Editing George Sand

{{short description|French novelist and memoirist (1804–1876)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Expand French|topic=bio}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = George Sand
| image              = George Sand by Nadar, 1864.jpg
| caption            = Portrait by [[Nadar]] (1864)
| birth_name         = Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1804|7|1|df=y}}
| birth_place        = Paris, France
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1876|6|8|1804|7|1|df=y}}
| death_place        = [[Nohant-Vic]], [[Berry, France|Berry]], France
| occupation         = Novelist
| movement           = [[Pastoral#Pastoral literature in general|Pastoralism]]
| parents            =
| mother             = Sophie-Victoire Delaborde
| father             = Maurice Dupin
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Casimir Dudevant]]|1822|1835|end=separated}}
| children           = [[Maurice Sand]]<br />[[Solange Dudevant]]
}}

'''Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin de Francueil'''<ref>Dupin's first Christian name is sometimes rendered as "Amandine".</ref> ({{IPA|fr|amɑ̃tin lysil oʁɔʁ dypɛ̃|lang}}; 1&nbsp;July 1804&nbsp;– 8&nbsp;June 1876), best known by her [[pen name]] '''George Sand''' ({{IPA|fr|ʒɔʁʒ(ə) sɑ̃d|lang}}), was a French novelist, memoirist and journalist.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hart |first1=Kathleen |title=Revolution and Women's Autobiography in Nineteenth-century France |date=2004 |publisher=Rodopi |page=91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Linda M. |title=Germaine de Staël, George Sand, and the Victorian Woman Artist |date=2003 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=48}}</ref> Being more renowned than either [[Victor Hugo]] or [[Honoré de Balzac]] in England in the 1830s and 1840s,<ref name="Thomson 1972">{{cite journal |last1= Thomson |first1= Patricia |date= July 1972 |title= George Sand and English Reviewers: The First Twenty Years |journal=[[Modern Language Review]]|volume= 67 |issue= 3 |pages= 501–516 |doi= 10.2307/3726119 |jstor= 3726119 }}</ref> Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European [[Romantic era]]. She has more than 50 volumes of various works to her credit, including tales, plays and political texts, alongside her 70 novels.

Like her great-grandmother, [[Louise Marie Madeleine Fontaine|Louise Dupin]], whom she admired, George Sand advocated for [[women's rights]] and passion, criticized the [[institution of marriage]], and fought against the prejudices of a conservative society. She was considered scandalous because of her turbulent love life, her adoption of masculine clothing, and her masculine pseudonym.

==Personal life==

===Childhood===
Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin, the future George Sand, was born on 1 July 1804 on Meslay Street in Paris to Maurice Dupin de Francueil and Sophie-Victoire Delaborde. She was the paternal great-granddaughter of the Marshal of France [[Maurice de Saxe]] (1696–1750), and on her mother's side, her grandfather was Antoine Delaborde, master [[Jeu de paume|paumier]] and master birder.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.cbx41.com/ext/http://www.cbx41.com/photo-1326389-Mus-e-de-la-Vie-romantique_6164_jpg.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102043729/http://www.cbx41.com/ext/http://www.cbx41.com/photo-1326389-Mus-e-de-la-Vie-romantique_6164_jpg.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 January 2013 |publisher=CBX41 |title=Musée de la Vie Romantique |place=Paris |type=family tree }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sand|first=George|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/694516159|title=Lelia|date=1982|publisher=Indiana University Press|others=Maria Espinosa|isbn=978-0-253-33318-6|location=Bloomington|oclc=694516159}}</ref> For much of her childhood, she was raised by her grandmother [[Marie-Aurore de Saxe]], Madame Dupin de Francueil, at her [[House of George Sand|grandmother's house]] in the village of [[Nohant]], in the French province of [[Berry, France|Berry]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Sand|title=George Sand {{!}} French novelist|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref> Sand inherited the house in 1821 when her grandmother died, and used the setting in many of her novels.

===Gender presentation===
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2023}}

Sand was one of many notable 19th-century women who chose to [[Cross-dressing|wear male attire]] in public. In 1800, the police chief of Paris issued an order requiring women to apply for a permit in order to wear male clothing. Some women applied for health, occupational, or recreational reasons (e.g., horseback riding),<ref>{{cite web |last=Garber |first=Megan |title=It Just Became Legal for Parisian Women to Wear Pants |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/02/it-just-became-legal-for-parisian-women-to-wear-pants/272836/#:~:text=In%201799%2C%20the%20police%20chief,justification%20for%20exposing%20her%20legs. |website=The Atlantic |access-date=23 November 2022 |language=en |date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |title=Rosa Bonheur's Permission to Wear Pants |url=https://daily.jstor.org/rosa-bonheurs-permission-to-wear-pants/ |website=JSTOR Daily |access-date=23 November 2022 |date=28 May 2022}}</ref> although many women chose to wear [[Trousers as women's clothing|trousers]] and other traditional male attire in public without receiving a permit.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paris women finally allowed to wear trousers |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21329269 |website=BBC News |access-date=23 November 2022 |date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Sand obtained a permit to wear men's clothing in 1831,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Le Parisien |title=Une permission de travestissement pour George Sand |url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leparisien.fr%2Fespace-premium%2Fair-du-temps%2Fune-permission-de-travestissement-pour-george-sand-18-04-2012-1959880.php#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |date=18 April 2012}}</ref> justifying it as being less expensive and far sturdier than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time. In addition to being comfortable, Sand's male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries and gave her increased access to venues that barred women, even those of her social standing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Siegfried|first1=Susan L.|last2=Finkelberg|first2=John|date=3 September 2020|title=Fashion in the Life of George Sand|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1362704X.2020.1794202|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=559–593|doi=10.1080/1362704X.2020.1794202|s2cid=225330185|issn=1362-704X|via=Taylor and Francis Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barry|first=Joseph|title=The Wholeness of George Sand|date=1976|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44627396|journal=Nineteenth-Century French Studies|volume=4|issue=4|pages=469–487|jstor=44627396|issn=0146-7891}}</ref> Also scandalous was Sand's smoking tobacco in public; neither peerage nor gentry had yet sanctioned the free indulgence by women of such a habit, especially in public, although [[Franz Liszt]]'s paramour [[Marie d'Agoult]] affected this as well, smoking large cigars.

