Editing German language

{{Short description|West Germanic language}}
{{Distinguish|Germanic languages|High German languages|Standard German|}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = German
| nativename       = {{lang|de|Deutsch}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|de|dɔʏtʃ||De-Deutsch.ogg}}
| states           = [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], [[Namibia]]
| speakers         = <!-- Do not edit this section before consulting the talk page! Round to the nearest 5M -->[[First language|L1]]: 95 million
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| ref              = <ref>Thomas Marten, Fritz Joachim Sauer (Hrsg.): Länderkunde Deutschland, Österreich und Schweiz (mit Liechtenstein) im Querschnitt. Inform-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-9805843-1-3, S. 7.</ref>
| speakers2        = [[Second language|L2]]: 80–85&nbsp;million (2014)<ref name=eurobarometer />
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[West Germanic]]
| fam4             = [[High German]]
| stand1           = [[Standard German]] ([[German Standard German|German]], [[Swiss Standard German|Swiss]], [[Austrian Standard German|Austrian]])
| script           = {{plainlist|
* Since Old High German: [[Latin script]] ([[German alphabet]])
* [[German Braille]]
* Until the mid-20th century: [[Hebrew alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/moses-mendelssohns-beur-translating-the-torah-in-the-age-of-enlightenment |title=Moses Mendelssohn's Be'ur: Translating the Torah in the Age of Enlightenment – TheTorah.com |website=www.thetorah.com |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129190136/https://www.thetorah.com/article/moses-mendelssohns-beur-translating-the-torah-in-the-age-of-enlightenment |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3471465 |title=Sefer Netivot ha-shalom: ṿe-hu ḥibur kolel ḥamishat ḥumshe ha-torah ʻim tiḳun sofrim ṿe-targum ashkenazi u-veʾur. - 1783. Translated from the Hebrew into German by Moses Mendelssohn. Berlin : Gedruckt bey George Friedrich Starcke |website=digipres.cjh.org |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230148/https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3471465 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3777308 |title=''המאסף ha-Me'asef''. 6644-5571 &#91;1783-1811&#93; &#91;Newspaper in German printed in Hebrew characters&#93;. Königsberg, Prussia. |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231813/https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3777308 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Dostrzegacz_Nadwislanski |title=YIVO &#124; Dostrzegacz Nadwiślański - / Der Beobakhter an der Vayksel. 1823–1824. Warsaw. |website=yivoencyclopedia.org |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828095519/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Dostrzegacz_Nadwislanski |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_derivate_00005400/kleindiss.pdf |title=Birgit Klein. 1998. ''Levi von Bonn alias Löb Kraus und die Juden im Alten Reich. Auf den Spuren eines Verrats mit weitreichenden Folgen'', p. 200. |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230150/https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_derivate_00005400/kleindiss.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| sign             = [[Signed German]]
| nation           = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title = [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|6 countries]]|
|[[Austria]]
|[[Belgium]]
|[[Germany]]
|[[Liechtenstein]]
|[[Luxembourg]]
|[[Switzerland]]
}}
<br />{{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=[[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|1 subdivision]]|
| [[South Tyrol]] ([[Italy]])
}}

|{{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=[[List of countries and territories where German is an official language#International institutions|Various international institutions]]
}}

| minority         = {{Collapsible list<!-- Do not add countries or dependencies without consulting the talk page and citing definite sources! -->| titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title = [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language#Other legal statuses|9 countries]]
|[[Brazil]] [[Brazilian German|(6 municipalities)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lista de línguas cooficiais em municípios brasileiros |url=http://ipol.org.br/lista-de-linguas-cooficiais-em-municipios-brasileiros/ |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=ipol.org.br |publisher=IPOL |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212052326/http://ipol.org.br/lista-de-linguas-cooficiais-em-municipios-brasileiros/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Czech Republic]] <small>(select localities)</small>
|[[Denmark]] <small>([[Syddanmark]])</small>
|[[Hungary]] <small>([[Sopron]])</small>
|[[Namibia]]
|[[Poland]] <small>([[Bilingual communes in Poland|Upper Silesia]])</small>
|[[Romania]] <small>(select localities)</small>
|[[Russia]] <small>([[Azovo German National District]])</small>
|[[Slovakia]] <small>([[Krahule]])</small>}}
| iso1             = de
| iso2b            = ger
| iso2t            = deu
| lc1              = deu
| ld1              = [[Standard German|German]]
| lc2              = gmh
| ld2              = [[Middle High German]]
| lc3              = goh
| ld3              = [[Old High German]]
| lc4              = gct
| ld4              = [[Colonia Tovar German]]
| lc5              = bar
| ld5              = [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]
| lc6              = cim
| ld6              = [[Cimbrian]]
| lc7              = geh
| ld7              = [[Hutterite German]]
| lc8              = ksh
| ld8              = [[Colognian dialect|Kölsch]]
| lc9              = nds
| ld9              = [[Low German]]{{refn|group=note|The status of Low German as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}}}}
| lc10             = sli
| ld10             = [[Silesian German|Lower Silesian]]
| lc11             = ltz
| ld11             = [[Luxembourgish]]{{refn|group=note|The status of Luxembourgish as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.}}
| lc12             = vmf
| ld12             = [[Mainfränkisch]]
| lc13             = mhn
| ld13             = [[Mòcheno]]
| lc14             = pfl
| ld14             = [[Palatine German language|Palatinate German]]
| lc15             = pdc
| ld15             = [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]
| lc16             = pdt
| ld16             = [[Plautdietsch]]{{refn|group=note|The status of Plautdietsch as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}}}}
| lc17             = swg
| ld17             = [[Swabian German]]
| lc18             = gsw
| ld18             = [[Swiss German]]
| lc19             = uln
| ld19             = [[Unserdeutsch]]
| lc20             = sxu
| ld20             = [[Upper Saxon]]
| lc21             = wae
| ld21             = [[Walser German]]
| lc22             = wep
| ld22             = [[Westphalian language|Westphalian]]
| lc23             = hrx
| ld23             = [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]]
| lc24             = yec
| ld24             = [[Yenish language|Yenish]]
| lc25             = yid
| ld25             = [[Yiddish]]
| lingua           = {{blist
 | 52-ACB–dl ([[Standard German]])
 |  52-AC (Continental West Germanic)
 |  52-ACB (Deutsch & Dutch)
 |  52-ACB-d ([[Central German]])
 |  52-ACB-e & -f ([[Upper German|Upper]] and [[Swiss German]])
 |  52-ACB-h ([[German diaspora|Émigré German]] varieties, including 52-ACB-hc ([[Hutterite German]]) & 52-ACB-he ([[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]))
 |  52-ACB-i ([[Yeniche language|Yenish]])
 | Totalling 285 varieties: 52-ACB-daa to 52-ACB-i
}}
| glotto           = stan1295
| map             = Legal status of German in the world.svg
| notice           = IPA
| mapcaption      = {{legend|#ffcc00|Sole official language}}
{{legend|#d98575|Co-official language}}
{{legend|#7373d9|National or recognized minority language}}
{{legend|#30efe3|Minority language}}
| ancestor         = [[Old High German]]
| ancestor2        = [[Middle High German]]
| ancestor3        = [[Early New High German]]
}}

'''German''' ({{lang|de|Deutsch}}, {{IPA|de|dɔʏtʃ|pron|De-Deutsch.ogg}})<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dwds.de/wb/Deutsch |title=Deutsch |website=Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache |date=31 October 2022 |language=de |access-date=March 27, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124115017/https://www.dwds.de/wb/Deutsch |archive-date=November 24, 2023}}</ref> is a [[West Germanic language]] in the [[Indo-European language family]], mainly spoken in [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Central Europe]]. It is the majority and [[Official language|official]] (or co-official) language in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Liechtenstein]]. It is also an official language of [[Luxembourg]], [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|Belgium]] and the Italian autonomous province of [[South Tyrol]], as well as a recognized [[national language]] in [[Namibia]]. There are also notable German-speaking communities in other parts of Europe, including: [[Poland]] ([[Upper Silesia]]), the [[Czech Republic]] ([[North Bohemia]]), [[Denmark]] ([[South Jutland County|North Schleswig]]), [[Slovakia]] ([[Krahule]]), [[Germans of Romania|Romania]], [[Hungary]] ([[Sopron]]), and [[France]] ([[European Collectivity of Alsace|Alsace]]). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in the Americas.

German is one of the [[global language system|major languages of the world]], with nearly 80 million native speakers and over 130 million total speakers as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> It is the most spoken native language within the [[European Union]]. German is the second-most widely spoken [[Germanic language]], after English, both as a [[First language|first]] and as a [[second language]]. German is also widely taught as a [[foreign language]], especially in [[continental Europe]] (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French) and in the United States (where it is the third [[List of most commonly learned second languages in the United States|most commonly learned second language]] in K-12 education and among the most studied foreign languages in higher education after Spanish and French).<ref name=":0">{{cite web |date=February 2011 |title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools |url=http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817144116/http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |archive-date=August 17, 2014 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)}}</ref> Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-15 |title=German is world's fourth most popular language |url=https://www.thelocal.de/20150415/german-is-fourth-most-learnt-language-globally |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=[[The Local]]}}</ref> The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used [[Languages of science|language in science]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Abdumannonovna |first=Akhmedova Dilnoza |date=2022-02-13 |title=GERMAN AS THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES |url=https://scholarexpress.net/index.php/wbss/article/view/522 |access-date=2024-09-02 |journal=World Bulletin of Social Sciences |volume=7 |pages=22–24}}</ref> and the [[Languages used on the Internet|third most widely used language on websites]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-03 |title=Usage statistics of content languages for websites |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=w3techs.com}}</ref> The [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|German-speaking countries]] are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in the world being published in German.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lobachev |first1=Sergey |title=Top languages in global information production |journal=Partnership: The Canadian Journal of Library and Information Practice and Research |date=17 December 2008 |volume=3 |issue=2 |doi=10.21083/partnership.v3i2.826}}</ref>

German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely [[Afrikaans]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], the [[Frisian languages]], and [[Scots language|Scots]]. It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic group]], such as [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. Modern German gradually developed from [[Old High German]], which in turn developed from [[Proto-Germanic]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]].

German is an [[inflected language]], with four [[grammatical case|cases]] for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two [[number (grammar)|numbers]] (singular, plural). It has [[Germanic strong verb|strong and weak verbs]]. The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share is partly derived from [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], along with fewer words borrowed from [[French language|French]] and [[Modern English]]. English, however, is the main source of more recent [[loanword]]s.

German is a [[pluricentric language]]; the three standardized variants are [[German Standard German|German]], [[Austrian German|Austrian]], and [[Swiss Standard German]]. [[Standard German]] is sometimes called ''[[High German]]'', which refers to its regional origin. German is also notable for [[German dialects|its broad spectrum of dialects]], with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chase |first=Jefferson |date=2016-09-25 |title=Preserving endangered German dialects |url=https://www.dw.com/en/linguists-seek-to-preserve-endangered-regional-german-dialects/a-35885772 |access-date=2024-09-02 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=en}}</ref>

Since 2004, [[Meeting of the heads of state of German-speaking countries|heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met]] every year,<ref name="land.lu">{{Cite web |url=https://www.land.lu/page/article/379/9379/DEU/index.html |title=Beim Deutschen Bund in Eupen |first=Lëtzebuerger |last=Land |date=2 September 2016 |website=Lëtzebuerger Land |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221224824/https://www.land.lu/page/article/379/9379/DEU/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Council for German Orthography]] has been the main international body regulating [[German orthography]].

