linguistics]], a '''gerund''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|ɹ|ən|d|,_|-|ʌ|n|d}}<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}</ref> [[list of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] '''ger''') is any of various [[nonfinite verb]] forms in various [[language]]s; most often, but not exclusively, it is one that functions as a [[noun]]. The name is derived from [[Late Latin]] ''gerundium,'' meaning "which is to be carried out". In [[English language|English]], the gerund has the properties of both verb and noun, such as being modifiable by an [[adverb]] and being able to take a [[direct object]]. The term "''-ing'' form" is often used in English to refer to the gerund specifically. Traditional [[English grammar|grammar]] makes a distinction within ''-ing'' forms between [[present participle]]s and gerunds, a distinction that is not observed in such modern grammars as ''[[A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language]]'' and ''[[The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language]]''.

==Traditional use==
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}

The Latin gerund, in a restricted set of syntactic contexts, denotes the sense of the verb in isolation after certain prepositions, and in certain uses of the [[genitive]], [[dative]], and [[ablative]] cases. It is very rarely combined with a dependent sentence element such as an [[Object (grammar)|object]]. To express such concepts, the construction with the [[Adjective|adjectival]] [[gerundive]] is preferred. By contrast, the term gerund has been used in the grammatical description of other languages to label verbal nouns used in a wide range of syntactic contexts and with a full range of [[clause]] elements.

Thus, English grammar uses ''gerund'' to mean an ''-ing'' form used in [[non-finite clauses]] such as ''playing on computers''. This is not a normal use for a Latin gerund. Moreover, the clause may function within a sentence as [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] or [[Object (grammar)|object]], which is impossible for a Latin gerund.
*''Playing on computers'' is fun. (''-ing'' clause as subject)
*I like ''playing on computers'' (''-ing'' clause as object)
The contrast with the Latin gerund is also clear when the clause consists of a single word.
*''Computing'' is fun. ("gerund" as subject)
*I like ''computing'' ("gerund" as object)
Latin never uses the gerund in this way, since the [[infinitive]] is available.<ref>Palmer, L.R. , 1954, ''The Latin Language'', London. Faber and Faber.</ref>

Traditional English grammar distinguishes non-finite clauses used as above from [[adverbial]] use, adjective-like modification of nouns, and use in [[Finite verb|finite]] [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive (continuous)]] forms
*''Playing on computers'', they whiled the day away.
* The boys ''playing on computers'' are my nephews.
*They are always ''playing on computers''.
In these uses ''playing'' is traditionally labelled a [[participle]].

Traditional grammar also distinguishes ''-ing'' forms with exclusively [[noun]] properties as in 
{|
|-
| I work in that ''building'' || ''contrast "gerund"''|| I like ''building'' things
|-
| That is a good ''painting'' || ''contrast "gerund"''|| I like ''painting'' pictures
|-
| Her ''writing'' is good || ''contrast "gerund"'' || I like ''writing'' novels
|-
|}
The objection to the term ''gerund'' in English grammar is that ''-ing'' forms are frequently used in ways that do not conform to the clear-cut three-way distinction made by traditional grammar into ''gerunds'', ''participles'' and ''nouns''{{how|date=November 2018}}.

==Latin gerund==
{{Further|Latin syntax#The gerund|Latin conjugation#Gerund}}

===Form===
The Latin gerund is a form of the verb.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=The National |title=The National Archives - Lesson 11 - Gerunds and gerundives |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/stage-2-latin/lessons/lesson-23-gerunds-and-gerundives/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=Latin |language=en-GB}}</ref> It is composed of:
* the ''infectum'' stem (the stem used to form [[Present tense|present]] and [[imperfect]] tense forms)
* a vowel appropriate to the verb class or [[Latin conjugation#Conjugations|conjugation]] of the verb
* the suffix ''-nd-'' 
* a [[Noun|nominal]] [[Inflection|inflectional ending]]
For example,
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| laud- || -a- || -nd- || -um, -ī, -ō || First conjugation || ''laudandum'' || 'the act of praising'
|-
| mon- || -e- || -nd- || -um, -ī, -ō || Second conjugation || ''monendum'' || 'the act of warning'
|-
|leg- || -e- || -nd- || -um, -ī, -ō || Third conjugation || ''legendum'' || 'the act of reading'
|-
|capi- || -e- || -nd- || -um, -ī, -ō || Third conjugation || ''capiendum'' || 'the act of taking'
|-
| audi- || -e- || -nd- || -um, -ī, -ō || Fourth conjugation || ''audiendum'' || 'the act of hearing'
|}
Related [[gerundive]] forms are composed in a similar way with [[Adjective|adjectival]] inflexional endings.

===Function===
The four inflections are used for a limited range of grammatical functions<ref>Palmer, L.R. , 1954, ''The Latin Language'', London. Faber and Faber.</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Case !! Function !! Example !! Translation || Notes
|-
| Nominative || Subject || no example || || ''infinitive'' used
|-
| Accusative || Object || no example || || ''infinitive'' used
|-
| Accusative || After preposition || ''canes alere ad '''venandum'''''<ref>Terence, ''Andria'' 57.</ref>|| 'to rear dogs for hunting' || after ''ad, in, ob'' and occasionally other prepositions
|-
| Genitive || Modifying abstract noun || '''''pugnandi''' tempus'' || 'time for (lit. of) fighting'|| nouns include ''occasio, tempus, causa, gratia''
|-
| Dative || Expressing purpose || '''''auscultando''' operam dare'' || 'apply effort to listening' || after verbs, e.g., ''studeo, operam dare'' and adjectives, e.g., ''natus, optimus''
|-
| Ablative || Instrumental || '''''pugnando''' cepimus'' || 'we took by fighting' || became undistinguishable from '''participle''' use, thus providing the ''gerundio'' forms in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], which are used instead of forms derived from Latin present participles
|}
These functions could be fulfilled by other abstract nouns derived from verbs such as ''vēnātiō'' 'hunting'. Gerunds are distinct in two ways.
* Every Latin verb can regularly form a gerund
* A gerund may function syntactically as the head of a [[verb phrase]]: for instance, the gerund of a transitive verb may take a direct object in the accusative case, e.g., ''ad '''discernendum''' vocis verbi figuras'' 'for discerning figures of speech', ''hominem '''investigando''' opera dabo'' 'I will devote effort to investigating the man'.
:: However, this was a rare construction. Writers generally preferred the ''[[gerundive]]'' construction, in which the gerundive adjective was inflected to agree with the noun acting as its object: e.g., ''res '''evertendae''' reipublicae'' 'matters concerning the overthrow of the state' (literally 'of the state being overthrown').