While some contemporaries were critical of her comportment, many people accepted her behaviour—until they became shocked with the subversive tone of her novels.<ref name="Thomson 1972" /> Those who found her writing admirable were not bothered by her ambiguous or rebellious public behaviour.

In 1831, at the age of 27, she chose her pseudonym George Sand. "Sand" was derived from the name of her lover and fellow writer Jules Sandeau, as the pair had previously co-authored a novel under the pseudonym J. Sand. She added George to complete the name and distinguish it from Sandeau's, removing the final "s" from the usual French spelling of the name to heighten its ambiguity as a pseudonym.

Victor Hugo commented, "George Sand cannot determine whether she is male or female. I entertain a high regard for all my colleagues, but it is not my place to decide whether she is my sister or my brother."<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gerson|first1=Noel B.|date=3 October 2021|title=George Sand: A Biography of the First Modern, Liberated Woman|page=13|edition=Kindle |publisher=Sapere Books|asin=B09DYKZQ7F}}</ref>

[[File:Portrait of George Sand by Thomas Sully, 1826.jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of George Sand by [[Thomas Sully]], 1826]]

Gender appears to be likewise ambiguous in Sand's own perspective. Sometimes when writing first person memoirs or essays (including letters and journals), Sand's language "speaks to modern explorations of gender ambiguity" in the consistent use of a first-person "male persona" <ref name="Roberts2020">Roberts, Michele (13 March 2020) "La parole humaine: Writing, gender and the shifting reputation of George Sand." [[The Times Literary Supplement|Times Literary Supplement]] (''TLS''), no. 6102. [http://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A632692903/AONE link.gale.com/apps/doc/A632692903/AONE] - via Gale Academic OneFile.</ref> used to describe Sand's own experiences and identity in masculine terms. However, when writing an autobiography of the author's youth, the person described is a girl/woman whose descriptions aligns with her legal designation as "la demoiselle Aurora."<ref name="SandMaVie">{{Cite book|last1=Sand|first1=George|date=1856|title=Histoire de ma vie.|publisher= Paris, M. Lévy|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007570668}}</ref>

Sand's friends and peers likewise alternate between using masculine or female adjectives and pronouns depending on the situation. For instance, in reviewing the collected letters of Sand's lover [[Chopin]],<ref name="ChopinLetters">Chopin, Frédéric and Henryk Opieński (1931). ''Chopin's Letters''. Translated by E. L. Voynich, A.A. Knopf. Archived at: https://archive.org/details/chopinsletters00chop/mode/2up</ref> one finds her consistently addressed as either "Mme Sand" or more familiarly as "George". Either way, she is referred to with feminine pronouns, and positioned as the "Lady of the House" <ref name="ChopinLetters" />{{rp|202}} when referring to their domestic life together. However, when speaking of Sand as a public rather than a private figure, even those who clearly knew (or even referenced) the writer's sex also tended to apply masculine terms when speaking of their role as an author. For instance [[Jules Janin]] describes Sand as the ''king'' of novellists (ie: "le roi des romanciers modernes")<ref name="Roberts2020" /> rather than as the ''queen''. Likewise, [[Flaubert]] refers to Sand as being a dear master of their shared art (ie: "Chère Maitre"), using a masculine title to denote the masculine professional role, but a grammatically feminine adjective that acknowledges their legal or grammatical sex.<ref name="Roberts2020" />

===Notable relationships===
[[File:Casimir Dudevant.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Casimir Dudevant]], Sand's husband, in the 1860s]]

In 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married [[Casimir Dudevant|(François) Casimir Dudevant]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Sand|title=George Sand {{!}} French novelist|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=1 July 2018|language=en}}</ref> an [[Legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate]] son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children: [[Maurice Sand|Maurice]] and [[Solange Dudevant|Solange]] (1828–1899). In 1825, she had an intense but perhaps platonic affair with the young lawyer [[Aurélien de Sèze]].<ref name="Leduc2015">{{citation|last=Leduc|first=Edouard|title=La Dame de Nohant: ou La vie passionnée de George Sand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGK9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|year=2015|publisher=Editions Publibook|isbn=978-2-342-03497-4|pages=30–}}</ref> In early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of "romantic rebellion". In 1835, she was [[legally separated]] from Dudevant and took custody of their children.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/george-sand-review-monstre-sacre-1528489494|title='George Sand' Review: Monstre Sacré|last=Eisler|first=Benita|website=The Wall Street Journal|date=8 June 2018|language=en-US|access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref>

Sand had romantic affairs with the novelist [[Jules Sandeau]] (1831), the Polish-Russian Prince Norbert Przanowski (February 1832 – Summer 1833) the writer [[Prosper Mérimée]], the dramatist [[Alfred de Musset]] (summer 1833 – March 1835), Louis-Chrysostome Michel, the actor [[Bocage (actor)|Pierre-François Bocage]], the writer [[Charles Didier (writer)|Charles Didier]], the novelist [[Félicien Mallefille]], the politician [[Louis Blanc]], and the composer [[Frédéric Chopin]] (1837–1847).{{Sfn|Szulc|1998|pp=160, 165, 194–95}} Later in her life, [[Flaubert's letters|she corresponded]] with [[Gustave Flaubert]], and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference, they eventually became close friends.