== Classification ==
[[File:Europe germanic-languages 2.PNG|thumb|

'''[[Anglic languages]]'''
{{legend|#FCA503|English}}
{{legend|#FD7B24|[[Scots language|Scots]]}}
'''[[Anglo-Frisian languages]]'''<br/> Anglic and
{{legend|#E9D803|[[Frisian languages|Frisian]] ([[West Frisian language|West]], [[North Frisian language|North]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland]])}}
'''[[North Sea Germanic languages]]''' Anglo-Frisian and
{{legend|#80FF00|[[Low German|Low German/Low Saxon]]}}
'''[[West Germanic languages]]'''<br/> North Sea Germanic and
{{legend|#F0F702|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]; in Africa: [[Afrikaans]]}}
...... German ([[High German|High]]):
{{legend|#00FF00|[[Central German|Central]]; in [[Luxembourg|Lux.]]: [[Luxembourgish]]}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Upper German|Upper]]}}
...... [[Yiddish]]]]

[[Image:Einteilung der Germanen nach Maurer.de.svg|thumb|Maurer's classification of German tribes (German)]]
[[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Germanic languages]] in contemporary Europe]]

German is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] that belongs to the [[West Germanic]] group of the [[Germanic languages]]. The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]], [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]], and [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]. The first of these branches survives in modern [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]], and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], all of which are descended from [[Old Norse]]. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Yiddish]], [[Afrikaans]], and others.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|p=16}}

Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the [[Benrath line|Benrath]] and [[Uerdingen line|Uerdingen]] lines (running through [[Düsseldorf]]-[[Düsseldorf-Benrath|Benrath]] and [[Krefeld]]-[[Uerdingen]], respectively) serve to distinguish the Germanic dialects that were affected by the [[High German consonant shift]] (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as [[High German languages|High German]] dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the [[Low German]] and [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as [[Irminones|Irminonic]], [[Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]], and [[Istvaeones|Istvaeonic]], respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by the Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group).{{sfn|Robinson|1992|p=16}}

[[Standard German]] is based on a combination of [[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]]-[[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]] and Upper Franconian dialects, which are [[Central German]] and Upper German dialects belonging to the [[High German languages|High German]] dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as [[Luxembourgish]] (based on [[Central Franconian dialects]]) and [[Yiddish]]. Also closely related to Standard German are the [[Upper German]] dialects spoken in the southern [[List of territorial entities where German is an official language|German-speaking countries]], such as [[Swiss German]] ([[Alemannic German|Alemannic dialects]]) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French [[Regions of France|region]] of [[Grand Est]], such as [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] (mainly Alemannic, but also Central{{ndash}}and{{nbsp}}[[High Franconian German|Upper Franconian]] dialects) and [[Lorraine Franconian]] (Central Franconian).

After these High German dialects, standard German is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern [[Denmark]]), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are the Frisian languages—[[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] (spoken in [[Nordfriesland (district)|Nordfriesland]]), [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]] (spoken in [[Saterland]]), and [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] (spoken in [[Friesland]])—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both [[Old Norse]] and the [[Norman language]].

== History ==
{{Main|History of German}}

=== Old High German ===
{{Main|Old High German}}

The [[History of German|history of the German language]] begins with the [[High German consonant shift]] during the [[Migration Period]], which separated Old High German dialects from [[Old Saxon]]. This [[Sound change|sound shift]] involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] and voiceless [[stop consonant]]s (''b'', ''d'', ''g'', and ''p'', ''t'', ''k'', respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below.
* Voiceless stops became long ([[Gemination|geminated]]) voiceless [[fricative]]s following a vowel;
* Voiceless stops became [[affricate]]s in word-initial position, or following certain consonants;
* Voiced stops became voiceless in certain phonetic settings.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Voiceless stop<br />following a vowel
!Word-initial<br />voiceless stop
!Voiced stop
|-
|/p/→/ff/
|/p/→/pf/
|/b/→/p/
|-
|/t/→/ss/
|/t/→/ts/
|/d/→/t/
|-
|/k/→/xx/
|/k/→/kx/
|/g/→/k/
|}

[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
{{legend|#ff0000|'''[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#FF8040|'''[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|'''[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]'''}}
{{legend|#ffff00|'''[[w:Old English|Old English]]''' ([[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]])}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]]).}}
{{legend|#0000ff|'''[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]]''' ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]]

While there is written evidence of the [[Old High German]] language in several [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the [[Pforzen buckle]]), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the ''[[Abrogans]]'' (written {{Circa|765–775}}), a Latin-German [[glossary]] supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their [[Latin]] equivalents. After the ''Abrogans'', the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in the ninth century, chief among them being the ''[[Muspilli]]'', [[Merseburg Charms|Merseburg charms]], and ''{{Lang|de|[[Hildebrandslied]]}}'', and other religious texts (the ''[[Georgslied]]'', ''[[Ludwigslied]]'', ''Evangelienbuch'', and translated hymns and prayers).<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}, {{harvnb|Thomas|1992|pp=5–6}}</ref> The ''Muspilli'' is a Christian poem written in a [[Bavarian dialects|Bavarian]] dialect offering an account of the soul after the [[Last Judgment]], and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from the [[Paganism|pagan]] Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the ''{{Lang|de|Hildebrandslied}}'', a secular [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of [[Old Saxon]] and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from the [[Alemanni|Alamanni]], Bavarian, and [[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]] groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ([[Irminones]]), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and [[Austria]] between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}

In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of [[dialect]]al diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through [[Monastery|monasteries]] and [[Scriptorium|scriptoria]] as local translations of Latin originals; as a result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}} At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing.

===Middle High German===
{{Main|Middle High German}}

While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the [[Middle High German]] (MHG) period, it is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350.{{sfn|Waterman|1976|p=83}} This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the [[Elbe]] and [[Saale]] rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into [[Slavs|Slavic]] territory (known as the ''{{Lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]}}''). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature.{{sfn|Waterman|1976|p=83}} <!--The following citation needs to be checked, if this source can be used otherwise. Check me: <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/german.html|title=A Brief History of the German Language|last=Alder|first=Aaron D.|website=linguistics.byu.edu|access-date=13 July 2017}}</ref> --> A clear example of this is the ''{{Lang|de|mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache}}'' employed in the [[Hohenstaufen]] court in [[Swabia]] as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to a greater need for regularity in written conventions.

While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]] of certain vowel sounds: ''{{Lang|goh|hus}}'' (OHG & MHG "house")''→{{Lang|gmh|haus}} (regionally in later MHG)→{{Lang|de|Haus}}'' (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to [[schwa]] [ə]: ''{{Lang|goh|taga}}'' (OHG "days")→''{{Lang|gmh|tage}}'' (MHG)).{{sfn|Salmons|2012|p=195}}

A great wealth of texts survives from the MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the {{lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}}, an [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] telling the story of the [[dragon]]-slayer [[Sigurd|Siegfried]] ({{circa|thirteenth century}}), and the ''[[Iwein]]'', an [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] verse poem by [[Hartmann von Aue]] ({{Circa|1203}}), [[Lyric poetry|lyric poems]], and courtly romances such as ''[[Parzival]]'' and ''[[Tristan]]''. Also noteworthy is the ''{{Lang|de|[[Sachsenspiegel]]}}'', the first book of laws written in [[Middle Low German|Middle ''Low'' German]] ({{Circa|1220}}). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms.

The Middle High German period is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 [[Black Death]] decimated Europe's population.{{sfn|Scherer|Jankowsky|1995|p=11}}

===Early New High German===
{{Main|Early New High German}}
[[File:German dialect continuum in 1900 (according to Wiesinger & König).png|thumb|upright=1.36|left|German language area and major dialectal divisions around [[1900]]<ref>{{harvnb|Goossens|1977|p=48}}, {{harvnb|Wiesinger|1982|pp=807–900}}, {{harvnb|Heeringa|2004|pp=232–34}}, {{harvnb|Giesbers|2008|p=233}}, {{harvnb|König|Paul|2019|p=230}}</ref>]]

Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which [[Wilhelm Scherer]] dates 1350{{ndash}}1650, terminating with the end of the [[Thirty Years' War]].{{sfn|Scherer|Jankowsky|1995|p=11}} This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in the [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire|German states]]. While these states were still part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking [[Principality|principalities]] and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible [[German dialects|regional dialects]] being spoken throughout the German states; the invention of the [[printing press]] {{circa|1440}} and the publication of [[Luther Bible|Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible]] in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language.

The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]] German, one being ''{{Lang|de|gemeine tiutsch}}'', used in the court of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], and the other being ''{{Lang|de|Meißner Deutsch}}'', used in the [[Electorate of Saxony]] in the [[Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg]].{{sfn|Keller|1978|pp=365–68}}

Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages (''{{Lang|de|Druckersprachen}}'') aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible.{{sfn|Bach|1965|p=254}} The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in the written form of German.
[[Image:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Modern High German]] translation of the [[Christian Bible]] by the Protestant reformer [[Martin Luther]] (1534).<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.382 |chapter=Martin Luther, Bible Translation, and the German Language |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |date=2017 |last1=Lobenstein-Reichmann |first1=Anja |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 }}</ref> The widespread popularity of the [[Luther Bible|Bible translated into High German by Luther]] helped establish modern Standard German.<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/>]]
One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible into High German]] (the [[New Testament]] was published in 1522; the [[Old Testament]] was published in parts and completed in 1534).<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> Luther based his translation primarily on the ''{{Lang|de|Meißner Deutsch}}'' of [[Saxony]], spending much time among the population of Saxony researching the dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of [[Gloss (annotation)|glosses]] for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method:{{blockquote|One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in the home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says '{{Lang|la|ex abundantia cordis os loquitur|italic=no}},' I would translate, if I followed the papists, ''{{Lang|de|aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund}}''. But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No, the mother in the home and the plain man would say, ''{{Lang|de|Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über}}''.{{sfn|Super|1893|p=81}}}} [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible into High German]] was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from [[Early New High German]] to modern Standard German.<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the [[History of Germany#Culture and literacy|spread of literacy in early modern Germany]],<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> and promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area.<ref>Birgit Stolt, "Luther's Translation of the Bible." ''[[Lutheran Quarterly]]'' 28.4 (2014): 373–400.</ref> With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy.{{sfn|Dickens|1974|p=134}} Nevertheless, even with the influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century.{{sfn|Scherer|1868|p=?}}

===Habsburg Empire===
[[File:HRR 1648.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of [[Central Europe]] in 1648:
{{legend|#DEB200|Territories under the [[Holy Roman Empire]], comprising the [[Alps|Alpine]] heartland (''[[Erblande]]'') of the [[Habsburg monarchy]].}}]]
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Ethnolinguistic map comprising the territories of [[Austria-Hungary]] (1910), with German-speaking areas shown in red]]

German was the language of commerce and government in the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]], which encompassed a large area of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality.

[[Prague]] ({{langx|de|Prag|links=no}}) and [[Budapest]] ([[Buda]], {{langx|de|Ofen|links=no}}), to name two examples, were gradually [[Germanization|Germanized]] in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. However, Prague had a large German-speaking population since the Middle Ages, as had Pressburg (Pozsony, now Bratislava), which was settled by Germans in the 10th century. Significant portions of Bohemia and Moravia, now part of the [[Czech Republic]], had become German-speaking during [[Ostsiedlung]]. During the Habsburg time, Budapest and cities like [[Zagreb]] ({{langx|de|Agram|links=no}}) or [[Ljubljana]] ({{langx|de|Laibach|links=no}}), contained significant German minorities.

In the eastern provinces of [[Banat]], [[Bukovina]], and [[Transylvania]] ({{langx|de|Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen|links=no}}), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like {{lang|de|Temeschburg}} ([[Timișoara]]), {{lang|de|Hermannstadt}} ([[Sibiu]]), and {{lang|de|Kronstadt}} ([[Brașov]])—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas.{{sfn|Rothaug|1910|p=}}

=== Standardization ===
In 1901, the [[German Orthographic Conference of 1901|Second Orthographic Conference]] ended with a (nearly) complete [[standardization]] of the [[Standard German]] language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition.{{sfn|Nerius|2000|pp=30–54}} Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process.