When people first wrote grammars of languages such as English, and based them on works of Latin grammar, they adopted the term ''gerund'' to label non-finite verb forms with these two properties.

==Gerunds in various languages==
Meanings of the term ''gerund'' as used in relation to various languages are listed below.

===Latin and Romance===
[[Latin]] has the non-finite ''gerundium'', formed with ''-andum'', ''-endum'' and noun inflexions. It is syntactically equivalent to a noun, except in the nominative and accusative cases, which use the infinitive. In particular the [[ablative (Latin)|ablative case]] forms (''-ando'', ''-endo'') were used adverbially. Latin grammars written in English use the form ''gerund''.<ref>Palmer 1954</ref> See the section above for further detail.

Several Romance languages have inherited the form, but without [[Grammatical case|case inflections]]. They use it primarily in an adverbial function, comparably to the Latin ablative use. The same form may be used in an adjectival function and to express [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] meaning. These languages do not use the term ''present participle''. Grammars of these languages written in English may use the form ''gerund''.
:* [[Italian language|Italian]] ''gerundio'': stem form + ''-ando'' or ''-endo''
:*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''gerundio'': stem form + ''-ando'' or ''-iendo''
:*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''gerúndio'': stem form + ''-ando'', ''-endo'' or ''-indo''
:* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''gerunziu'': stem form + ''-ând(u)'' or ''-ind(u)''
:* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[French language|French]] have inherited not the gerund form but the Latin present participle form in -nt. 
::* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''gerundi'': stem form + ''-ant'' or ''-ent''
::* [[French language|French]] stem form + ''-ant''. French grammar maintains a distinction between:
:::*''participe présent'' when the form is used adjectivally, and may be inflected for gender and number.
:::*''gérondif'' when the form is used adverbially, without inflection, generally after the preposition ''en''. In Modern French, the ''gérondif'' cannot be used to express progressive meaning.
:::Grammars of French written in English may use the forms ''gerundive'' and ''present participle''.

===Germanic===
In the earliest stages of the [[West Germanic languages]], the [[infinitive]] was [[Inflection|inflected]] after a preposition. These [[Dative case|dative]] and, more rarely, [[Genitive case|genitive]] case forms are sometimes called ''gerundium'' or ''gerund'' or ''West Germanic gerund''.<ref>Prokosch, E. 1939. ''A Comparative Germanic Grammar''. Philadelphia. Linguistic Society of America for Yale University.</ref><ref>Harbert, Wayne. 2007 ''The Germanic Language''. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|052101511-1}}</ref>
:*[[Old English]] ''to berenne'' (to bear) dative of ''beran''
:*[[Old High German]] ''zi beranne'' dative of ''beran''
:*[[Old Saxon]] ''berannia'' dative of ''beran''
:*[[Old Frisian]] ''beranne''
::* The modern continental successor languages [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] have preserved a few vestiges of these forms, which are sometimes termed ''gerundium''.
::* [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] preserves the original distinction, e.g., [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] ''freegje'' ("ask") – ''te freegjen''
::* [[English language|English]] has no vestige of the'' West Germanic gerund''. Traditional grammar uses the term ''gerund'' for the ''[[-ing]]'' form of a verb when it is used as a noun (for example, the verb ''reading'' in the sentence "I enjoy reading.").<ref>{{cite web 
| access-date = 2014-03-19| publisher = WordNet 1.7.1| title = Merriam-Websterdefinition| url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gerund| quote = A noun formed from a verb (such as the ''-ing'' form of an English verb when used as a noun).}}</ref> See the sections below for further detail.
:* In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], it translates either the term "[[:nl:Gerundium|gerundium]]" or the description "zelfstandig gebruikte, verbogen onbepaalde wijs van het werkwoord". The infinitive form of the verb is used as gerund, e.g., ''Zwemmen is gezond''.
:* Since [[Afrikaans]] has by and large lost explicit morphological marking of the infinitive form of the verb, verb stems are used as gerunds, e.g., ''Swem is gesond''.