Sand was also close friends with the actress [[Marie Dorval]]. Whether they were physically involved or not has been debated, yet never verified.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780679779186&view=excerpt | title = George Sand | first = Belinda | last = Jack | publisher = Random House}}.</ref><ref name="glbtq">{{citation|last=Pettis|first=Ruth M.|title=Dorval, Marie|url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/dorval_m.html|year=2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007174202/http://www.glbtq.com/arts/dorval_m.html|periodical=[[glbtq.com]]|accessdate=19 October 2008|archivedate=7 October 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> The two met in January 1833, after Sand wrote Dorval a letter of appreciation following one of her performances. Sand wrote about Dorval, including many passages where she is described as smitten with Dorval. <blockquote>Only those who know how differently we were made can realize how utterly I was in thrall to her...God had given her the power to express what she felt...She was beautiful, and she was simple. She had never been taught anything, but there was nothing she did not know by instinct. I can find no words with which to describe how cold and incomplete my own nature is. I can express nothing. There must be a sort of paralysis in my brain which prevents what I feel from ever finding a form through which it can achieve communication...When she appeared upon the stage, with her drooping figure, her listless gait, her sad and penetrating glance...I can say only that it was as though I were looking at an embodied spirit.<ref name=":0" /> </blockquote>

Theater critic [[Jean Baptiste Gustave Planche|Gustave Planche]] reportedly warned Sand to stay away from Dorval. Likewise, Count [[Alfred de Vigny]], Dorval's lover from 1831 to 1838, warned the actress to stay away from Sand, whom he referred to as "that damned lesbian".<ref name="glbtq" /> In 1840, Dorval played the lead in a play written by Sand, titled ''Cosima'', and the two women collaborated on the script. However, the play was not well-received, and was cancelled after only seven showings. Sand and Dorval remained close friends for the remainder of Dorval's lifetime.

====Chopin====

Sand spent the winter of 1838–1839 with [[Frédéric Chopin]] in [[Mallorca]] at the (formerly abandoned) [[Carthusian]] monastery of [[Valldemossa]].<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.valldemossa.com/museoin.htm | title = Museoin | publisher = Valldemossa}}.</ref> The trip to Mallorca was described in her ''Un hiver à Majorque'' (''[[A Winter in Majorca]]''), first published in 1841.<ref>Travers, Martin (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=fZFitE0jpv4C&dq=%22a+winter+in+majorca%22+sand&pg=PA97 ''European Literature from Romanticism to Postmodernism: A Reader in Aesthetic Practice''.] Continuum publishing, 2006, p. 97. {{ISBN|978-0826439604}}</ref> Chopin [[Chopin's disease|was already ill]] with incipient tuberculosis at the beginning of their relationship, and spending a cold and wet winter in Mallorca where they could not get proper lodgings exacerbated his symptoms.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Pruszewicz|first1=Marek|title=The mystery of Chopin's death|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29915863|date=22 December 2014|access-date=20 January 2015|work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>[[File:ChopinSandDelacroix.jpg|thumb|Sand sews while Chopin plays piano, in a hypothetical reconstruction of Delacroix's 1838 painting, ''[[Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand]]''.|left]]

Sand and Chopin also spent many long summers at [[House of George Sand|Sand's country manor in Nohant]] from 1839 to 1846, skipping only 1840.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nohant, Indre: Frédéric Chopin and George Sand|url=https://www.francetoday.com/learn/history/nohant_chopin_sand/|access-date=29 January 2022|website=www.google.com|date=16 September 2010}}</ref> There, Chopin wrote many of his most famous works, including the [[Fantaisie in F minor (Chopin)|Fantaisie in F minor, Op. 49]], [[Piano Sonata No. 3 (Chopin)|Piano Sonata No. 3, Op. 58]], and the [[Ballade No. 3 (Chopin)|Ballade No. 3 Op. 47]].

In her novel ''Lucrezia Floriani'', Sand is said to have used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol. He is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers greatly through her affection for Karol.{{Sfn | Szulc | 1998 | p = 326}} Though Sand claimed not to have made a cartoon out of Chopin, the book's publication and widespread readership may have exacerbated their later antipathy towards each other. After Chopin's death, Sand burned much of their correspondence, leaving only four surviving letters between the two.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Belotti|first1=Gastone|last2=Sand|first2=George|last3=Weiss|first3=Piero|date=1966|title=Three Unpublished Letters by George Sand and Their Contribution to Chopin Scholarship|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3085958|journal=The Musical Quarterly|volume=52|issue=3|pages=283–303|doi=10.1093/mq/LII.3.283|jstor=3085958|issn=0027-4631}}</ref> Three of the letters were published in the "Classiques Garnier" series in 1968.<ref name=":1" />[[File:Alexandre Manceau (1817-1865).jpg|thumb|Alexandre Manceau (1817–1865), long time lover of George Sand from 1849 to 1865|217x217px]]