[[File:Meetings of German-speaking countries, participants.png|thumb|Participants of Meetings of German-speaking countries (2004–present)]]
The {{lang|de|Deutsche Bühnensprache}} ({{lit|German stage language}}) by [[Theodor Siebs]] had established [[Bühnendeutsch|conventions for German pronunciation in theatres]],{{sfn|Siebs|2000|p=20}} three years earlier; however, this was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today{{snd}}especially the pronunciation of the ending {{lang|de|-ig}} as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider [[Standard German phonology|standardization of pronunciation]] was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries.

Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial [[German orthography reform of 1996]] was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries.{{sfn|Upward|1997|pp=22–24, 36}} Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which is understood in all areas where German is spoken.

== Geographical distribution ==
{{anchor|Geographic distribution}}
{{See also|List of countries and territories where German is an official language|German-speaking world}}
{{Pie chart 
|caption = Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide:
|value1=78.3
|label1=Germany
|color1=#282828
|value2=8.4
|label2=Austria
|color2=Yellow
|value3=5.6
|label3=Switzerland
|color3=#FF0000
|value4=3.2
|label4=Brazil
|color4=#008751
|value5=0.4
|label5=Italy (South Tyrol)
|color5=#85C1E9
|value6=4.1
|color6=Grey
|label6=Other
}}

As a result of the [[German diaspora]], as well as the popularity of German taught as a [[foreign language]],<ref name="MLA-2015" /><ref name="eurostat-2024">{{cite web |url = https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Foreign_language_learning_statistics|title = Foreign language learning statistics – Statistics Explained |date = September 2024 |website = ec.europa.eu |access-date = 29 April 2025 |url-status = live }}</ref> the [[geographical distribution of German speakers]] (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents.

However, an exact, global number of native German speakers is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Low German]].{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}} With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90{{ndash}}95 million people speak German as a [[first language]],{{sfn|Lewis|Simons|Fennig|2015|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2020}}{{sfn|Marten|Sauer|2005|p=7}} 10{{ndash}}25{{nbsp}}million speak it as a [[second language]],{{sfn|Lewis|Simons|Fennig|2015|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2020}} and 75{{ndash}}100{{nbsp}}million as a [[foreign language]].<ref name="eurobarometer">{{cite web |url = http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and their languages |type=report |date=June 2012 |publisher= [[European Commission]] |access-date=24 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}</ref> This would imply the existence of approximately 175{{ndash}}220{{nbsp}}million German speakers worldwide.<ref name="Statista">{{cite web |url = http://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/ |title = The most spoken languages worldwide (speakers and native speaker in millions) |publisher = Statista, The Statistics Portal |location = New York City |quote = Native speakers=105, total speakers=185 |access-date = 11 July 2015 |archive-date = 28 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150628162716/http://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

German sociolinguist [[Ulrich Ammon]] estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-20 |title=We speak German |url=https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/the-german-language-surprising-facts-and-figures |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=deutschland.de |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002203206/https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/the-german-language-surprising-facts-and-figures |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Europe ===
[[File:Legal status of German in Europe.svg|thumb|right|
The German language in Europe:
<small>{{legend|#ffcc00|'''German ''[[Sprachraum]]''''': German is the official language (''de jure'' or ''de facto'') and first language of the majority of the population}}
{{legend|#d98575|German is a co-official language but not the first language of the majority of the population}}
{{legend|#7373d9|German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (squares: geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale)}}
{{legend|#30efe3|German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizeable minority but has no legal recognition}}</small>]]
[[File:Languages Austria.svg|thumb|{{legend|#FFD700|Most of [[Austria]] lies in the [[Bavarian dialects|Bavarian]] dialect area; only the very west of the country is}}{{legend|#FF4500|[[Alemannic dialects|Alemannic]]-speaking.}}''Map shows Austria and [[South Tyrol]], Italy.'']]
[[File:Karte Schweizer Sprachgebiete 2017.png|thumb|{{legend|#F7C7B5|([[Swiss German|Swiss]]) German is one of the four national languages of [[Switzerland]].}}]]
[[File:Moselfrankisch.png|thumb|{{legend|#9999FF|[[Luxembourg]] lies in the [[Moselle Franconian]] dialect area.}}]]
[[File:BelgieGemeenschappenkaart.svg|thumb|{{legend|#0000FF|In [[Belgium]], German is spoken in the country's [[German-speaking Community]], in the very east of the country.}}]]

{{as of|2012}}, about 90{{nbsp}}million people, or 16% of the [[European Union]]'s population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language.<ref name=eurobarometer />

====German Sprachraum====
The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language is called the "German ''[[German Sprachraum|Sprachraum]]''". German is the official language of the following countries:
* [[Germany]] 
* [[Austria]] 
* [[German-speaking Switzerland|17 cantons]] of [[Switzerland]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]

As a result of implemenation of the [[Oder–Neisse line]] and ensuing expusion and ethnic cleansing in post-war Poland, the German Sprachraum significantly shrank, as well as by dissolution of the large German-speaking areas in Bohemia and Moravia. Former German-speaking exclaves of [[East Prussia]], the [[Free City of Danzig]] an the [[Memelland]] ceased to exist, while [[Francization]] in Alsace and Lorraine removed use of German in these areas.    

German is a co-official language of the following countries:
* [[Belgium]] (as majority language only in the [[German-speaking Community]], which represents 0.7% of the Belgian population)
* [[Luxembourg]], along with French and Luxembourgish
* Switzerland, co-official at the federal level with French, Italian, and Romansh, and at the local level in four [[List of cantons of Switzerland|cantons]]: [[Canton of Bern|Bern]] (with French), [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]] (with French), [[Canton of Grisons|Grisons]] (with Italian and Romansh) and [[Canton of Valais|Valais]] (with French)
* Italy, (as majority language only in the [[Autonomous Province of South Tyrol]], which represents 0.6% of the Italian population)

====Outside the German Sprachraum====
Although [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsions]] and [[Persecution of Germans|(forced) assimilation]] after the two [[World war]]s greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum.

Within Europe, German is a recognized minority language in the following countries:<ref name="charter-ratifications">{{cite web |author=Bureau des Traités |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=1&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 |title=Recherches sur les traités |website=Conventions.coe.int |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918164438/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=1&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Czech Republic]] (see also: [[Germans in the Czech Republic]])
* [[Denmark]] (see also: [[North Schleswig Germans]])
* [[Hungary]] (see also: [[Germans of Hungary]])
* [[Poland]] (see also [[German minority in Poland]]; German is an [[Bilingual communes in Poland|auxiliary and co-official language in 31 communes]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/list_of_minority_names.pdf |title=Map on page of Polish Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501024600/http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/list_of_minority_names.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Romania]] (see also: [[Germans of Romania]])
* [[Russia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://russia.bestpravo.com/omsk/data04/tex17941.htm |script-title=ru:Устав азовского районного совета от 21 May 2002 N 5-09 устав муниципального |trans-title=Charter of the Azov District Council of 05.21.2002 N 5-09 Charter of the municipal |website=russia.bestpravo.com |language=ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808205416/http://russia.bestpravo.com/omsk/data04/tex17941.htm |archive-date=8 August 2016 |access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref> (see also: [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union|Germans in Russia]])
* [[Slovakia]] (see also: [[Carpathian Germans]])

In France, the [[High German]] varieties of [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] and [[Moselle Franconian]] are identified as "[[regional language]]s", but the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2015/06/05/31003-20150605ARTFIG00157-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-hollande-nourrit-la-guerre-contre-le-francais.php |title=Charte européenne des langues régionales : Hollande nourrit la guerre contre le français |trans-title=European Charter for Regional Languages: Hollande fuels the war against French |website=lefigaro.fr |date=5 June 2015 |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=9 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109035907/http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2015/06/05/31003-20150605ARTFIG00157-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-hollande-nourrit-la-guerre-contre-le-francais.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[Baltic states]] of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]], there are still around 8,000 members of the German minority ([[Baltic Germans]], East Prussians, and [[Russian Germans]]) who speak Standard German and, to some extent, Low German. For Estonia, the number is estimated quite precisely at under 2,000 (in 2000: 1,870), for Latvia at just over 3,000 (in 2004: 3,311), and also for Lithuania at just over 3,000.<ref>gemäß {{Webarchive |url=http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/pages/view/?id=1763&PHPSESSID=756a5976f2c9cff73b1a04144e501d58 |text=stat.gov.lt |archive-is=20120924}} – zur regionalen Verteilung 2001.</ref>

In 2010, 394,000 Germans lived in [[Russia]], some of whom spoke German. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, many Russian Germans immigrated to Germany.

===Africa===
====Namibia====
{{Main|German language in Namibia}}
[[File:WindhoekBaeckereiCarstensen.jpg|thumb|Bilingual German-English sign at a bakery in [[Namibia]], where German is a national language]]
Namibia also was a [[German South-West Africa|colony]] of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as a native tongue today, mostly [[German Namibians|descendants of German colonial settlers]].<ref name="nmh-2007">{{Cite news |last=Fischer |first=Stefan |date=18 August 2007 |title=Deutsch in Namibia |url=http://www.az.com.na/fileadmin/pdf/2007/deutsch_in_namibia_2007_07_18.pdf |language=de |trans-title=German in Namibia |work=Allgemeine Deutsche Zeitung |publisher=[[Namibia Media Holdings]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624233949/http://www.az.com.na/fileadmin/pdf/2007/deutsch_in_namibia_2007_07_18.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008}}</ref> The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based [[pidgin]] language called "[[Namibian Black German]]", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it.{{sfn|Deumert|2003|pp=561–613}}

German remained a ''de facto'' official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and [[Afrikaans]], and had ''de jure'' co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of [[apartheid]] and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time.<ref name="nmh-2007" /> German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country.

Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of the ''Sprachraum'' in Europe.<ref name="nmh-2007" /> German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK)]]), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the [[Namibian Broadcasting Corporation]]). The {{lang|de|[[Allgemeine Zeitung (Namibia)|Allgemeine Zeitung]]}} is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa.<ref name="nmh-2007" />

====Rest of Africa====
An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="L1eur">[[Template:German L1 speakers outside Europe|German L1 speakers outside Europe]]</ref> One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.safrika.org/natal_en.html |title=Natal Germans |last=Schubert |first=Joachim |website=German South African Resource Page |access-date=2 August 2016 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129161855/http://www.safrika.org/natal_en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> a variety of [[Low German]] concentrated in and around [[Wartburg, KwaZulu-Natal|Wartburg]]. The South African constitution identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the [[Pan South African Language Board]] is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#5 |title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions |website=South African Government |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=28 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028043044/http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#5 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Cameroon]] was also a [[Kamerun|colony]] of the [[German Empire]] from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in [[World War I]]. Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become a popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020.<ref>[https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf204/bro_deutsch-als-fremdsprache-weltweit.-datenerhebung-2020.pdf Goethe Insitut - "Deutsch als Fremdsprache weltweit. Datenerhebung 2020"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610081413/https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf204/bro_deutsch-als-fremdsprache-weltweit.-datenerhebung-2020.pdf |date=10 June 2023 }}.</ref> Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bathe |first=Dirk |date=2010-11-29 |title=Deutsch für die Zukunft |trans-title=When German means future |url=https://www.dw.com/de/wenn-deutsch-gleich-zukunft-heißt/a-5070255 |website=DW |language=de-DE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719161346/https://www.dw.com/de/wenn-deutsch-gleich-zukunft-hei%C3%9Ft/a-5070255 |archive-date= Jul 19, 2023 }}</ref>

===North America===
{{Main|German language in the United States|Pennsylvania Dutch language|Plautdietsch|Hutterite German}}
In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]], [[French language in the United States|French]], and [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]] (with figures for [[Cantonese]] and [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] combined), with over 1 million total speakers.<ref name="US Census">{{cite web |title=Detailed List of Languages Spoken at Home for the Population 5 Years and Over by State: 2000 |url=https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t20/tab05.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117052130/https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t20/tab05.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2010 |archive-format=pdf |access-date=15 March 2010 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> In the states of [[North Dakota]] and [[South Dakota]], German is the most common language spoken at home after English.<ref name=Blatt>{{Cite web |title=Tagalog in California, Cherokee in Arkansas: What language does your state speak? |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2014/05/language_map_what_s_the_most_popular_language_in_your_state.html |website=Slate | author = Blatt, Ben |date=13 May 2014 |access-date=2014-05-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513115444/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2014/05/language_map_what_s_the_most_popular_language_in_your_state.html |archive-date=2014-05-13 }}</ref> As a legacy of significant [[German American|German immigration to the country]], German geographical names can be found throughout the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest region]], such as [[New Ulm, Minnesota|New Ulm]] and [[Bismarck, North Dakota|Bismarck]] (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions.<ref>{{cite web |work=Germans from Russia Heritage Collection |title=Strasburg Centennial Book: 1902 - 2002 |url=https://library.ndsu.edu/grhc/order/nd_sd/strasburg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619230113/https://library.ndsu.edu/grhc/order/nd_sd/strasburg.html |archive-date=19 June 2010 |access-date=18 July 2016 |publisher=NDSU Libraries }}</ref>

A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]] and [[Texas German]].