===Slavic===
In descriptions of Slavic languages, the term ''gerund'' refers to verbal forms that are also frequently referred to as ''verbal adverb'', ''adverbial participle'', or (in some Slavic languages) ''deepričastie''. These forms describe circumstances, actions concurrent (''present gerund'') or immediately preceding (''past gerund'') those in the predicate. Morphologically they are uninflected (except in Czech),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sussex |first1=Roland |author-link=Roland Sussex |last2=Cubberley |first2=Paul |year=2006 |title=The Slavic Languages |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45728-6 |pages=305–308}}</ref> and syntactically they have an adverbial function, and thus generally bear resemblance to Romance gerunds such as those found in Italian,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Grammatica della lingua serbo-croata (illirica) |last=Budmani |first=Pietro |year=1867 |location=Vienna |publisher=[a spese dell' autore] |pages=239 |url=https://archive.org/details/budmani-grammatica-della-lingua-serbo-croata-illirica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Итальянский язык. Грамматика |last=Эспозито |first=Мария Антония |publisher=Астрель |year=2009 |location=Москва |pages=191 |last2=Ресслер |first2=Вольфганг |translator-last=Ганина |translator-first=Н.А.}}</ref> rather than to noun-like gerunds in English<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The English Gerund as a Subject and its Serbo-Croatian Structural Equivalents |journal=The Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian - English Contrastive Project |last=Bibović |first=Ljiljana |volume=7 |pages=4 |publisher=Institute of Linguistics / Center for Applied Linguistics |year=1973 |editor-last=Filipović |editor-first=Rudolf |location=Zagreb / Washington D.C.}}</ref> or Latin.
* In [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], it translates the term {{Lang|bg|деепричастие}} (deepriʧastije). It refers to the verb noun formed by adding the suffix -{{lang|bg|йки}} (''-jki'') to the verb form, like {{lang|bg|ходи}} (''hodi, he/she/it walks'') – {{lang|bg|ходейки}} (''hodejki, while walking'')
* In [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], it refers to the verb noun formed by adding the suffix -{{lang|mk|јќи}} (''-jḱi'') to the verb form, like in јаде (''jade, he eats'') — {{lang|mk|јадејќи}} (''jadejḱi, while eating'').
* In [[Russian language|Russian]], it translates the term {{lang|ru|деепричастие}} (''dejepričastije'') an adverbial participle formed with the suffixes -{{lang|ru|я}} (''-ja)'' Present; -{{lang|ru|в}} (''-v'') or -{{lang|ru|вши}} (''-vši'') Past.<ref>Using Russian: A Guide to Contemporary Usage, By Derek Offord, page xxiii</ref><ref>Oxford Essential Russian Dictionary, OUP Oxford, 13 May 2010, page 46</ref><ref>{{lang|ru|Улучшим наш русский! Часть 1}}, By {{lang|ru|Дел Филлипс, Наталья Волкова}}, page 171</ref>
* In [[Serbo-Croatian]], it was used to refer to what are now classified as participles / verbal adverbs: present (''-ći'') and past (''-vši'', sometimes ''-v''). Modern grammars rarely use the term.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gramatika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga književnog jezika |last=Maretić |first=Tomo |publisher=Matica hrvatska |year=1963 |edition=3rd |location=Zagreb |pages=232}}</ref>
Additionally, some linguists use the term to refer to [[verbal noun]]s, historically formed with the [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/-%D1%8Cje *-ьje] suffix,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Słownik prasłowiański. Tom I (A – B) |publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich / |year=1974 |pages=85 |editor-last=Sławski |editor-first=Franciszek}}</ref> such as Serbo-Croatian {{lang|sh|glȅdānje}} (from {{lang|sh|glȅdati}})<ref>{{Cite book |title=Osnovi morfologije: Prilog gramatici savremenog standardnog jezika |last=Šipka |first=Danko |publisher=Alma |year=2005 |isbn=86-84023-40-4 |location=Beograd |pages=232}}</ref> or Polish {{lang|pl|chodzenie}} (from {{lang|pl|chodzić}}).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar |last=Sadowska |first=Iwona |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-47540-2 |pages=48}}</ref>

===Other===
* In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], it refers to the verb's action noun, known as the masdar form (Arabic: {{lang|ar|المصدر}}). This form ends in a [[Nunation|tanwin]] and is generally the equivalent of the ''-ing'' ending in English.
* In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], it refers either to the verb's action noun, or to the part of the [[infinitive]] following the infinitival prefix (also called the ''infinitival construct'').
* In [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], it practically refers to the [[verbal noun]], formed by appending a suffix. Common suffixes are ''-ás'' (adás, giving), ''-és'' (kérés, asking). 
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], there are three main grammatical structures with gerund-like functions: first, turning verbs into nouns is achieved, depending on the type of verb and other factors, by using either the [[Japanese conjugation#Conjunctive|conjunctive form]] (''-masu'' form)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Makino |first1=Seiichi |title=A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar |last2=Tsutsui |first2=Michio |date=1995 |publisher=The Japan Times |isbn=978-4-7890-0775-7 |edition=50 |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=561–563 |chapter=Main Entries: Vmasu as a Noun }}</ref> or the [[nominalization]] particles ''no'' and ''koto''.  Lastly, the [[Continuous and progressive aspects|continuous and progressive aspect]] of a verb can be realized by employing the [[Japanese conjugation#Perfective|perfective form]] ''(-te'' form) plus the auxiliary verb ''iru''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Makino |first1=Seiichi |title=A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar |last2=Tsutsui |first2=Michio |date=1989 |publisher=The Japan Times |isbn=978-47-89004-54-1 |edition=80 |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=156, 193, 318–320 }}</ref>
* In [[Korean language|Korean]], it refers to the word '것' ('thing') modified by the adjective form of the verb.
* In [[Maldivian language|Maldivian (Dhivehi)]], the gerund is the root form of the verb, for example, {{lang|dv|ނެށުން}} {{Transliteration|dv|neshun}}, meaning "dancing".
* In [[Persian language|Persian]], it refers to the verb's action noun, known as the ism-masdar form (Persian: {{lang|fa|اسم مصدر}}).
* In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], it refers to a large number of verb endings subject to [[vowel harmony]] and sometimes used in conjunction with postpositions. Called ''zarf-fiil'', ''bağ-fiil'', ''ulaç'' or ''gerundium''<ref>Ergin, Muharrem. ''Üniversiteler İçin Türk Dili.'' s. 310. İstanbul: Bayrak Yayım, 2009.</ref> and defined as "a verb used as an adverb in a sentence", the Turkish gerund may also constitute part of an (adverbial) clause.

In other languages, it may refer to almost any non-finite verb form; however, it most often refers to an action noun, by analogy with its use as applied to Latin.