Another breach was caused by Chopin's attitude toward Sand's daughter, Solange.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Katharine Ann|date=1 February 2013|title=The Chopin Affair: George Sand's Rivalry with her Daughter|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08905495.2013.770617|journal=Nineteenth-Century Contexts|volume=35|issue=1|pages=41–64|doi=10.1080/08905495.2013.770617|s2cid=193206245|issn=0890-5495}}</ref> Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after she and her husband [[Auguste Clésinger]] fell out with Sand over money. Sand took Chopin's support of Solange to be extremely disloyal, and confirmation that Chopin had always "loved" Solange.<ref>From the correspondence of Sand and Chopin: {{harvnb|Szulc|1998|p=344}}</ref>

Sand's son Maurice disliked Chopin. Maurice wanted to establish himself as the "man of the estate" and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival. Maurice removed two sentences from a letter Sand wrote to Chopin when he published it because he felt that Sand was too affectionate toward Chopin and Solange.<ref name=":1" />

Chopin and Sand separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frédéric Chopin and George Sand: A Collaborative Union {{!}} The Romantic Piano|url=https://www.wqxr.org/story/291926-frederic-chopin-and-george-sand-a-collaborative-union/|access-date=2 March 2019|website=WQXR|date=9 May 2013 |language=en}}</ref> Chopin was never asked back to Nohant; in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the [[Place Vendôme]] in 1849. George Sand was notably absent from his funeral.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/20/books/chapters/chopins-funeral.html|title=Excerpted from 'Chopin's Funeral'|last=Eisler|first=Benita|date=20 April 2003|work=The New York Times|access-date=1 December 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In December 1849, Maurice invited the [[Engraving|engraver]] Alexandre Manceau to celebrate Christmas in Nohant. George Sand fell passionately in love with Manceau, he became her lover, companion and secretary and they stayed together for fifteen years until his death.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Harlan |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/191935438 |title=George Sand |date=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-13056-0 |location=New Haven |pages=286f., 298 |oclc=191935438}}</ref>

===Last years and death===
George Sand had no choice but to write for the theater because of financial difficulties. In Nohant, she even exercised the functions of village doctor, having studied anatomy and herbal remedies with a Doctor Deschartres. But she was not confined to Nohant, and travelled in France, and in particular with her great friend {{ill|Charles Robin-Duvernet|fr|Charles Duvernet}} at the Château du Petit Coudray, or abroad. In 1864, Sand took residence in [[Palaiseau]] together with her beloved Manceau for a couple of months, where she tended him in his decline.<ref name=":2" />

Sand died at Nohant, near [[Châteauroux]], in France's [[Indre]] ''[[departments of France|département]]'' on 8 June 1876, at the age of 71. She was buried in the private graveyard behind the chapel at [[Nohant-Vic]].<ref>Wilson, Scott. ''Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons'', 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 41516). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition.</ref> In 2003, plans that her remains be moved to the [[Panthéon]] in Paris resulted in controversy.<ref>{{cite news|title=Will George Sand Join the Immortals in the Pantheon?|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1043894595789807544|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=30 January 2003|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ashes to ashes, Sand to sand|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/sep/13/featuresreviews.guardianreview16|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=13 September 2003|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref>

==Career and politics==
Sand's first literary efforts were collaborations with the writer [[Jules Sandeau]]. They published several stories together, signing them Jules Sand. Sand's first published novel ''Rose et Blanche'' (1831) was written in collaboration with Sandeau.<ref>{{Cite web|title=J. Sand : Rose et Blanche|url=http://george.sand.pagesperso-orange.fr/FL62.html|website=george.sand.pagesperso-orange.fr}}</ref> She subsequently adopted, for her first independent novel, ''Indiana'' (1832), the [[pen name]] that made her famous – George Sand.{{Sfn|Bédé|1986|p=218}}[[File:George Sand.jpg|thumb|George Sand by [[Charles Louis Gratia]] ({{circa|1835}})|left|228x228px]]

By the age of 27, Sand was Europe's most popular writer of either gender,<ref name="Eisler 2018">{{cite news |last1=Eisler |first1=Benita |date=8 June 2018 |title='George Sand' Review: Monstre Sacré |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/george-sand-review-monstre-sacre-1528489494 |access-date=6 November 2018 |work=WSJ}}</ref> more popular than both [[Victor Hugo]] and [[Honoré de Balzac]] in England in the 1830s and 1840s,<ref name="Thomson 1972" /> and she remained immensely popular as a writer throughout her lifetime and long after her death. Early in her career, her work was in high demand; by 1836, the first of several compendia of her writings was published in 24 volumes.<ref name="Colloques">{{Cite book | url=https://books.openedition.org/puc/9852?lang=en | isbn=978-2841338023| title=George Sand : Pratiques et imaginaires de l'écriture| pages=381–393| chapter=L'Édition complète des œuvres de George Sand "&nbsp;chaos pour le lecteur&nbsp;" ou essai de poétique éditoriale| publisher=Presses universitaires de Caen| date=30 March 2017| series=Colloques de Cerisy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.culture.leclerc/livre-u/litterature-u/romans-u/litterature-francaise-u/-9782745345370-pr#divdetaille | title=Oeuvres complètes &#124; George Sand &#124; sous la direction de Béatrice Didier &#124; 1836–1837|website=Culture.leclerc}}</ref> In total, four separate editions of her "Complete Works" were published during her lifetime. In 1880, her children sold the rights to her literary estate for 125,000 Francs<ref name="Colloques" /> (equivalent to 36&nbsp;kg worth of gold, or 1.3 million dollars in 2015 USD<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html | title=Historical Currency Converter|website=Historicalstatistics.org}}</ref>).

Drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside, Sand wrote the [[Pastoral Literature|pastoral]] novels ''[[La Mare au Diable]]'' (1846), ''François le Champi'' (1847–1848), ''[[La Petite Fadette]]'' (1849), and ''[[Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Doré]]'' (1857).<ref>{{cite book|last=Kristeva|first=Julia|author-link=Julia Kristeva|title=Proust and the Sense of Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdXxSnKwOXwC&pg=PA35|year=1993|publisher=Columbia UP|isbn=978-0-231-08478-9|page=35}}</ref> ''A Winter in Majorca'' described the period that she and Chopin spent on that island from 1838 to 1839. Her other novels include ''[[Indiana (novel)|Indiana]]'' (1832), ''Lélia'' (1833), ''[[Mauprat (novel)|Mauprat]]'' (1837), ''Le Compagnon du Tour de France'' (1840), ''[[Consuelo (novel)|Consuelo]]'' (1842–1843), and ''Le Meunier d'Angibault'' (1845).

Theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include ''Histoire de ma vie'' (1855), ''Elle et Lui'' (1859, about her affair with Musset), ''Journal Intime'' (posthumously published in 1926), and ''Correspondence''. Sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the Nohant estate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-02-01 |title=Nohant: Visit the Country Home of Author George Sand |url=https://francetoday.com/travel/travel-features/nohant_visit_the_country_home_of_author_george_sand/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=France Today}}</ref>

===Political views===
Sand also wrote [[literary criticism]] and political texts. In her early life, she sided with the poor and working class as well as championing [[women's rights]]. When the [[French Revolution of 1848|1848 Revolution]] began, she was an ardent republican. Sand started her own newspaper, published in a workers' co-operative.{{Sfn | Paintault | Cerf | 2004}}

Politically, she became very active after 1841 and the leaders of the day often consulted with her and took her advice. She was a member of the provisional government of 1848, issuing a series of fiery manifestos. While many Republicans were imprisoned or went to exile after Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's coup d'état of December 1851, she remained in France, maintained an ambiguous relationship with the new regime, and negotiated pardons and reduced sentences for her friends.<ref name="Eisler 2018" />

Sand was known for her implication and writings during the [[Paris Commune]] of 1871, where she took a position for the Versailles assembly against the [[communards]], urging them to take violent action against the rebels.<ref>{{Citation|last=Guillemin|first=Henri|title=Les archives de la RTS|url=https://www.rts.ch/archives/dossiers/henri-guillemin/3477764-la-commune-de-paris.html|contribution=La Commune de Paris|place=Switzerland|publisher=RTS|date=13 August 2009}}</ref> She was appalled by the violence of the Paris Commune, writing, "The horrible adventure continues. They ransom, they threaten, they arrest, they judge. They have taken over all the city halls, all the public establishments, they're pillaging the munitions and the food supplies."<ref>{{harvnb|Sand}}, edited by Pivot, Sylvain (2003)</ref>

==Criticism==
{{Quote box
 |quote=George Sand was an idea. She has a unique place in our age.<br />Others are great men ... she was a great woman.
 |author=[[Victor Hugo]]
 |source=''Les funérailles de George Sand''<ref>{{cite book |title=Saturday Review |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYZNeU6DiQAC&pg=PA771 |year=1876 |publisher=Saturday Review |pages=771ff}}</ref>
 |quoted=1
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}}

Sand's writing was immensely popular during her lifetime and she was highly respected by the literary and cultural elite in France. [[Victor Hugo]], in the eulogy he gave at her funeral, said "the [[lyre]] was within her."<ref name="LiviaHall1997">{{cite book |author1=Anna Livia |author2=Kira Hall |title=Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender, and Sexuality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1G_dVlJ2KhcC&pg=PA157 |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535577-2 |pages=157ff}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=In this country whose law is to complete the French Revolution and begin that of the equality of the sexes, being a part of the equality of men, a great woman was needed. It was necessary to prove that a woman could have all the manly gifts without losing any of her angelic qualities, be strong without ceasing to be tender ... George Sand proved it. |author=[[Victor Hugo]] |title=Les funérailles de George Sand |<ref>{{cite book|title=Saturday Review0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYZNeU6DiQAC&pg=PA771 |year=1876 |publisher=Saturday Review |pages=771ff}}</ref>}}

[[Eugène Delacroix]] was a close friend and respected her literary gifts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436177 |title=George Sand's Garden at Nohant |access-date=25 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025225511/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436177 |archive-date=25 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Gustave Flaubert|Flaubert]] was an unabashed admirer.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jack |first1=Belinda |title=George Sand |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/j/jack-sand.html |website=archive.nytimes.com |access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> [[Honoré de Balzac]], who knew Sand personally, once said that if someone thought she wrote badly, it was because their own standards of criticism were inadequate. He also noted that her treatment of imagery in her works showed that her writing had an exceptional subtlety, having the ability to "virtually put the image in the word."<ref>{{cite book |last=Pasco |first=Allan H. |chapter=George Sand |page=161 |language=fr |title=Nouvelles Françaises du Dix-Neuviéme Siécle: Anthologie |year=2006 |publisher=Rookwood Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.authorama.com/famous-affinities-of-history-iv-6.html |series=Famous Affinities of History |title=The Story of George Sand |author=Orr, Lyndon}}</ref> [[Alfred de Vigny]] referred to her as "[[Sappho]]".<ref name="LiviaHall1997" />