===South America===
{{Main|Brazilian German|Colonia Tovar dialect}}
In Brazil, the largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] developed), [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], and [[Espírito Santo]].<ref name="ipol">{{cite web |title=IPOL realizará formação de recenseadores para o censo linguístico do município de Antônio Carlos-SC |trans-title=IPOL will carry out training of enumerators for the linguistic census of the municipality of Antônio Carlos-SC |url=http://e-ipol.org/ipol-realizara-formacao-de-recenseadores-para-o-censo-linguistico-do-municipio-de-antonio-carlos-sc/ |date=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626140033/http://e-ipol.org/ipol-realizara-formacao-de-recenseadores-para-o-censo-linguistico-do-municipio-de-antonio-carlos-sc/ |archive-date=26 June 2015 |access-date=18 July 2016 |website=IPOL }}</ref>

German dialects (namely [[Hunsrik]] and [[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]]) are recognized languages in the following municipalities in Brazil: 
* [[Espírito Santo]] (statewide cultural language): [[Domingos Martins]], [[Laranja da Terra]], [[Pancas, Espírito Santo|Pancas]], [[Santa Maria de Jetibá]], [[Vila Pavão]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Szczocarz |first=Roma |year=2017 |title=Pommern in Brasilien |trans-title=Pomerania in Brazil |url=https://lerncafe.de/lerncafe68/pommern-in-brasilien/ |access-date=27 July 2017 |website=LernCafe |publisher=ViLE-Netzwerk |archive-date=1 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201172411/https://lerncafe.de/lerncafe68/pommern-in-brasilien/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Rio Grande do Sul]] ([[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German]] is a designated cultural language in the state): [[Santa Maria do Herval]], [[Canguçu]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al.rs.gov.br/legis/M010/M0100099.ASP?Hid_Tipo=TEXTO&Hid_TodasNormas=58094&hTexto=&Hid_IDNorma=58094 |website=al.rs.gov.br |title=Lei N.º 14.061, de 23 de julho de 2012 |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330024221/http://www.al.rs.gov.br/legis/M010/M0100099.ASP?Hid_Tipo=TEXTO&Hid_TodasNormas=58094&hTexto=&Hid_IDNorma=58094 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]: [[Antônio Carlos, Santa Catarina|Antônio Carlos]], [[Pomerode]] (standard German recognized)<ref name=ipol />

In Chile, during the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a [[German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue|massive immigration]] of Germans, Swiss and Austrians. Because of that, two dialects of German emerged, [[Lagunen-deutsch|Lagunen-Deutsch]] and Chiloten-Deutsch.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2021-12-17 |language=es-ES  |title=El alemañol del sur de Chile {{!}} 10.09.2016 |first1=Natalia |last1=Messer |url=https://www.dw.com/es/el-alema%C3%B1ol-del-sur-de-chile/a-19541116 |website=DW |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040903/https://www.dw.com/es/el-alema%C3%B1ol-del-sur-de-chile/a-19541116 |url-status=live }}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Immigrants even founded prosperous cities and towns. The impact of nineteenth century German immigration to southern Chile was such that [[Valdivia]] was for a while a Spanish-German bilingual city with "German signboards and placards alongside the Spanish".<ref>{{Citation
| last1 = Skottsberg
| first1 = Carl
| author-link = Carl Skottsberg
| name-list-style = amp
| title = The Wilds of Patagonia: A Narrative of the Swedish Expedition to Patagonia Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Island in 1907– 1909
| publisher = [[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]]
| location = London, England 
| volume  = 
| edition = 
| year    = 1911
}}</ref> Currently, German and its dialects are spoken in many cities, towns and rural areas of southern Chile, such as [[Valdivia]], [[Osorno, Chile|Osorno]], [[Puerto Montt]], [[Puerto Varas]], [[Frutillar]], [[Nueva Braunau]], [[Castro, Chile|Castro]], [[Ancud]], among many others.

Small concentrations of German-speakers and their descendants are also found in [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Paraguay]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Bolivia]].<ref name="L1eur" />

===Oceania===
In Australia, the state of [[South Australia]] experienced a pronounced wave of Prussian immigration in the 1840s (particularly from [[Silesia]] region). With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with [[Australian English]], a unique dialect known as [[Barossa German]] developed, spoken predominantly in the [[Barossa Valley]] near [[Adelaide]]. Usage of German sharply declined with the advent of [[World War I]], due to the prevailing anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action. It continued to be used as a first language into the 20th century, but its use is now limited to a few older speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-26/keeping-south-australias-barossa-deutsch-alive/8375988 |title=Keeping SA's Barossa Deutsch alive over kaffee und kuchen |date=26 March 2017 |work=ABC News |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en-AU |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109040531/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-26/keeping-south-australias-barossa-deutsch-alive/8375988 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As of the 2013 census, 36,642 people in [[New Zealand]] spoke German, mostly descendants of a small wave of 19th century German immigrants, making it the third most spoken European language after English and French and overall the ninth most spoken language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethniccommunities.govt.nz/resources-2/our-languages-o-tatou-reo/new-registry-page/|title=Top 25 Languages in New Zealand|website=ethniccommunities.govt.nz|access-date=21 September 2022|archive-date=21 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921024207/https://www.ethniccommunities.govt.nz/resources-2/our-languages-o-tatou-reo/new-registry-page/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A German [[German-based creole languages|creole]] named {{lang|de|[[Unserdeutsch]]}} was historically spoken in the former German colony of [[German New Guinea]], modern day [[Papua New Guinea]]. It is at a high risk of extinction, with only about 100 speakers remaining, and a topic of interest among linguists seeking to revive interest in the language.{{sfn|Holm|1989|p=616}}

===As a foreign language===
[[File:German foreign language EU.jpg|thumb|Self-reported knowledge of German as a [[foreign language]] in the EU member states (+[[Turkey]] and [[UK]]), in per cent of the adult population (+15), 2005]]
Like English, French, and Spanish, German has become a standard foreign language throughout the world, especially in the Western World.<ref name="eurobarometer" /><ref name="goethe-institut">{{cite web|url=https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf37/Bro_Deutschlernerhebung_final3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623213857/https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf37/Bro_Deutschlernerhebung_final3.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-23 |url-status=live|title= Deutsch als Fremdsprache weltweit. Datenerhebung 2015 – Worldwide survey of people learning German; conducted by the German Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Goethe Institute|website=Goethe.de|access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref> German ranks second on par with French among the best known foreign languages in the [[European Union]] (EU) after English,<ref name="eurobarometer"/> as well as in [[Russia]],<ref name="Levada2008">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Знание иностранных языков в России |trans-title=Knowledge of foreign languages in Russia |language=ru |url=http://www.levada.ru/16-09-2008/znanie-inostrannykh-yazykov-v-rossii |publisher=Levada Centre |access-date=10 May 2015 |date=16 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510133101/http://www.levada.ru/16-09-2008/znanie-inostrannykh-yazykov-v-rossii |archive-date=10 May 2015}}</ref> and [[Turkey]].<ref name="eurobarometer" /> In terms of student numbers across all levels of education, German ranks third in the EU (after English and French)<ref name="eurostat-2024" /> and in the United States (after Spanish and French).<ref name="MLA-2015"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools: Are Students Prepared for a Global Society? |date=February 2011 |publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408184754/http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In British schools, where learning a foreign language is not mandatory, a dramatic decline in entries for German A-Level has been observed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fox |first=Aine |date=2023-06-01 |title=Exam entries: German continues decline in popularity but computing soars |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/gcse-alevel-spanish-german-alevels-b1085006.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Evening Standard |language=en |archive-date=26 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826091215/https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/gcse-alevel-spanish-german-alevels-b1085006.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, approximately 15.4{{nbsp}}million people were enrolled in learning German across all levels of education worldwide. This number has decreased from a peak of 20.1{{nbsp}}million in 2000.<ref name="DW survey">{{Cite web |last=Hamann |first=Greta |title=15.4 million people are learning German as a foreign language |date=2020-06-04 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/154-million-people-are-learning-german-as-a-foreign-language/a-53685365 |website=DW |language=en-GB |access-date=31 January 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207051223/https://www.dw.com/en/154-million-people-are-learning-german-as-a-foreign-language/a-53685365 |url-status=live }}</ref> Within the EU, not counting countries where it is an official language, German as a foreign language is most popular in [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Northern Europe]], namely the [[Czech Republic]], [[Croatia]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], and [[Serbia]].<ref name=eurobarometer /><ref name=eurostat /> German was once, and to some extent still is, a [[lingua franca]] in those parts of Europe.{{sfn|Von Polenz|1999|pp=192–94, 96}}

===German-language media worldwide===
A visible sign of the geographical extension of the German language is the German-language media outside the German-speaking countries.
German is the second most commonly used scientific language<ref name="goethe1">{{cite web |title=Why Learn German? |url=https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/wdl.html |publisher=Goethe Institute |access-date=28 September 2014 }}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2024}} as well as the third most widely used language on websites after English and Russian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all |title=Usage of content languages for websites|access-date=18 February 2019|publisher= W3Techs: Web Technology Surveys}}</ref>

[[Deutsche Welle]] (German pronunciation: [ˈdɔʏtʃə ˈvɛlə]; "''German Wave''" in German), or '''DW''', is Germany's public international broadcaster. The service is available in 30 languages. DW's satellite television service consists of channels in German, English, Spanish, and Arabic.

See also:
* [[List of newspapers in Germany]] and [[List of German-language newspapers published in the United States]]
* [[List of magazines in Germany]] 
* [[List of television stations in Germany]] and [[List of German-language television channels]]
* [[List of radio stations in Germany]] and [[List of German-language radio stations]]
* [[Goethe-Institut]] [ˈɡøːtə ʔɪnstiˌtuːt] (a non-profit German cultural association operational worldwide with 159 institutes, promoting the study of the German language abroad and encouraging international cultural exchange and relations.)

==Standard German==
{{Main|Standard German}}
[[File:Knowledge of German EU map.svg|thumb|right|Self-reported knowledge of German within the nations of the European Union]]

The basis of Standard German developed with the [[Luther Bible]] and the chancery language spoken by the [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxon court]], part of the regional High German group.{{sfn|Swadesh|1971|p=53}} However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by new vernaculars based on Standard German; that is the case in large stretches of [[Northern Germany]] but also in major cities in other parts of the country. It is important to note, however, that the colloquial Standard German differs from the formal written language, especially in grammar and syntax, in which it has been influenced by dialectal speech.