==Gerunds in English==
In traditional grammars of English, the term '''gerund''' labels an important use of the form of the verb ending in ''[[-ing]]'' (for details of its formation and spelling, see [[English verbs]]). Other important uses are termed 
[[participle]] (used adjectivally or adverbially), and as a pure [[verbal noun]].

An ''-ing'' form is termed '''gerund''' when it behaves as a [[verb]] within a [[clause]] (so that it may be modified by an [[adverb]] or have an [[Object (grammar)|object]]); but the resulting clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) functions as a [[noun]] within the larger sentence.

For example, consider the sentence "Eating this cake is easy." Here, the gerund is the verb ''eating'', which takes an object ''this cake''. The entire clause ''eating this cake'' is then used as a noun, which in this case serves as the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of the larger sentence.

An item such as ''eating this cake'' in the foregoing example is an example of a non-finite [[verb phrase]]; however, because phrases of this type do not require a subject, it is also a complete clause. (Traditionally, such an item would be referred to as a [[phrase]], but in modern [[linguistics]] it has become common to call it a clause.) A gerund clause such as this is one of the types of [[non-finite clause]]. The structure may be represented as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!!! Subject !! Verb !! Complement
|-
| STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE || Eating this cake || is || easy
|-
| ||('''no subject''') || '''Verb''' || '''Object'''
|-
|STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE || ||  eating || this cake
|}

===Formation===
Non-finite verb forms ending in ''-in''g, whether termed '''gerund''' or '''participle''' may be marked like finite forms as Continuous or Non-continuous, Perfect or Non-perfect, Active or Passive. Thus, traditional grammars have represented the gerund as having 
four forms {{ndash}} two for the active voice and two for the passive:<ref>F T Wood, 1961, ''Nesfield's English Grammar, Composition and Usage'', MacMillan and Company Ltd., p 78 "</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Active !! Passive
|-
| Present or Continuous||Loving||Being loved
|-
| Perfect|| Having loved||Having been loved 
|}
The same forms are available when the term '''participle''' is used.

===Examples of use <span id="Perfect"></span>===
The following sentences illustrate some uses of gerund clauses, showing how such a clause serves as a noun within the larger sentence. In some cases, the clause consists of just the gerund (although in many such cases the word could equally be analyzed as a pure [[verbal noun]]).
* '''Swimming''' is fun. (gerund as [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] of the sentence)
* I like '''swimming'''. (gerund as [[direct object]])
* I never gave '''swimming''' all that much effort. (gerund as [[indirect object]])
* '''Swimming in the pool''' is one way to relax. (gerund phrase as subject)
* Do you fancy '''swimming in the pool'''? (gerund phrase as direct object)
* After '''swimming in the pool''', he ate his lunch. (gerund phrase as the complement of a [[preposition]])

Using gerunds of the appropriate [[auxiliary verb]]s, one can form gerund clauses that express [[perfect aspect]] and [[passive voice]]:
* '''Being deceived''' can make someone feel angry. (passive)
* '''Having read the book once before''' makes me more prepared. (perfect)
* He is ashamed of '''having been gambling''' all night. ([[perfect progressive]] aspect)

For more detail on when it is appropriate to use a gerund, see [[Gerund#Verb patterns classified as .22gerund.22 use|Verb patterns classified as gerund use]] below, and also {{slink||Uses of English verb forms|Gerund}}.

===Distinction from other uses of the ''-ing'' form===
In traditional grammars, gerunds are distinguished from other uses of a verb's ''-ing'' form: the present participle (which is a [[non-finite verb]] form like the gerund, but is adjectival or adverbial in function), and the pure verbal noun or [[deverbal noun]].

The distinction between gerund and present participles is not recognised in modern reference grammars, since many uses are ambiguous.<ref>Quirk, Raymond, Sidney Greembaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Scartvik, 1985, ''A Comprehensive Grammar of Contemporary English'', Longman, London {{ISBN|0582517346}}, pp 1290-1293</ref><ref>Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K Pullum, 2002, ''The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0521431468}}. pp 1220-1222</ref>

===Roles of "gerund" clauses in a sentence===

Non finite ''-ing'' clauses may have the following roles in a sentence:<ref>Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finnegan, 1999, ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English'', Harlowe, Perason Education Limited. pp 201-202.</ref>
{|
|-
! !! Role !! Example
|-
| A || '''Subject''' || '''''Eating cakes''' is pleasant''.
|-
| B || '''Extraposed subject''' || ''It can be pleasant '''eating cakes'''.''
|-
| C || '''Subject Complement''' || ''What I'm looking forward to is '''eating cakes'''''
|-
| D || '''Direct object''' || ''I can't stop '''eating cakes'''.'' 
|-
| E || '''Prepositional object''' || ''I dreamt of '''eating cakes'''''.
|-
| F || '''Adverbial''' || ''He walks the streets '''eating cakes'''.''
|-
| G || '''Part of noun phrase''' || ''It's a picture of a man '''eating cakes'''.''
|-
| H || '''Part of adjective phrase''' || ''They are all busy '''eating cakes'''.''
|-
| I || '''Complement of preposition''' || ''She takes pleasure in '''eating cakes'''.''
|}

In traditional grammars, the term ''gerund'' is not used for roles '''F, G,''' and '''H'''.