Not all of her contemporaries admired her or her writing: poet [[Charles Baudelaire]] was one contemporary critic of George Sand:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3637877/The-riddle-of-Miss-Sand.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3637877/The-riddle-of-Miss-Sand.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=The riddle of Miss Sand |date=21 February 2005 |last1=Robb |first1=Graham}}{{cbignore}}</ref> "She is stupid, heavy and garrulous. Her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women ... The fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation."<ref name=Baudelaire>{{cite book |last=Baudelaire |first=Charles |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Quennell |title=My Heart Laid Bare |publisher=Haskell House |year=1975 |page=[https://archive.org/details/myheartlaidbareo0000baud/page/184 184] |isbn=978-0-8383-1870-6 |translator=Norman Cameron |url=https://archive.org/details/myheartlaidbareo0000baud/page/184 }}</ref>

==Influences on literature==
[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] "read widely in the numerous novels of George Sand" and translated her ''La dernière Aldini'' in 1844, only to learn that it had already been published in Russian.<ref>Joseph Frank, ''Dostoevsky: A Writer in His Time''. Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 71; {{ISBN|1400833418}}.</ref> In his mature period, he expressed an ambiguous attitude towards her. For instance, in his novella ''[[Notes from Underground]]'', the narrator refers to sentiments he expresses as, "I launch off at that point into European, inexplicably lofty subtleties à la George Sand".<ref>Fyodor Dostoevsky, ''[https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/600 Notes from the Underground]'', Project Gutenberg.</ref>

The English poet [[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]] (1806–61) wrote two poems: "To George Sand: A Desire" (1853) and "To George Sand: A Recognition". The American poet [[Walt Whitman]] cited Sand's novel ''[[Consuelo (novel)|Consuelo]]'' as a personal favorite, and the sequel to this novel, ''La Comtesse de Rudolstadt'', contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence on him.

In addition to her influences on English and Russian literature, Sand's writing and political views informed numerous 19th century authors in Spain and Latin America, including [[Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda]], the Cuban-born writer who also published and lived in Spain.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Beyer|first1=Sandra|last2=Kluck|first2=Frederick|date=1991|title=George Sand and Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23532148|journal=Nineteenth-Century French Studies|volume=19|issue=2|pages=203–209|jstor=23532148}}</ref> Critics have noted structural and thematic similarities between George Sand's [[Indiana (novel)|Indiana]], published in 1832, and Gómez de Avellaneda's anti-slavery novel [[Sab (novel)|Sab]], published in 1841.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Die junge George Sand.jpg|left|thumb|294x294px|George Sand by [[Auguste Charpentier]], 1838]]
In the first episode of the "Overture" to ''Swann's Way''—the first novel in [[Marcel Proust]]'s ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' sequence—a young, distraught Marcel is calmed by his mother as she reads from ''François le Champi'', a novel which (it is explained) was part of a gift from his grandmother, which also included ''La Mare au Diable'', ''La Petite Fadette'', and ''Les Maîtres Sonneurs''. As with many episodes involving art in ''À la recherche du temps perdu'', this reminiscence includes commentary on the work.

Sand is also referred to in [[Virginia Woolf]]'s book-length essay ''[[A Room of One's Own]]'' along with [[George Eliot]] and [[Charlotte Brontë]] as "all victims of inner strife as their writings prove, sought ineffectively to veil themselves by using the name of a man."<ref>Virginia Woolf, ''A Room of One's Own'', Penguin Books, 1929, p. 52; {{ISBN|978-0141183534}}.</ref>

Frequent literary references to George Sand appear in ''[[Possession: A Romance|Possession]]'' (1990) by [[A. S. Byatt]] and in the play ''Voyage'', the first part of [[Tom Stoppard]]'s ''The Coast of Utopia'' trilogy (2002). George Sand makes an appearance in [[Isabel Allende]]'s ''[[Zorro (novel)|Zorro]]'', going still by her given name, as a young girl in love with Diego de la Vega (Zorro).{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Chopin, Sand and her children are the main characters of the theater play by Polish writer [[Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz]] ''A Summer in Nohant'', which premiered in 1930. The play, presenting the final stage of the writer-composer's relationship, was adapted five times by [[Telewizja Polska|Polish Television]]: in 1963 (with Antonina Gordon-Górecka as Sand and [[Gustaw Holoubek]] as Chopin), in 1972 (with Halina Mikołajska and [[Leszek Herdegen]]), in 1980 (with [[Anna Polony]] and Michał Pawlicki), in 1999 (with [[Joanna Szczepkowska]], who portrayed Solange in the 1980 version and Piotr Skiba) and in 2021 (with [[Katarzyna Herman]] and Marek Kossakowski). Chopin, Sand, and her children are also featured in the 2022 novel “Briefly, A Delicious Life” by Nell Stevens, where they appear as main characters.