Standard German differs regionally among German-speaking countries in [[vocabulary]] and some instances of [[pronunciation]] and even [[grammar]] and [[orthography]]. This variation must not be confused with the variation of local [[dialects]]. Even though the national varieties of Standard German are only somewhat influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a [[pluricentric language]], with currently three national standard varieties of German: [[German Standard German]], [[Austrian Standard German]] and [[Swiss Standard German]]. In comparison to other European languages (e.g. Portuguese, English), the multi-standard character of German is still not widely acknowledged.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360951765 |chapter=Who is afraid of pluricentric perspectives? |title=Pluricentric languages and language education: Pedagogical Implications and Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |editor1-last=Callies|editor2-last=Hehner |editor1-first=Marcus|editor2-first= Stefanie |pages=219–220 |language=EN}}</ref> However, 90% of Austrian secondary school teachers of German consider German as having "more than one" standard variety.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=De Cillia|last2=Ransmayr |first1=Rudolf|first2= Jutta |title=Österreichisches Deutsch macht Schule |publisher=Böhlau |year=2019 |location=Vienna |pages=Abbildung 36 |language=DE}}</ref> In this context, some scholars speak of a [[One Standard German Axiom]] that has been maintained as a core assumption of German dialectology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |title=The Pluricentricity Debate |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |location=New York |page=14 |language=EN}}</ref>

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum, e.g. "Umgangssprache" (colloquial standards) from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties depending on the circumstances.

===Varieties===
[[File:Standard varieties of German.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The national and regional standard varieties of German{{sfn|Ammon|Bickel|Ebner|Gasser|2004|p=}}]]

In German [[linguistics]], German [[dialect]]s are distinguished from [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[Standard German]].
The ''varieties of Standard German'' refer to the different local varieties of the [[pluricentric language|pluricentric]] German. They differ mainly in lexicon and phonology, but also smaller grammatical differences. In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany.
* [[German Standard German]]
* [[Austrian Standard German]]
* [[Swiss Standard German]]

In the German-speaking parts of [[Switzerland]], mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of Standard German is largely restricted to the written language. About 11% of the Swiss residents speak Standard German at home, but this is mainly due to German immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.4842942.html |title=Die am häufigsten üblicherweise zu Hause gesprochenen Sprachen der ständigen Wohnbevölkerung ab 15 Jahren – 2012–2014, 2013–2015, 2014–2016 |type=official site |date=28 March 2018 |format=XLS |publisher=Federal Statistical Office FSO |location=Neuchâtel, Switzerland |language=de, fr, it |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119010803/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.4842942.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This situation has been called a ''medial [[diglossia]]''. [[Swiss Standard German]] is used in the Swiss education system, while [[Austrian German]] is officially used in the Austrian education system.

==Dialects==
{{Main|German dialects}}

The German dialects are the traditional local varieties of the language; many of them are not [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with standard German, and they have great differences in [[lexicon]], [[phonology]], and [[syntax]]. If a narrow definition of [[language]] based on mutual intelligibility is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance by [[ISO 639-3]]). However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.

The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into [[High German languages|High German]] and [[Low German]], also called [[Lower Saxony|Low Saxon]]. However, historically, High German dialects and Low Saxon/Low German dialects do not belong to the same language. Nevertheless, in today's Germany, Low Saxon/Low German is often perceived as a dialectal variation of Standard German on a functional level even by many native speakers.

The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with often only neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible. Some dialects are not intelligible to people who know only Standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon.

===Low German===
{{Main|Low German}}
[[File:Verbreitungsgebiet der heutigen niederdeutschen Mundarten-2.PNG|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Low German]] dialects]]
[[Middle Low German]] was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]]. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany until the 16th century. In 1534, the [[Luther Bible]] was published. It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on [[Central German|Central]] and [[Upper German]] varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than [[Low German]] and became the language of science and literature. Around the same time, the Hanseatic League, a confederation of northern ports, lost its importance as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established, and the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.

The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education in [[Standard German]] in schools. Gradually, Low German came to be politically viewed as a mere dialect spoken by the uneducated. The proportion of the population who can understand and speak it has decreased continuously since [[World War II]].

* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: most of the [[Ruhr]] ([[Dortmund]], [[Essen]], [[Bochum]], [[Gelsenkirchen]], [[Hagen]], [[Herne, North Rhine-Westphalia|Herne]], [[Bottrop]], [[Recklinghausen]]), [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hanover]], [[Bielefeld]], [[Münster]], [[Braunschweig]], [[Kiel]], [[Groningen]], [[Lübeck]], [[Rostock]], [[Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia|Hamm]], [[Oldenburg (city)|Oldenburg]], [[Osnabrück]], [[Enschede]], [[Paderborn]], [[Wolfsburg]], [[Göttingen]], [[Bremerhaven]], [[Salzgitter]], [[Gütersloh]], [[Hildesheim]], and historically also [[Berlin]], [[Halle (Saale)]], [[Magdeburg]] and [[Potsdam]].

===Low Franconian===
{{Further|Low Franconian}}
The [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects fall within a linguistic category used to classify a number of historical and contemporary West Germanic varieties most closely related to, and including, the [[Dutch language]]. Consequently, the vast majority of the Low Franconian dialects are spoken outside of the German language area. Low Franconian dialects are spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium, South Africa, Namibia, and Suriname, and along the [[Lower Rhine]] in Germany, in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. The region in Germany encompasses parts of the [[Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region]].

The Low Franconian dialects have three different standard varieties: In the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname, it is Dutch, which is itself a Low Franconian language. In South Africa, it is [[Afrikaans]], which is also categorized as Low Franconian. During the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Early Modern Period]], the Low Franconian dialects now spoken in Germany, used [[Middle Dutch]] or Early Modern Dutch as their [[literary language]] and [[Dachsprache]]. Following a 19th-century change in Prussian language policy, use of Dutch as an official and public language was forbidden; resulting in [[Standard German]] taking its place as the region's official language.<ref>Heinz Eickmans, ''Aspekte einer niederrheinischen Sprachgeschichte'', in: Werner Besch, Anne Betten, Oskar Reichmann, Stefan Sonderegger (eds.), ''Sprachgeschichte: Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache'', 2nd ed., 3. Teilband, (series: HSK 2.3), Walter de Gruyter, 2003, here p. 2636.</ref><ref>Georg Cornelissen: Das Niederländische im preußischen Gelderland und seine Ablösung durch das Deutsche, Rohrscheid, 1986, p. 93.</ref> As a result, these dialects are now considered German dialects from a socio-linguistic point of view.<ref>Jan Goossens: Niederdeutsche Sprache – Versuch einer Definition. In: Jan Goossens (Hrsg.): Niederdeutsch – Sprache und Literatur. Karl Wachholtz, Neumünster, 1973, p. 9–27.</ref>

The Low Franconian dialects in Germany are divided by the [[Uerdingen line]] (north of which the word for "I" is pronounced as "ik" and south of which as "ich") into northern and southern Low Franconian. The northern variants comprise [[Kleverlandish]], which is most similar to Standard Dutch. The other ones are transitional between Low Franconian and [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]], but closer to Low Franconian.
* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]], [[Brussels]],{{efn|in danger of extinction due to the [[Francization of Brussels]]}} [[Gqeberha]], [[Amsterdam]], [[Düsseldorf]]*, [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Antwerp]], [[Duisburg]]*, [[Utrecht]], [[Wuppertal]]*, [[Mönchengladbach]]*, [[Ghent]], [[Bloemfontein]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Paramaribo]], [[Krefeld]]*, [[Almere]], [[Oberhausen]]*, [[Tilburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Mülheim an der Ruhr]]*, [[Arnhem]], [[Haarlem]], [[Amersfoort]], [[Solingen]]*, [[Neuss]]*, [[Breda]], [[Apeldoorn]], [[Zwolle]], [[Zoetermeer]], [[Leiden]], [[Maastricht]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Bruges]], [[Remscheid]]*, [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Delft]], [[Moers]]*, [[Leuven]], [[Willemstad]], and the south of [[Essen]]*.
<nowiki>*</nowiki> <small>city with German as standard language</small>

===High German===
{{Main|High German languages}}
[[File:Mitteldeutsche Mundarten.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Central German]] dialects]]
[[File:Fränkisches Sprachgebiet.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Franconian (linguistics)|Franconian]] dialects<br>(The [[Rhenish fan]])<br>
1. [[Low Franconian]]
{{legend|FFFF00|Northern Low Franconian}}
''[[Uerdingen line|ik–ich line]]''
{{legend|F0E68C|Southern Low Franconian}}
''[[Benrath line|maken–machen line]]''<br>
2. Middle Franconian
{{legend|ADFF2F|[[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]]}}
''Dorp–Dorf line''
{{legend|9ACD32|[[Moselle Franconian]]*}}
{{legend|006400|[[Moselle Franconian|Moselle]]: [[Luxembourgish]]*}}
''[[Sankt Goar line|dat–das line]]''
{{legend|228B22|[[Rhenish Franconian|Rhenish]]: [[Hessian dialects|Hessian]]}}
{{legend|008000|[[Rhenish Franconian|Rhenish]]: [[Palatine German language|Palatine]]*}}
''[[Speyer line|Appel–Apfel line]]''<br>
3. [[High Franconian]]
{{legend|00008B|[[East Franconian]]}}
{{legend|1E90FF|[[South Franconian]]**
<br>*[[Lorraine Franconian]] in France<br>**[[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] in France}}]]
The High German dialects consist of the [[Central German]], [[High Franconian German|High Franconian]] and [[Upper German]] dialects. The High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German. The High German varieties spoken by the [[Ashkenazi Jew]]s have several unique features and are considered as a separate language, [[Yiddish]], written with the [[Hebrew alphabet]].

====Central German====
The [[Central German]] dialects are spoken in Central Germany, from [[Aachen]] in the west to [[Görlitz]] in the east. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German dialects.

=====West Central German=====
The West Central German dialects are the [[Central Franconian dialects]] ([[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] and [[Moselle Franconian dialects|Moselle Franconian]]) and the [[Rhenish Franconian dialects]] ([[Hessian dialects|Hessian]] and [[Palatine German language|Palatine]]). These dialects are considered as
* German in Germany and Belgium
* [[Luxembourgish]] in Luxembourg
* [[Lorraine Franconian]] in [[Moselle (department)|Moselle]], France
* [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] (in a [[Rhenish Franconian]] variant) in [[Alsace bossue]], France
* [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] or [[Kerkrade dialect]] in the Netherlands.
* [[Transylvanian Saxon dialect|Transylvanian Saxon]] in [[Transylvania]], Romania (considered a variant of German)
* [[Banat Swabian dialect|Banat Swabian]] in [[Banat]], Romania (considered a variant of German)
Luxembourgish as well as Transylvanian Saxon and Banat Swabian are based on [[Moselle Franconian]] dialects.

* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Cologne]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Bonn]], [[Mannheim]], [[Wiesbaden]], [[Aachen]], [[Mainz]], [[Kassel]], [[Saarbrücken]], [[Ludwigshafen am Rhein]], [[Leverkusen]], [[Heidelberg]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Offenbach am Main]], [[Luxembourg City]], [[Koblenz]], [[Bergisch Gladbach]], [[Trier]], [[Siegen]], [[Hanau]], [[Kaiserslautern]], the south of [[Düsseldorf]], and in Romania: [[Cluj-Napoca]] (German: Klausenburg),{{efn|moribund}} [[Timișoara]] (Temeschburg),{{efn|moribund}} [[Brașov]] (Kronstadt),{{efn|moribund}} [[Oradea]] (Großwardein),{{efn|moribund}} [[Arad, Romania|Arad]],{{efn|moribund}} [[Sibiu]] (Hermannstadt){{efn|moribund}} and [[Târgu Mureș]] (Neumarkt am Mieresch).{{efn|moribund}}

=====East Central German=====
Further east, the non-[[Franconian (linguistics)|Franconian]], East Central German dialects are spoken ([[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]], [[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]], [[Erzgebirgisch]] (dialect of the [[Ore Mountains]]) and [[East Central German#Nordobersächsisch-Südmärkisch|North Upper Saxon–South Markish]], and earlier, in the then German-speaking parts of [[Silesia]] also [[Silesian German|Silesian]], and in then German southern [[East Prussia]] also [[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]]).

* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Berlin]],{{efn|historically Low German}} [[Leipzig]], [[Dresden]], [[Halle (Saale)]],{{efn|historically Low German}} [[Magdeburg]],{{efn|historically Low German}} [[Erfurt]], [[Potsdam]],{{efn|historically Low German}} [[Chemnitz]] and [[Jena]].

====High Franconian====
[[File:Oberdeutsche Mundarten.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Upper German]] and [[High Franconian German|High Franconian]] (transitional between Central and Upper German)]]
The [[High Franconian German|High Franconian dialects]] are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German. They consist of the [[East Franconian German|East]] and [[South Franconian German|South Franconian]] dialects.

=====East Franconian=====
The [[East Franconian]] dialects are spoken in the region of [[Franconia]]. Franconia consists of the [[Bavaria]]n districts of [[Upper Franconia|Upper]], [[Middle Franconia|Middle]], and [[Lower Franconia]], the region of [[South Thuringia]] (those parts of [[Thuringia]] south of the [[Thuringian Forest]]), and the eastern parts of the region of [[Heilbronn-Franken]] ([[Tauber Franconia]] and Hohenlohe) in northeastern [[Baden-Württemberg]]. East Franconian is also spoken in most parts of [[Saxony|Saxon]] [[Vogtland]] (in the [[Vogtland District]] around [[Plauen]], [[Reichenbach im Vogtland]], [[Auerbach/Vogtl.]], [[Oelsnitz/Vogtl.]] and [[Klingenthal]]). East Franconian is colloquially referred to as "Fränkisch" ([[East Franconian|Franconian]]) in Franconia (including Bavarian Vogtland), and as "Vogtländisch" ([[Vogtlandian]]) in Saxon Vogtland.

* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Nuremberg]], [[Fürth]], [[Würzburg]] and [[Erlangen]].

=====South Franconian=====
[[South Franconian]] is spoken in northern [[Baden-Württemberg]] and in the northeasternmost tip of [[Alsace]] (around [[Wissembourg]]) in France. In Baden-Württemberg, they are considered dialects of German, and in Alsace a South Franconian variant of [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]].

* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Karlsruhe]] and [[Heilbronn]].

====Upper German====
The [[Upper German]] dialects are the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]] dialects in the west and the [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects in the east.

=====Alemannic and Swabian=====
[[File:Andermatt - Schwiizerdütsch (15922347261).jpg|thumb|upright=0.81|[[Swiss German]] restaurant sign in [[Andermatt]]: "Chuchichäschtli", in Standard German "Küchenkästlein"]]
[[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects are spoken in [[Switzerland]] ([[High Alemannic German|High Alemannic]] in the densely populated [[Swiss Plateau]] including [[Zürich]] and [[Bern]], in the south also [[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]], and [[Low Alemannic German|Low Alemannic]] in [[Basel]]), Baden-Württemberg ([[Swabian German|Swabian]] and Low Alemannic, in the southwest also High Alemannic), [[Swabia (Bavaria)|Bavarian Swabia]] (Swabian, in the southwesternmost part also Low Alemannic), [[Vorarlberg]]/Austria (Low, High, and Highest Alemannic), [[Alsace]]/France (Low Alemannic, in the southernmost part also High Alemannic), [[Liechtenstein]] (High and Highest Alemannic), and in the [[Reutte District|district of Reutte]] in [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], Austria (Swabian). The Alemannic dialects are considered
* German in [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Bavarian Swabia]], Germany
* Vorarlbergerisch in [[Vorarlberg]], Austria (considered dialects of German)
* [[Swiss German]] in Switzerland and Liechtenstein
* [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] in [[Alsace]], France
In Germany, the Alemannic dialects are often referred to as Swabian in [[Bavarian Swabia]] and in the historical region of [[Württemberg]], and as Badian in the historical region of [[Baden]].

The southernmost German-speaking municipality is in the Alemannic region: [[Zermatt]] in the [[Canton of Valais]], Switzerland, as is the capital of [[Liechtenstein]]: [[Vaduz]].
* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Stuttgart]], [[Zürich]], [[Augsburg]], [[Strasbourg]] ([[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]]: Strossburi),{{efn|in danger of extinction due to the Francization of Alsace}} [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], [[Basel]], [[Bern]], [[Ulm]], [[Pforzheim]], [[Reutlingen]], [[Winterthur]] and [[Mulhouse]] (Alsatian: Mìlhüsa).{{efn|in danger of extinction due to the Francization of Alsace}}

=====Austro-Bavarian=====
[[File:Austro Bavarian Languages-01.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects]]
The [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects are spoken in [[Austria]] ([[Vienna]], [[Lower Austria|Lower]] and [[Upper Austria]], [[Styria]], [[Carinthia]], [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], [[Burgenland]], and in most parts of [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]), southern and eastern [[Bavaria]] ([[Upper Bavaria|Upper]] and [[Lower Bavaria]] as well as [[Upper Palatinate]]), and [[South Tyrol]]. Austro-Bavarian is also spoken in southwesternmost [[Saxony]]: in the southernmost tip of [[Vogtland]] (in the [[Vogtland District]] around [[Adorf]], [[Bad Brambach]], [[Bad Elster]] and [[Markneukirchen]]), where it is referred to as Vogtländisch ([[Vogtlandian]]), just like the [[East Franconian]] variant that dominates in Vogtland. There is also one single Austro-Bavarian village in Switzerland: [[Samnaun]] in the [[Canton of the Grisons]].

The northernmost Austro-Bavarian village is Breitenfeld (municipality of [[Markneukirchen]], Saxony), the southernmost village is [[Salorno sulla Strada del Vino]] (German: Salurn an der Weinstraße), South Tyrol.
* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in the area: [[Vienna]], [[Munich]], [[Graz]], [[Linz]], [[Regensburg]], [[Salzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Innsbruck]], [[Bolzano]] (German: Bozen) and [[Klagenfurt am Wörthersee]].

==Regiolects==
* [[Berlin German|Berlinian]], the High German regiolect or dialect of [[Berlin]] with Low German substrate
* [[Missingsch]], a Low-German-coloured variety of High German.
* [[Ruhrdeutsch]] (Ruhr German), the High German regiolect of the [[Ruhr area]].

==Grammar==
{{Main|German grammar}}

German is a [[fusional language]] with a moderate degree of [[inflection]], with three [[grammatical gender]]s; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root.

===Noun inflection===
{| class = "wikitable" style = "float: right; text-align: center"
|+ Declension of the [[Standard German]] definite article
|Case
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Masc.|Masculine}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Neu.|Neuter}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Fem.|Feminine}}
! scope = "col" | Plural
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Nominative]]
| style = "background-color: lavender" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: solid solid none solid" |{{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid none none solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid solid none none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Dative]]
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid none solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Genitive]]
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|der}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Accusative]]
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: none solid solid solid" | {{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none solid solid none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|}
{{further|Grammatical gender in German}}
[[German nouns]] inflect by case, gender, and number:
* four [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], and [[dative case|dative]].
* three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender: for instance, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ung}} (-ing), {{lang|de|-schaft}} (-ship), {{lang|de|-keit}} or {{lang|de|heit}} (-hood, -ness) are feminine, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-chen}} or {{lang|de|-lein}} ([[diminutive]] forms) are neuter and nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ismus}} ([[-ism]]) are masculine. Others are more variable, sometimes depending on the region in which the language is spoken. And some endings are not restricted to one gender, for example: {{lang|de|-er}} ([[agent noun|-er]]), such as {{lang|de|Feier}} (feminine), celebration, party; {{lang|de|Arbeiter}} (masculine), labourer; and {{lang|de|Gewitter}} (neuter), thunderstorm.
* two numbers: singular and plural.

This degree of inflection is considerably less than in [[Old High German]] and other old [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek]], and [[Sanskrit]], and it is also somewhat less than, for instance, [[Old English]], modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], or Russian. The three genders have collapsed in the plural. With four cases and three genders plus plural, there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number of the article (not the nouns), but there are only six forms of the [[article (grammar)|definite article]], which together cover all 16 permutations. In nouns, inflection for case is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns only in the genitive and in the dative (only in fixed or archaic expressions), and even this is losing ground to substitutes in informal speech.{{sfn|Barbour|Stevenson|1990|pp=160–3}} Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative, and accusative in the singular. Feminine nouns are not declined in the singular. The plural has an inflection for the dative. In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: {{lang|de|-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e}}.

=== Compounding ===
Like the other Germanic languages, German forms noun [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] in which the first noun modifies the category given by the second: {{lang|de|Hundehütte}} ("dog hut"; specifically: "dog kennel"). Unlike English, whose newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written "open" with separating spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages) nearly always uses the "closed" form without spaces, for example: {{lang|de|Baumhaus}} ("tree house"). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds in theory (see also [[English compounds]]). The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is {{lang|de|[[Rinderkennzeichnungs- und Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz|Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]}}, which, literally translated, is "beef labelling supervision duties assignment law" [from {{lang|de|Rind}} (cattle), {{lang|de|Fleisch}} (meat), {{lang|de|Etikettierung(s)}} (labelling), {{lang|de|Überwachung(s)}} (supervision), {{lang|de|Aufgaben}} (duties), {{lang|de|Übertragung(s)}} (assignment), {{lang|de|Gesetz}} (law)]. However, examples like this are perceived by native speakers as excessively bureaucratic, stylistically awkward, or even satirical. On the other hand, even this compound could be expanded by any native speaker.

===Verb inflection===
{{Main|German verbs}}

The inflection of standard German verbs includes:
* Two main [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] classes: [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] and [[Germanic strong verb|strong]] (as in English). Additionally, there is a third class, known as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines features of both the strong and weak patterns.
* Three [[grammatical person|persons]]: first, second and third.
* Two [[grammatical number|numbers]]: singular and plural.
* Three [[grammatical mood|moods]]: [[realis mood|indicative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (in addition to [[infinitive]]).
* Two [[voice (grammar)|voices]]: active and passive. The passive voice uses auxiliary verbs and is divisible into static and dynamic. Static forms show a constant state and use the verb ''to be'' (sein). Dynamic forms show an action and use the verb ''to become'' (werden).
* Two [[grammatical tense|tenses]] without auxiliary verbs ([[present tense|present]] and [[preterite]]) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary verbs ([[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], [[pluperfect]], [[future tense|future]] and [[future perfect]]).
* The distinction between [[grammatical aspect]]s is rendered by combined use of the subjunctive or preterite marking so the plain indicative voice uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive by itself often conveys reported speech; subjunctive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either reported speech or the conditional state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.
* The distinction between perfect and [[continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] is and has, at every stage of development, been a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but strangely enough it is now rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
* Disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes (''{{Wikt-lang|de|blicken}}'' [to look], ''{{Wikt-lang|de|erblicken}}'' [to see&nbsp;– unrelated form: {{Wikt-lang|de|sehen}}]).