Thus
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|1. ''John suggested '''asking''' Bill.'' 
|-
 ||||||'''Subject''' || || '''Verb''' || ||'''Object'''
|-
| STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE|| || John || || suggested ||||asking Bill || || Role D '''object''' — traditionally '''asking''' is a '''"gerund"'''
|-
| |||||||||||('''no subject''') || '''Verb''' || '''Object'''
|-
|-
|STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE || || || || || || asking || Bill
|-
|<br />
|-
|2. ''I heard John '''asking''' Bill. ''
|-
|| ||||'''Subject''' || || '''Verb''' || ||'''Object'''
|-
| STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE|| || I || ||heard||||John asking Bill || || Role G '''adverbial''' — traditionally '''asking''' is a '''"participle"'''
|-
| |||||||||||'''Subject''' || '''Verb''' || '''Object'''
|-
|STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE || || || || ||John || asking || Bill
|-
|<br />
|-
|3. '''Playing football''' is enjoyable
|-
|||||| '''Subject''' || || '''Verb''' || ||'''Complement'''
|-
| STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE|||| Playing football || ||is|| || enjoyable || || Role A '''subject''' — traditionally '''playing''' is a '''"gerund"'''
|-
| || ('''no subject''') || '''Verb''' || '''Object'''
|-

|STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE || || playing || football
|-
|<br />
|-
|4. ''Her '''playing''' of the Bach fugues was inspiring.''
|-
|| |||| '''Subject''' || || '''Verb''' || ||'''Complement'''
|-
| STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE || || Her playing<br /> of the Bach<br />fugues || || was || || inspiring || || || || 
|-
| ||'''Possessive'''|| '''Head''' || '''Postmodifier'''
|-
|STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASE || Her || playing || of the Bach fugues || || |||| ||Noun phrase, not clause — '''playing''' is a '''verbal noun''' <br />(also termed '''deverbal noun''')
|}

For more details and examples, see [[-ing#Uses|''-ing'': uses]].

==="Gerund" clauses with a specified subject <span id="Geriple"></span>===
In traditional grammars, a grammatical subject has been defined in such a way that it occurs only in finite clauses, where it is liable to "agree" with the "number" of the finite verb form. Nevertheless, non-finite clauses imply a "doer" of the verb, even if that doer is indefinite "someone or something". For example,
* ''We enjoy singing''. (ambiguous: somebody sings, possibly ourselves)
* ''Licking the cream'' was a special treat (somebody licked the cream)
* ''Being awarded the prize is a great honour'' (someone is or may be awarded the prize)

Often the "doer" is clearly signalled
* ''We enjoyed singing yesterday'' (we ourselves sang)
* ''The cat responded by licking the cream'' (the cat licked the cream)
* ''His heart is set on being awarded the prize'' (he hopes he himself will be awarded the prize)
* ''Meg likes eating apricots'' (Meg herself eats apricots)

However, the "doer" may not be indefinite or already expressed in the sentence. Rather it must be overtly specified, typically in a position immediately before the non-finite verb
* ''We enjoyed '''them''' singing''.
* '''''The cat''' licking the cream was not generally appreciated''.
* ''We were delighted at '''Paul''' being awarded the prize.''
The "doer" expression is not the grammatical subject of a finite clause, so objective '''them''' is used rather than subjective '''they'''.

Traditional grammarians may object to the term '''subject''' for these "doers". And [[prescriptive grammar]]ians go further, objecting to the use of forms more appropriate to the subjects (or objects) of finite clauses. The argument is that this results in two noun expressions with no grammatical connection. They prefer to express the "doer" by a [[English possessive|possessive]] form, such as used with ordinary nouns:
* ''We enjoyed '''their''' singing''. (cf. '''''their''' voices'', '''''their''' attempt to sing'')
* '''''The cat's''' licking the cream was not generally appreciated''. (cf. '''''the cat's''' purr'', '''''the cat's''' escape'')
* ''We were delighted at '''Paul's''' being awarded the prize''. (cf. '''''Paul's''' nomination, '''Paul's''' acceptance'')
Nonetheless, the possessive construction with ''-ing'' clauses is very rare in present-day English. Works of fiction show a moderate frequency, but the construction is highly infrequent in other types of text.<ref>Biber et al p. 750</ref>

Prescriptivists do not object when the non-finite clause modifies a noun phrase
* ''I saw '''the cat''' licking the cream.''
The sense of ''the cat'' as notional subject of ''licking'' is disregarded. Rather they see ''the cat'' as exclusively the object of ''I saw'' The modifying phrase ''licking the cream'' is therefore described as a '''participle''' use.

Henry Fowler claims that the use of a non-possessive noun to precede a gerund arose as a result of confusion with the above usage with a participle, and should thus be called '''fused participle'''<ref>H. W. Fowler, ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage]]'', 1926</ref> or '''geriple'''.<ref name="geriple">''Penguin guide to plain English'', Harry Blamires (Penguin Books Ltd., 2000) {{ISBN|978-0-14-051430-8}} pp. 144–146</ref>

It has been argued that if the prescriptive rule is followed, the difference between the two forms may be used to make a slight distinction in meaning:
* The teacher's shouting startled the student. (''shouting'' is a gerund, the shouting startled the student)
* The teacher shouting startled the student. (''shouting'' can be interpreted as a participle, qualifying ''the teacher''; the teacher startled the student by shouting)
* I don't like Jim's drinking wine. (I don't like the drinking)
* I don't like Jim drinking wine. (I don't like Jim when he is drinking wine)

However, Quirk et al. show that the range of senses of ''-ing'' forms with possessive and non-possessive subjects is far more diverse and nuanced:<ref>Quirk et al pp. 1290–1291</ref>
{|
|-
! Sentence !! Meaning
|-
| ''The painting of Brown is as skilful as that of Gainsborough.'' || a. 'Brown's mode of painting'<br />b. 'Brown's action of painting'
|-
| ''Brown's deft painting of his daughter is a delight to watch.'' || 'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints his daughter.'
|-
| ''Brown's deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.'' || a. 'It is a delight to watch Brown's deft action of painting.'<br />b. 'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints.'
|-
| ''I dislike Brown's painting his daughter.'' || a. "I dislike the fact that Brown paints his daughter.'<br />b. 'I dislike the way Brown paints his daughter.'
|-
| ''I dislike Brown painting his daughter.'' || 'I dislike the fact that Brown paints his daughter (when she ought to be at school).'
|-
| ''I watched Brown painting his daughter.'' || a. 'I watched Brown as he painted his daughter.'<br />b. 'I watched the process of Brown('s) painting his daughter.'
|-
| ''Brown deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.'' || a. 'It is a delight to watch Brown's deft action of painting his daughter'<br />b. 'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints his daughter.'
|-
|}
These sentence exemplify a spectrum of senses from more noun-like to more verb-like. At the extremes of the spectrum they place