==In film==
George Sand is portrayed by [[Merle Oberon]] in ''[[A Song to Remember]]'',<ref>{{AFI film|id=24590|title=A Song to Remember}}</ref> by [[Patricia Morison]] in ''[[Song Without End]]'',<ref>{{AFI film|id=53289|title=Song Without End}}</ref> by [[Rosemary Harris]] in ''[[Notorious Woman]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/11/20/archives/t-v-notorious-woman-public-network-presents-bbc-series-on-life-and.html |title=TV: 'Notorious Woman' |last=O'Connor |first=John J. |date=20 November 1975 |work=The New York Times |access-date=12 June 2019  |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> by [[Judy Davis]] in James Lapine's 1991 British-American film ''[[Impromptu (1991 film)|Impromptu]]''; and by [[Juliette Binoche]] in the 1999 French film ''[[Children of the Century]] (Les Enfants du siècle)''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170620052618/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8178c267 Les Enfants du siècle (2000)] at the [[British Film Institute]]{{better source needed|reason=Help request: a live link can be searched for at https://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/search/expert - if available, replace the archive URL with the live link. Or if none found, remove this 'better source needed' template. | date=October 2023}}</ref> Also in ''[[George Who?]]'' (French: ''George qui?''), a 1973 French biographical film directed by [[Michèle Rosier]] and starring [[Anne Wiazemsky]] as George Sand, Alain Libolt and Denis Gunsbourg. In the 2002 Polish film ''[[Chopin: Desire for Love]]'' directed by [[Jerzy Antczak]] George Sand is portrayed by [[Danuta Stenka]]. In the French film ''[[Flashback (2021 film)|Flashback]]'' directed by [[Caroline Vigneaux]], George Sand is portrayed by [[Suzanne Clément]]. George Sand is also portrayed by Nine D'Urso in the 2025 TV series ''[[La rebelle: Les aventures de la jeune George Sand]]''. The show portrays an intimate relationship between D'Urso and [[Barbara Pravi]] (who plays [[Marie Dorval]]).  

==Works==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* ''Voyage en Auvergne'' (autobiographical sketch, 1827)
* ''[[A Winter in Majorca|Un hiver à Majorque]]'' (1842)
* ''[[Histoire de ma vie (George Sand)|Histoire de ma vie (Story of My Life)]]'' (autobiography up to the revolution of 1848; 1855)

===Novels===
* ''Rose et Blanche'' (1831, with Jules Sandeau)
* ''[[Indiana (novel)|Indiana]]'' (1832)
* ''[[Valentine (novel)|Valentine]]'' (1832)
* ''{{ill|Lélia|fr}}'' (1833)
* ''Andréa'' (1833)
* ''Mattéa'' (1833)
* ''[[Jacques (novel)|Jacques]]'' (1833)
* ''Kouroglou / Épopée Persane'' (1833)
* ''Leone Leoni'' (1833)
* ''André'' (1834)
* ''La Marquise'' (1834)
* ''Simon'' (1835)
* ''[[Mauprat (novel)|Mauprat]]'' (1837)
* ''Les Maîtres mosaïstes'' (''The Master Mosaic Workers'') (1837)
* ''L'Orco'' (1838)
* ''L'Uscoque'' (The Uscoque, or The Corsair) (1838)
* ''{{ill|Spiridion (novel)|fr|Spiridion|lt=Spiridion}}'' (1839)
* ''{{ill|Pauline (novel)|fr|Pauline (George Sand)|lt=Pauline}}'' (1839)
* ''[[Horace (novel)|Horace]]'' (1840)
* ''Le Compagnon du tour de France'' (''The Journeyman Joiner, or the Companion of the Tour of France'') (1840)
* ''[[Consuelo (novel)|Consuelo]]'' (1842)
* ''La Comtesse de Rudolstadt'' (''Countess of Rudolstadt'') (1843, a sequel to ''Consuelo'')
* ''{{ill|Jeanne (novel)|fr|Jeanne (roman)|lt=Jeanne}}'' (1844)
* ''Teverino'' (1845) (translated as ''Jealousy: Teverino'')
* ''Le Péché de M. Antoine'' (''The Sin of M. Antoine'') (1845)
* ''Le Meunier d'Angibault'' (''The Miller of Angibault'') (1845)
* ''[[La Mare au Diable]]'' (''The Devil's Pool'') (1846)
* ''Lucrezia Floriani'' (1846)
* ''François le Champi'' (''The Country Waif'') (1847)
* ''[[La Petite Fadette]]'' (1849)
* ''Château des Désertes'' (1850)
* ''Histoire du véritable Gribouille'' (1851, translated as ''The Mysterious Tale of Gentle Jack and Lord Bumblebee'')
* ''Les Maîtres sonneurs'' (''The Bagpipers'') (1853)
* ''Isidora'' (1853)
* ''La Daniella'' (1857)
* ''Les Beaux Messiers de Bois-Dore'' (''The Gallant Lords of Bois-Dore'' or ''The Fine Gentlemen of Bois-Dore'') (1857)
* ''Elle et Lui'' (''She and He'') (1859)
* ''Narcisse'' (1859)
* ''Jean de la Roche'' (1859)
* ''L'Homme de neige'' (''The Snow Man'') (1859)
* ''La Ville noire'' (''The Black City'') (1860)
* ''Marquis de Villemer'' (1860)
* ''Valvedre'' (1861)
* ''Antonia'' (1863)
* ''Mademoiselle La Quintinie'' (1863)
* ''Laura, Voyage dans le cristal'' (''Laura, or Voyage into the Crystal'') (1864)
* ''Monsieur Sylvestre'' (1866)
* ''Le Dernier Amour'' (1866, dedicated to Flaubert)
* ''Mademoiselle Merquem'' (1868)
* ''Pierre Qui Roule'' (''A Rolling Stone'') (1870)
* ''Le Beau Laurence'' (''Handsome Lawrence'') (1870, a sequel to ''Pierre Qui Roule'')
* ''Malgretout'' (1870)
* ''Cesarine Dietrich'' (1871)
* ''Nanon'' (1872)
* ''Ma Sœur Jeanne'' (''My Sister Jeannie'') (1874)
* ''Flamarande'' (1875)
* ''Les Deux Frères'' (1875, a sequel to ''Flamarande'')
* ''{{ill|Marianne (novel)|fr|Marianne (roman)|lt=Marianne}}'' (1876)
* ''La Tour de Percemont'' (''The Tower of Percemont'') (1876)