====Verb prefixes====
The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded and sometimes radically changed through the use of a number of prefixes. Some prefixes have a specific meaning; the prefix '''{{lang|de|zer-}}''' refers to destruction, as in {{lang|de|'''zer'''reißen}} (to tear apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''brechen}} (to break apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''schneiden}} (to cut apart). Other prefixes have only the vaguest meaning in themselves; '''{{lang|de|ver-}}''' is found in a number of verbs with a large variety of meanings, as in {{lang|de|'''ver'''suchen}} (to try) from {{lang|de|suchen}} (to seek), {{lang|de|'''ver'''nehmen}} (to interrogate) from {{lang|de|nehmen}} (to take), {{lang|de|'''ver'''teilen}} (to distribute) from {{lang|de|teilen}} (to share), {{lang|de|'''ver'''stehen}} (to understand) from {{lang|de|stehen}} (to stand).

Other examples include the following:
{{lang|de|haften}} (to stick), {{lang|de|'''ver'''haften}} (to detain); {{lang|de|kaufen}} (to buy), {{lang|de|'''ver'''kaufen}} (to sell); {{lang|de|hören}} (to hear), {{lang|de|'''auf'''hören}} (to cease); {{lang|de|fahren}} (to drive), {{lang|de|'''er'''fahren}} (to experience).

Many [[German verbs]] have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function. In [[finite verb]] forms, it is split off and moved to the end of the clause and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle". For example, {{lang|de|mitgehen}}, meaning "to go along", would be split, giving {{lang|de|Gehen Sie mit?}} (Literal: "Go you with?"; Idiomatic: "Are you going along?").

Indeed, several [[parenthetical referencing|parenthetical]] clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement (ankommen = to arrive, er kam an = he arrived, er ist angekommen = he has arrived):
: {{lang|de|Er '''kam''' am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause '''an'''.}}
A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate the point might look like this:
: He "came" on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had time and again been troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on the table, finally home "to".

===Word order===
German word order is generally with the [[V2 word order]] restriction and also with the [[SOV word order]] restriction for subordinate as well as for main [[clause]]s including an [[auxiliary verb]]. As to subordinate clauses, all verb forms occur at the very end. For [[yes–no questions]], exclamations, and wishes, the [[finite verb]] usually has the first position.

German requires a verbal element (main verb, modal verb or auxiliary verb as finite verb) to appear [[V2 word order|second in the sentence]]. The verb is preceded by the [[topic–comment|topic]] of the sentence or an [[adverbial]] of flexible length. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary, these are several possibilities:

: {{lang|de|Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.}} (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal [[subject-verb-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.}} (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.}} (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir der alte Mann gestern.}} (The book gave [to] me the old man yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book; normal order)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab der alte Mann mir das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave the old man [to] me the book; [[verb-subject-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.}} ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for someone else, it was another date))

While the subject typically preceeds the object, the position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object or another argument. In a [[sentence (linguistics)|declarative sentence]] in English, if the subject does not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be misunderstood.

However, German's flexible word order allows one to emphasise specific words:

Normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.

Second variant in normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat sein Büro gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered his office yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: This variant accentuates the time specification and that he carried an umbrella.

Object in front:
:: {{lang|de|Sein Büro betrat der Direktor gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: His office entered the manager yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: The object {{lang|de|Sein Büro}} (his office) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.

Adverb of time in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern betrat der Direktor um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro. (aber heute ohne Schirm)}}
:: Yesterday entered the manager at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office. (but today without umbrella)

Both time expressions in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager with an umbrella in the hand his office.
: The full-time specification {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr}} is highlighted.

Another possibility:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: Both the time specification and the fact he carried an umbrella are accentuated.

Swapped adverbs:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat mit einem Schirm in der Hand gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered with an umbrella in the hand yesterday at 10 o'clock his office.
: The phrase {{lang|de|mit einem Schirm in der Hand}} is highlighted.

Swapped object:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: The time specification and the object {{lang|de|sein Büro}} (his office) are lightly accentuated.

The flexible word order also allows one to use language "tools" (such as [[poetic meter]] and [[figures of speech]]) more freely.

====Auxiliary verbs====
When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present in the main clause, it appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect tense]]. Many word orders are still possible:

:{{lang|de|Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.}} (The old man has [to] me today the book given.)
:{{lang|de|Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.}} ('''''The book''''' has the old man [to] me today given.)
:{{lang|de|Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.}} ('''''Today''''' has the old man [to] me the book given.)

The main verb may appear in first position to put stress on the action itself. The [[auxiliary verb]] is still in second position.

:{{lang|de|Gegeben hat mir der alte Mann das Buch heute.}} ('''''Given''''' has me the old man the book '''today'''.) The bare fact that the book has been given is emphasized, as well as 'today'.

====Modal verbs====
Sentences using [[modal verb]]s as finite verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the English sentence "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" ({{lang|de|Soll er nach Hause gehen?}}). Thus, in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses, the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I do not like to be read to out of up for?"

====Multiple infinitives====
German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end, with the finite verb normally in the final position of the cluster. Given that auxiliaries encode [[future]], [[passive voice|passive]], [[modality (semiotics)|modality]], and the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence can occur. In these constructions, the past participle formed with {{lang|de|ge-}} is often replaced by the infinitive.

: ''{{lang|de|Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossen}}<sub>V</sub> {{lang|de|worden}}<sub>psv</sub> {{lang|de|sein}}<sub>perf</sub> {{lang|de|soll}}<sub>mod</sub>''
: One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be should.
: ("It is suspected that the deserter probably had been shot")
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel hatte machen lassen}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel machen lassen hatte}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
: ("He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made")

The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, but the second one in the last example is unusual.

== Vocabulary ==
Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.{{sfn|Leao|2011|p=25}} However, there is a significant number of loanwords from other languages, in particular [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], and most recently [[English language|English]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~deutsch/Grammatik/Wortbildung/Fremdwoerter.html |title=Foreign Words (Fremdwörter) |website=dartmouth.edu |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223221137/https://www.dartmouth.edu/~deutsch/Grammatik/Wortbildung/Fremdwoerter.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the early 19th century, [[Joachim Heinrich Campe]] estimated that one fifth of the total German vocabulary was of French or Latin origin.<ref>Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature's Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121–130)</ref>

Latin words were already imported into the predecessor of the German language during the [[Roman Empire]] and underwent all the characteristic phonetic changes in German. Their origin is thus no longer recognizable for most speakers (e.g. {{lang|de|Pforte}}, {{lang|de|Tafel}}, {{lang|de|Mauer}}, {{lang|de|Käse}}, {{lang|de|Köln}} from Latin {{lang|la|porta}}, {{lang|la|tabula}}, {{lang|la|murus}}, {{lang|la|caseus}}, {{lang|la|Colonia}}). Borrowing from Latin continued after the fall of the Roman Empire during [[Christianisation]], mediated by the church and monasteries. Another important influx of Latin words can be observed during [[Renaissance humanism]]. In a scholarly context, the borrowings from Latin have continued until today, in the last few decades often indirectly through borrowings from English. During the 15th to 17th centuries, the influence of Italian was great, leading to many Italian loanwords in the fields of architecture, finance and music. The influence of the French language in the 17th to 19th centuries resulted in an even greater import of French words. The English influence was already present in the 19th century, but it did not become dominant until the second half of the 20th century.

Thus, [[Notker Labeo]] translated the Aristotelian treatises into pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.{{sfn|Hattemer|1849|p=5}} The tradition of loan translation revitalized in the 17th and 18th century with poets like [[Philipp von Zesen]] or linguists like [[Joachim Heinrich Campe]], who introduced close to 300 words, which are still used in modern German. Even today, there are movements that promote the substitution of foreign words that are deemed unnecessary with German alternatives.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://vds-ev.de/anglizismenindex |title = Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V. – Der Anglizismen-Index |publisher = Walter Krämer |website=vds-ev.de |access-date = 15 March 2010 |archive-date = 10 March 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100310142212/http://vds-ev.de/anglizismenindex/ |url-status = dead }}</ref>

As in other Germanic languages, there are many pairs of [[synonym]]s due to the enrichment of the Germanic vocabulary with [[loanword]]s from Latin and Latinized Greek. These words often have different connotations from their Germanic counterparts and are usually perceived as more scholarly.
* {{lang|de|Historie, historisch}}&nbsp;– "history, historical", ({{lang|de|Geschichte, geschichtlich}})
* {{lang|de|Humanität, human}}&nbsp;– "humaneness, humane", ({{lang|de|Menschlichkeit, menschlich}}){{NoteTag|{{lang|de|menschlich}}, and occasionally {{lang|de|human}}, may also mean "human, pertaining to humans", whereas {{lang|de|Menschlichkeit}} and {{lang|de|Humanität}} never mean "humanity, human race", which translates to {{lang|de|Menschheit}}.}}
* {{lang|de|Millennium}}&nbsp;– "millennium", ({{lang|de|Jahrtausend}})
* {{lang|de|Perzeption}}&nbsp;– "perception", ({{lang|de|Wahrnehmung}})
* {{lang|de|Vokabular}}&nbsp;– "vocabulary", ({{lang|de|Wortschatz}})
* {{Lang|de|Diktionär}} – "dictionary, wordbook", ({{Lang|de|Wörterbuch}}){{NoteTag|In modern German, {{lang|de|Diktionär}} is mostly considered archaic.}}
* {{Lang|de|probieren}} – "to try", ({{Lang|de|versuchen}})
* {{Lang|de|proponieren}} – "to propose", ({{Lang|de|vorschlagen}})

[[File:German dictionary.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]]'' (1st vol., 1854) by the [[Brothers Grimm]]]]

The size of the vocabulary of German is difficult to estimate. The {{lang|de|[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]]}} (''German Dictionary''), initiated by the [[Brothers Grimm]] ([[Jacob Grimm|Jacob]] and [[Wilhelm Grimm]]) and the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language, already contained over 330,000 headwords in its first edition. The modern German scientific vocabulary is estimated at nine million words and word groups (based on the analysis of 35 million sentences of a [[Text corpus|corpus]] in Leipzig, which as of July 2003 included 500{{nbsp}}million words in total).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/html/inhalt_next.html |title = Ein Hinweis in eigener Sache |website = wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de |date = 7 January 2003 |access-date = 15 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110515064508/http://wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/html/inhalt_next.html |archive-date = 15 May 2011 }}</ref>

==Orthography==
{{Main|German orthography|German braille}}

[[File:Oesterreichische Schulschrift 1995, 2 - Schraegschrift.jpg|right|thumb|Austria's standardized [[cursive]]]]
[[File:Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift.png|thumb|Germany's standardized cursive]]

Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as [[Germanic umlaut|umlauts]] and certain [[German orthography|orthographical]] features, such as the capitalization of all nouns, and the frequent occurrence of long compounds. Because legibility and convenience set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in humorous contexts. (English also can string nouns together, though it usually separates the nouns with spaces: as, for example, "toilet bowl cleaner".)

In German orthography, nouns are capitalized, which makes it easier for readers to determine the function of a word within a sentence. This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxembourgish]] language and several insular dialects of the [[North Frisian language]]), but it was historically common in Northern Europe in the early modern era, including in languages such as Danish which abolished the capitalization of nouns in 1948, and English for a while, into the 1700s.

===Present===
Before the [[German orthography reform of 1996]], ''ß'' replaced ''ss'' after [[vowel length|long vowels]] and [[diphthong]]s and before consonants, word-, or partial-word endings. In reformed spelling, ''ß'' replaces ''ss'' only after long vowels and diphthongs.