* at the noun end (where possessive ''Brown's'' unmistakably expresses ownership) :

{|
|-
! Noun phrase !! Meaning
|-
|''some paintings of Brown's'' || a. 'some paintings that Brown owns' <br />b. 'some paintings painted by Brown'
|-
|''Brown's paintings of his daughters'' || a. paintings depicted his daughter and painted by him'<br />b. 'paintings depicting his daughter and painted by somebody else but owned by him'
|-
|}
<br />
* and at the verb end (where ''Brown's'' would clearly be impossible):
{|
|-
! Sentence !! Meaning
|-
| ''Painting his daughter, Brown noticed his hand was shaking.'' || 'while he was painting'
|-
| ''Brown painting his daughter that day, I decided to go for a walk.'' || 'since Brown was painting his daughter'
|-
| ''The man painting the girl is Brown.'' || 'who is painting'
|-
| ''The silently painting man is Brown.'' || 'who is silently painting'
|-
| ''Brown is painting his daughter.'' 
|-
|}

In some cases, particularly with a non-personal subject, the use of the possessive before a gerund may be considered redundant even in quite a formal register. For example, "There is no chance of the snow falling" (rather than the prescriptively correct "There is no chance of the snow's falling").

===Verb patterns classified as "gerund" use===
The term '''gerund''' describes certain uses of ''-ing'' clauses as 'complementation' of individual English verbs, that is to say the choice of class that are allowable after that word.

The principal choices of clauses are
{|
|-
| '''Clause type''' || '''Example''' || '''Subject of clause''' ||'''Possessive''' || '''Passive equivalent'''
|-
| 1. '''finite'''|| ''I remember '''that she came'''''. || overt grammatical subject ''she'' || impossible || '''''That she came''' is remembered.''— more frequent: ''It is remembered '''that she came'''''.
|-
| 2. '''bare infinitive''' || ''I saw '''her come'''.'' || ''her'' acts as object of ''saw'' and subject of ''come'' || impossible || not possible
|-
| 3a. '''''to''-infinitive''' without subject|| ''She remembered '''to come'''''. || notional subject 'understood' as identical to ''she'' || n.a. ||not possible
|-
| 3b. '''''to-''infinitive''' with subject|| ''I reminded '''her to come'''''. || ''her'' acts as object of ''reminded'' and subject of ''to come'' || impossible || ''She was reminded '''to come'''''.
|-
| 4a. '''''-ing''''' without subject || ''I remember '''seeing her''''' come.||notional subject 'understood' as identical to ''I'' || n.a. || rare but possible: '''''Seeing her''' come is remembered''.
|-
| 4b. '''''-ing''''' with subject || ''I remember '''her coming'''''. || ''her'' acts as object of ''remember'' and subject of ''coming'' || possible || rare but possible: '''''Her coming''' is remembered''.
|-
|5a . '''''-ing''''' without subject ||''She kept '''coming'''''. || notional subject 'understood' as identical to ''she'' || n.a. || not possible
|-
|5b. '''''-ing''''' with subject || ''We kept her '''coming'''''.|| ''her'' acts as object of ''kept'' and subject of ''coming'' || impossible || ''She was kept '''coming'''.''
|-
| 6a. '''''-ing''''' without subject || ''She ended up '''coming'''''. || notional subject 'understood' as identical to ''she'' || n.a. || not possible
|-
|6b. '''''-ing''''' without subject || ''She wasted time '''coming'''''.||notional subject 'understood' as identical to ''she'' || n.a. || ''Her time was wasted '''coming'''.''
|}

* The term '''gerund''' is applied to clauses similar to [4a] and [4b].
* In [6a] and [6b] ''coming'' is related to the '''participle''' use as an adverbial.
* in [5a] and [5b] the verbs '''kept''' and '''coming''' refer to the same event. ''Coming'' is related to the '''progressive aspect''' use in ''She is '''coming'''''.
* Verbs such as ''start'' and ''stop'', although similar to verbs like ''keep'',<ref>''Collins COBUILD Grammar Patterns 1: Verbs''. 1996. London. Harper Collins. {{ISBN|0003750620}}. p 61
</ref> are generally classified with verbs like ''remember''. Therefore, ''She started '''coming''''' is termed a '''gerund''' use.
* The proposed test of [[English passive voice|passivisation]] to distinguish gerund use after ''remember'' from participle use after ''keep'' fails with sentences like [5b].
* The proposed test of possible possessive subject successfully distinguishes [4b] (traditional gerund) from [5b] (traditionally participle). 
: The variant * ''We kept '''Jane's coming''''' is not grammatically acceptable.
: The variant ''I remember '''Jane's coming''''' is acceptable — indeed required by prescriptive grammarians

====Verbs followed by "gerund" pattern====

Historically, the ''-ing'' suffix was attached to a limited number of verbs to form abstract nouns, which were used as the object of verbs such as ''like''. The use was extended in various ways: the suffix became attachable to all verbs; the nouns acquired verb-like characteristics; the range of verbs allowed to introduce the form spread by analogy first to other verbs expressing emotion, then by analogy to other semantic groups of verbs associated with abstract noun objects; finally the use spread from verbs taking one-word objects to other semantically related groups verbs.<ref>Los, Bettelou. ''A Historical Syntax of English''. 2015, Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. pp 129-138</ref>

The present-day result of these developments is that the verbs followed by ''-ing'' forms tend to fall into semantic classes. The following groups have been derived from analysis of the most common verbs in the [[COBUILD]] data bank:<ref>COBUILD (1996) pp 83-86</ref>

=====Pattern 4a: ''I remember seeing her come''=====

:'LIKE' AND 'DISLIKE' GROUP
::''adore, appreciate, (cannot|) bear, (not) begrudge, detest, dislike, (cannot) endure, enjoy, hate, like, loathe, love, (not) mind, mind, prefer, relish, resent, (cannot) stand, (cannot) stomach, (not) tolerate, take to''

::''dread, (not) face. fancy, favour, fear, look forward to''

:'CONSIDER' GROUP
::''anticipate, consider, contemplate, debate, envisage, fantasise, imagine, intend, visualise''

:'REMEMBER' GROUP
::''forget, miss, recall, recollect, regret, remember, (cannot) remember''

:'RECOMMEND' GROUP
::''acknowledge, admit, advise, advocate, debate, deny, describe, forbid, mention, prohibit, propose, recommend, report, suggest, urge''
 
:'INVOLVE' GROUP
::''allow, entail, involve, justify, mean, necessitate, permit, preclude, prevent, save''

:'POSTPONE' GROUP
::''defer, delay, postpone, put off''

:'NEED' GROUP
::''deserve, need, require, want''

:'RISK' GROUP
::''chance, risk''

:OTHERS WITH ''-ING'' OBJECT
::''discourage, encourage, endure, mime, practise, get away with, go into. go towards, go without, play at''

=====Pattern 5a: ''She kept coming''=====

In addition, the COBUILD team identifies four groups of verbs followed by ''-ing'' forms that are hard to class as objects. In the '''verb + ''-ing'' object''' construction the action or state expressed by the verb can be separated from the action or state expressed by the ''-ing'' form. In the following groups, the senses are inseparable, jointly expressing a single complex action or state. Some grammarians do not recognise all these patterns as '''gerund''' use.<ref>COBUILD (1996) pp 81–82</ref>
 
:'START' AND 'STOP' GROUP
::''begin, cease, come, commence, continue, finish, get, go, (not) go, keep, quit, resume, start, stop, burst out, carry on, fall about, fall to, give over, give up, go about, go around/round, go on, keep on, leave off, take to''

:'AVOID' GROUP
::''avoid, (not) bother, escape, evade, forbear, omit, (cannot) resist, shun, hold off''

:'TRY' GROUP
::''chance, risk, try''

:'GO RIDING' GROUP
::''come, go''

=====Pattern 4b: ''I remember her coming''=====
Verbs with this pattern do not normally allow the 'subject' of the ''-ing'' clause to be used in an equivalent passive construction such as *''She is remembered '''coming'''''. <br />
The COBUILD Guide analyses ''her '''coming''''' as the single object of ''I remember''.

Many of the verbs that allow pattern 4a (without object) also allow this pattern.

:'LIKE' GROUP (verbs from the above 'LIKE' AND 'DISLIKE', 'DREAD AND LOOK FORWARD TO', 'CONSIDER' and 'REMEMBER' groups)
::''anticipate, envisage, appreciate, (cannot) bear, (not) begrudge, contemplate, dislike, dread, envisage, fear, forget, hate, (will not) have, imagine, like, (not) mind, picture, recall, recollect, remember, (not) remember, resent, see, stand, tolerate, visualise, want, put up with''

:'REPORT' GROUP (subset of the above 'RECOMMEND' GROUP)
::''describe, mention, report''

:'ENTAIL' GROUP (subset of the above 'INVOLVE' GROUP)
::''entail, involve, justify, mean, necessitate''

:'STOP' GROUP (subset of the above 'START' AND 'STOP' GROUP)
::''avoid, preclude, prevent, prohibit, resist, save, stop''

:'RISK' GROUP (identical with above)
::''chance, risk''

=====Pattern 5b: ''We kept her coming''=====
In contrast to Pattern 4b, these verbs allow the 'subject' of the ''-ing'' clauses to be used in an equivalent passive construction such as ''She was kept '''coming'''.'' 
<br />
The COBUILD guide analyses ''her '''coming''''' as a string of two objects of ''We kept'':– (1)''her'' and (2)''coming''.

:'SEE' GROUP
:: ''catch, feel, find, hear, notice, observe, photograph'' (usually passive), ''picture'' (usually passive), ''see, show, watch''

:'BRING' GROUP
::''bring, have, keep, leave, send, set''

=====Pattern 6a: ''She ended up coming''=====
These verbs refer to starting, spending or ending time. <br />
The following ''-ing'' form is an adverbial, traditionally classed as a participle rather than a gerund.

::''die, end up, finish up, hang around, start off, wind up''

=====Pattern 6b: ''She wasted time coming''=====
These verbs also relate to time (and, by extension, money). The object generally expresses this concept. <br />
However, the object of ''busy'' or ''occupy'' must be a [[reflexive pronoun]], e.g., ''She busied '''herself''' coming''. <br />
The following ''-ing'' form is an adverbial, generally classed as a participle rather than a gerund.

:''begin, busy, end, finish, kill, occupy, pass, spend, start, take, waste''

====Verbs followed by either "gerund" or ''to''-infinitive pattern====
Like the ''-ing'' suffix, the ''to''-infinitive spread historically from a narrow original use, a prepositional phrase referring to future time. Like the ''-ing'' form it spread to all English verbs and to form non-finite clauses. Like the ''-ing'' form, it spread by analogy to use with words of similar meaning.

A number of verbs now belong in more than one class in their choice of 'complementation'.