Since there is no traditional capital form of ''ß'', it was replaced by ''SS'' (or ''SZ'') when capitalization was required. For example, {{lang|de|Maßband}} (tape measure) became {{lang|de|MASSBAND}} in capitals. An exception was the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names. To avoid confusion with similar names, lower case ''ß'' was sometimes maintained (thus "{{lang|de|KREßLEIN}}" instead of "{{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}"). [[Capital ß]] (ẞ) was ultimately adopted into German orthography in 2017, ending a long orthographic debate (thus "{{lang|de|KREẞLEIN}} and {{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet |website=Quartz |title=Germany has ended a century-long debate over a missing letter in its alphabet|last=Ha|first=Thu-Huong|date=20 July 2017|language=en|access-date=5 December 2017|quote=According to the council's 2017 spelling manual: When writing the uppercase [of ß], write SS. It's also possible to use the uppercase ẞ. Example: Straße – STRASSE – STRAẞE.|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122004645/https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard or other medium used. In the same manner, ß can be transcribed as ss. Some [[operating systems]] use key sequences to extend the set of possible characters to include, amongst other things, umlauts; in [[Microsoft Windows]] this is done using [[Alt codes]]. German readers understand these transcriptions (although they appear unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available, because they are a makeshift and not proper spelling. (In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. ''Raesfeld'' {{IPA|de|ˈraːsfɛlt|}}, ''Coesfeld'' {{IPA|[ˈkoːsfɛlt]}} and ''Itzehoe'' {{IPA|[ɪtsəˈhoː]}}, but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than [[proper noun]]s.)

{{Listen
|filename = German alphabet-2.ogg
|title = German alphabet
|description = (Listen to a German speaker recite the alphabet in German)
}}

There is no general agreement on where letters with umlauts occur in the sorting sequence. Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same word without umlauts. As an example in a [[telephone directory|telephone book]] {{lang|de|Ärzte}} occurs after {{lang|de|Adressenverlage}} but before {{lang|de|Anlagenbauer}} (because Ä is replaced by Ae). In a dictionary {{lang|de|Ärzte}} comes after {{lang|de|Arzt}}, but in some dictionaries {{lang|de|Ärzte}} and all other words starting with ''Ä'' may occur after all words starting with ''A''. In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ''Sch'' and ''St'' are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ''S'', but they are usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.

Written German also typically uses an alternative opening inverted comma ([[quotation mark]]) as in {{lang|de|„Guten Morgen!“}}.

===Past===
[[File:Fraktur-ru.jpg|thumb|A Russian dictionary from 1931, showing the "German alphabet"&nbsp;– the 3rd and 4th columns of each half are [[Fraktur]] and [[Kurrent]] respectively, with the footnote explaining [[typographic ligature|ligatures]] used in Fraktur]]
{{Further|2nd Orthographic Conference (German)|Antiqua–Fraktur dispute|German orthography reform of 1944}}
Until the early 20th century, German was printed in [[blackletter]] [[typeface]]s (in [[Fraktur]], and in [[Schwabacher]]), and written in corresponding [[penmanship|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[sans-serif]] [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and the handwritten forms in particular are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms, however, were claimed by some to be more readable when used for [[Germanic languages]].{{sfn|Reinecke|1910|p=55}} The [[Nazism|Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher because they were considered [[Aryan]], but they abolished them in 1941, claiming that these letters were Jewish.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bormann |first=Martin |date=8 January 1941 |title=Der Bormann-Brief im Original |trans-title=The original Bormann letter |url=http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |access-date=20 November 2020 |publisher=[[Nazi Party|NSDAP]] |language=de |quote=Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum<br /> The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP [[letterhead]] is printed in Fraktur.<br />"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:<br />It is wrong to regard or to describe the so-called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so-called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.<br />Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.<br />The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.<br />On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script. |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111185607/http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It is believed that this script was banned during the Nazi régime,{{who|date=November 2020}} as they realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during [[World War II]].{{sfn|Kapr|1993|p=81}}

The Fraktur script however remains present in everyday life in pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and antiquity.

A proper use of the [[long s]] ({{lang|de|langes s}}), [[long s|ſ]], is essential for writing German text in [[Fraktur]] typefaces. Many [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces also include the long s. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but nowadays it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting. Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words {{lang|de|Wachſtube}} (guard-house) and {{lang|de|Wachstube}} (tube of polish/wax). One can easily decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, ({{lang|de|Wach-ſtube}} vs. {{lang|de|Wachs-tube}}). The long s only appears in [[lower case]].

==Consonant shifts==
{{further|High German consonant shift}}

German does not have any [[dental fricative]]s (the category containing English {{vr|th}}). All of the {{vr|th}} sounds, which the English language still has, disappeared on the continent in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and 10th centuries.<ref>For a history of the changes in German consonants see {{harvp|Cercignani|1979}}.</ref> It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing the English {{vr|th}} with {{vr|d}} in German, e.g. "thank" → {{lang|de|Dank}}, "this" and "that" → {{lang|de|dies}} and {{lang|de|das}}, "[[thou]]" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → {{lang|de|du}}, "think" → {{lang|de|denken}}, "thirsty" → {{lang|de|durstig}}, etc.

Likewise, the {{vr|gh}} in [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an {{vr|f}} or not at all), can often be linked to German {{vr|ch}}, e.g. "to laugh" → {{lang|de|lachen}}, "through" → {{lang|de|durch}}, "high" → {{lang|de|hoch}}, "naught" → {{lang|de|nichts}}, "light" → {{lang|de|leicht}} or {{lang|de|Licht}}, "sight" → {{lang|de|Sicht}}, "daughter" → {{lang|de|Tochter}}, "neighbour" → {{lang|de|Nachbar}}. This is due to the fact that English {{vr|gh}} was historically pronounced in the same way as German {{vr|ch}} (as {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/ç/}} in an allophonic relationship, or potentially as {{IPA|/x/}} in all circumstances as in modern Dutch) with these word pairs originally (up until around the mid to late 16th century) sounding far more similar than they do today.

==Literature==
{{Main|German literature}}

The German language is used in German literature and can be traced back to the [[Middle Ages]], with the most notable authors of the period being [[Walther von der Vogelweide]] and [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]].
The {{lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}}, whose author remains unknown, is also an important work of the epoch. The fairy tales collected and published by [[Brothers Grimm|Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm]] in the 19th century became famous throughout the world.

Reformer and theologian [[Martin Luther]], who translated the Bible into High German (a regional group or German varieties at southern and therefore ''higher'' regions), is widely credited for attributed to the basis for the modern [[Standard German]] language. Among the best-known poets and authors in German are [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Heinrich von Kleist|Kleist]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]], [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]], [[Heinrich Heine|Heine]] and [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]. Fourteen German-speaking people have won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]: [[Theodor Mommsen]], [[Rudolf Christoph Eucken]], [[Paul von Heyse]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Carl Spitteler]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Nelly Sachs]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Heinrich Böll]], [[Elias Canetti]], [[Günter Grass]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]], [[Herta Müller]] and [[Peter Handke]], making it the second most awarded linguistic region (together with French) after English.

{| class="wikitable" style="align:center;"
|-
! [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]<br /><small>(1749–1832)</small>
! [[Friedrich Schiller]]<br /><small>(1759–1805)</small>
! [[Brothers Grimm]]<br /><small>(1785–1863)</small>
! [[Thomas Mann]]<br /><small>(1875–1955)</small>
! [[Hermann Hesse]]<br /><small>(1877–1962)</small>
|- align=center
| [[File:Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein - Goethe in the Roman Campagna - Google Art Project.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Gerhard von Kügelgen 001.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Grimm1.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Thomas Mann 1929.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Hermann Hesse 1927 Photo Gret Widmann.jpg|x150px]]
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Language|Germany|Switzerland|Austria|Luxembourg|Belgium}}
* [[Outline of German language]] 
* [[Denglisch]]
* [[Deutsch (disambiguation)]]
* [[German name#Surnames|German family name etymology]]
* [[German toponymy]]
* [[Germanism (linguistics)]]
* [[German exonyms]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words of French origin]]
* [[List of pseudo-German words in English]]
* [[List of terms used for Germans]]
* [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language]]
* [[Names of Germany]]
* [[DDR German]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Culture of Germany}}
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="eurostat">{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7008563/3-24092015-AP-EN.pdf/bf8be07c-ff9d-406b-88f9-f98f5199fe5a |title=More than 80% of primary school pupils in the EU were studying a foreign language in 2013 |date=24 September 2015 |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=3 May 2016 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411083259/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7008563/3-24092015-AP-EN.pdf/bf8be07c-ff9d-406b-88f9-f98f5199fe5a |url-status=live }}</ref> 
<ref name="MLA-2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227234416/http://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf |archive-date=2015-02-27 |url-status=live |title=Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013 |last1=Goldberg |first1=David |last2=Looney |first2=Dennis |date=1 February 2015 |website=www.mla.org |location=New York City |last3=Lusin |first3=Natalia |access-date=7 July 2015}}</ref>
}}

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* {{cite book |last=Skottsberg |first=Carl |title=The Wilds of Patagonia: A Narrative of the Swedish Expedition to Patagonia Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Island in 1907– 1909 |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]] |year=1911 |location=London, England |author-link=Carl Skottsberg}}
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* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Calvin |title=An Anthology of German Literature |date=1992 |publisher=D. C. Heath and Company |id={{ASIN|1010180266|country=de}}}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Von Polenz |first1=Peter |title=Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart |trans-title=German language history from the late Middle Ages to the present |volume=Band III: 19. und 20. Jahrhundert |series=de Gruyter Studienbuch |date=1999 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin; New York |isbn=978-3-11-016426-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1KF3f-aGR4C |language=de |chapter=6.5. Inter- und übernationale Beziehungen}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wagner |first=Claudio |year=2000 |title=Las áreas de "bocha", "polca" y "murra". Contacto de lenguas en el sur de Chile |journal=Revista de Dialectología y Tradiciones Populares |language=es |trans-title=The "bocha", "polka" and "murra" areas. Language contact in southern Chile |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=185–196 |doi=10.3989/rdtp.2000.v55.i1.432 |s2cid=145209650 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Waterman |first=John |title=A history of the German language: with special reference to the cultural and social forces that shaped the standard literary language |date=1976 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-73807-9 |edition=Rev. |location=Seattle |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgermanl00wate/page/83}}
* {{cite journal |last=Weiss |first=Gerhard |doi=10.2307/3531328 |jstor=3531328 |title=Up-to-Date and with a Past: The "Duden" and its History |journal=Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=1995 |pages=7–12}}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesinger |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRyfwnXjfdUC |title=Dialektologie. Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung |date=1982 |location=Berlin, New York |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-005977-9 |editor-last=Besch |editor-first=Werner |edition=1 |language=de |chapter=Die Einteilung der deutschen Dialekte |trans-chapter=The classification of the German dialects |editor-last2=Wiegand |editor-first2=Herbert Ernst |author-link1=Peter Wiesinger |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129191120/https://books.google.com/books?id=KRyfwnXjfdUC |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|collapsible=true|commons=Category:German language|b=Subject:German language|v=Topic:German Language|n=no|s=y|species=no|voy=German phrasebook|d=Q188|wikt=Category:German language}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=German Language |short=x |noicon=x}}
** [[Mark Twain]], [[s:The Awful German Language|The Awful German Language]], 1880
** [[Carl Schurz]], [[s:The German Mothertongue|The German Mothertongue]], 1897
** {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Germany, Language and Literature of |short=x |noicon=x}}}}
* [https://archive.org/details/VerbreitungDerDeutschenSprache Dissemination of the German language in Europe around 1913 (map, 300 dpi)]

{{Description of German}}
{{Germanic languages}}
{{Languages of Germany}}
{{Languages of Switzerland}}
{{Languages of Austria}}
{{Languages of Belgium}}
{{Languages of Namibia}}
{{Germany topics}}
{{Languages of Europe}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:German language| ]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:High German languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:Languages of Liechtenstein]]
[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Languages of Namibia]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]]
[[Category:Stress-timed languages]]
[[Category:Verb-second languages]]