=====Patterns 4a and 3a: ''I remember seeing her come'' and ''She remembered to come''=====

:Verbs in both 'START' AND 'STOP' (''-ing'') GROUP and 'BEGIN' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''begin, cease, come, commence, continue, get, start,'' 
::Also ''go on'' — with different meanings
:::''She went on singing'' — 'She continued singing'
:::''She went on to sing'' — 'Afterwards, she sang'
:::''She went on at me to sing'' — 'She nagged me to sing' (i.e. that I should sing)
::Superficially, ''stop'' appears to be used in the 3a (''to''-infinitive) pattern
:::''She stopped to sing'' — 'She stopped in order to sing'
::However, the phrase ''to sing'' is quite separate and separable
::: ''She stopped for a moment to sing''
::: ''She stopped what she was doing to sing''
:: And the phrase may be used in all manner of sentences
:::''She travelled to Paris to sing''
:::''She abandoned her husband and her children to sing''

:Verbs in both 'DREAD' AND LOOK FORWARD TO' (''-ing'') GROUP and 'HOPE' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''dread, fear''

:Verb in both 'CONSIDER' (''-ing'') GROUP and 'HOPE' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''intend''

:Verb in both 'REMEMBER' (''-ing'') GROUP and 'MANAGE' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''remember'' — with different meanings
:::''I remembered going'' —'I remembered that I had previously gone'
:::''I remembered to go'' —'I remembered that I had to go, so I did go'

:Verbs in both 'NEED' (''-ing'') GROUP and 'NEED' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''deserve, need''

=====Patterns 4a, 4b, 3a and 3b: ''I remember coming'', ''She remembered to come'', ''I remember her coming'' and ''I reminded her to come''=====
:Verbs in both 'LIKE AND DISLIKE' (''-ing'') and WITH OBJECT (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''hate, like, love, prefer''
::Unlike other Pattern 3b verbs, the object is indivisible
:::''He hates his wife to stand out in a crowd'' does not mean ''He hates his wife''
::With ''would'' there is often a difference of meaning
:::''I like living in Ambridge'' — 'I live in Ambridge, and I like it'
:::''I would like to live in Ambridge'' — 'I don't live in Ambridge, but I have a desire to live there in the future'
:::''I would like living in Ambridge'' — 'I don't live in Ambridge, but if I ever did live there, I would enjoy it'
::There is an apparent similarity between
:::''I like boxing'' — 'I box and I enjoy it'
:::''I like boxing'' — 'I watch other people boxing and I enjoy it'
::However, only the former meaning is possible with an extended non-finite clause
:::''I like boxing with an experienced opponent'' — 'I like it when I box with an experienced opponent'

=====Patterns 4a and 3b: ''I remember coming'' and ''I reminded her to come''=====
:Verbs in both 'RECOMMEND' (''-ing'') and 'TELL' or 'NAG' AND 'COAX'(''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::advise, forbid, recommend, urge
::These verbs do not admit ''-ing'' Pattern 4b with a word serving as object of the RECOMMEND verb. However they can be used with a possessive 'subject' of the ''-ing'' form.
:::''I advised leaving'' — 'I advised somebody (unidentified) that we (or the person or people we have in mind) should leave'
:::''I advised him to leave'' — 'I advised him that he should leave' but '''not''' *''I advised him leaving''
:::''I advised his leaving'' — 'I advised somebody (unidentified) that he should leave

:Verbs in both 'CONSIDER' (''-ing'') and 'BELIEVE' or 'EXPECT' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''consider, intend''

=====Patterns 4b and 3b: ''I remember her coming'' and ''I reminded her to come''=====

:Verbs in both the 'SEE ' (''-ing'') and 'OBSERVE' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''hear, see, observe''
::The ''to''-infinitive pattern occurs in passive clauses, e.g., ''She was seen to come.''
::Corresponding active clauses use the bare infinitive pattern, e.g., ''We saw her come.''

:Verbs in both the 'SEE ' (''-ing'') and 'BELIEVE' (''to-''infinitive) GROUPS
::''feel, find, show'' (usually passive)

:Verb in both the 'ENTAIL' subgroup (''-ing'') and the 'EXPECT' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''mean'' — with different meanings
:::''That means her going tomorrow'' — 'In that case she'll go tomorrow'
:::''We mean her to go tomorrow'' — 'We intend that she'll go tomorrow'
:::''She's meant to be here tomorrow'' — 'It is intended that she'll be here tomorrow'
:::''She's meant to be here now'' — 'It was intended that she should be here now, but she isn't'

=====Patterns 5a and 3a: ''She kept coming'' and ''She remembered to come''=====
:Verb in both the 'TRY' (''-ing'') and 'TRY' (''to''-infinitive) GROUPS
::''try'' — with different meanings
:::''She tried leaving'' — 'She left in order to see what might happen (or how she might feel)'
:::''She tried to leave'' — 'She attempted to leave'

====Verbs followed by either "gerund" or bare infinitive pattern====

=====Patterns 4b and 2: ''I remember her coming'' and ''I saw her come''=====
:Verb in both the 'SEE ' (''-ing'') and 'SEE' (bare infinitive) GROUPS
::''feel. hear, notice, see,watch''
::These patterns are sometimes used to express different meanings
:::''I saw him leaving'' — 'I saw him as he was leaving'
:::''I saw him leave'' — 'I saw him as he left'

===Borrowings of English ''-ing'' forms in other languages===
English verb forms ending in ''-ing'' are sometimes borrowed into other languages. In some cases, they become [[pseudo-anglicism]]s, taking on new meanings or uses not found in English. For instance, ''camping'' means "campsite" in many languages, while ''parking'' often means a car park. Both these words are treated as nouns, with none of the features of the gerund in English. For more details and examples, see [[-ing#-ing words in other languages|''-ing'' words in other languages]].

==See also==
* [[Gerundive]]
* [[Infinitive]]
* [[Non-finite verb]]
* [[Participle]]
* [[Verbal noun]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Wikibooks inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}

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