===Plays===
* ''Gabriel'' (1839)
* ''Cosima ou La haine dans l'amour'' (1840)
* ''Les Sept cordes de la lyre'' (translated as ''A Woman's Version of the Faust Legend: The Seven Strings of the Lyre'') (1840)
* ''François le Champi'' (1849)
* ''Claudie'' (1851)
* ''Le Mariage de Victorine'' (1851)
* ''Le Pressoir'' (1853)
* French adaptation of ''As You Like It'' (1856)
* ''Le Pavé'' (1862, "The Paving Stone")
* ''Le Marquis de Villemer'' (1864)
* ''Le Lis du Japon'' (1866, "The Japanese Lily")
* ''L'Autre'' (1870, with [[Sarah Bernhardt]])
* ''Un Bienfait n'est jamais perdu'' (1872, "A Good Deed Is Never Wasted")
{{div col end}}
<small>Source: {{cite web |url=https://data.bnf.fr/fr/documents-by-rdt/11923601/70/page1 |title=George Sand (1804–1876) – Auteur du texte |website=data.bnf.fr |publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |access-date=12 June 2019 }}</small>

==See also==
* [[Elizabeth Ann Ashurst Bardonneau|Elizabeth Ann Ashurst]] (translator)
* [[Pauline Viardot#Career|Pauline Viardot]]

==References==

===Citations===
<references />

===General and cited sources===
* ''George Sand'' – Bicentennial Exhibition, [[Musée de la Vie romantique]], Paris, 2004, curated by Jérôme Godeau. Contributions by [[Diane de Margerie]], Yves Gagneux, Françoise Heilbrun, Isabelle Leroy-Jay Lemaistre, [[Claude Samuel]], Arlette Sérullaz, {{ill|Vincent Pomarède|fr}}, Nicole Savy & Martine Reid.
* {{Citation | first = Jean-Albert | last = Bédé | contribution = Sand, George | title = Encyclopedia Americana | year = 1986 | volume = 24 | pages = 218–19| title-link = Encyclopedia Americana }}.
* {{Citation | title = Correspondence | type = letters | first = George | last = Sand}} (see "Writings by George Sand").
* {{Citation | first = Tad | last = Szulc | author-link = Tad Szulc | title = Chopin in Paris: the Life and Times of the Romantic Composer | place = New York | publisher = Scribner | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-684-82458-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/chopininparislif00szul }}.
* {{gutenberg|no=138|name=Doumic, René – George Sand, some aspects of her life and writings}}

'''In French:'''
* {{gutenberg|no=13038|name=Caro, Elme – George Sand}}
* {{gutenberg|no=13737|name=Roy, Albert le – George Sand et ses amis}}
* {{Citation | title = Dictionnaire Encyclopédique de la Langue Française | edition = 3ième}}
* {{Citation | url = http://media.sceren.fr/index.php?id=20&fiche=3585&L=1&cat=-1 | title = George Sand: The Story of Her Life | format = DVD | publisher = France 5 | year = 2004 |ref=CITEREFPaintaultCerf2004}}. Paintault, Micheline (Director); Cerf, Claudine (Author).

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|viaf=46766944}}
* Harlan, Elizabeth (2004). ''George Sand''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|0-300-10417-0}}.
* Jordan, Ruth, ''George Sand: a biography'', London, Constable, 1976, {{ISBN|0 09 460340 5}}.
* [[Tim Parks|Parks, Tim]], "Devils v. Dummies" (review of George Sand, ''La Petite Fadette'', translated by Gretchen van Slyke, Pennsylvania State, 2017, {{ISBN|978-0271079370}}, 192 pp.; and Martine Reid, ''George Sand'', translated by Gretchen van Slyke, Pennsylvania State, 2019, {{ISBN|978-0271081069}}, 280 pp.), ''[[London Review of Books]]'', vol. 41, no. 10 (23 May 2019), pp.&nbsp;31–32. {{"'}}The men that Sand loved,' Reid observes, 'all had a certain physical resemblance... fragile, slight and a bit reserved.' Unthreatening, in short. Above all, they were younger than her. [[Jules Sandeau|Sandeau]], [[Alfred de Musset|Musset]] and then, for the nine years between 1838 and 1847, [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]], were all six years her junior." (p.&nbsp;32.)
* {{Citation | last = Yates | first = Jim | title = Oh! Père Lachaise: Oscar's Wilde Purgatory | publisher = Édition d'Amèlie | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-9555836-1-2|ref=none}}. Oscar Wilde dreams of George Sand and is invited to a ''soirée'' at Nohant.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/george-sand}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181006074952/http://www.georgesand.culture.fr/ George Sand] – a site in memory of the 200th anniversary of George Sand's birth {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131031021134/http://www.numeribooks.com/auteurs/523-sand-george.html George Sand, her work in French free readable version]  {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510022644/http://www.litteratureaudio.com/livres-audio-gratuits-mp3/tag/george-sand George Sand, her work in audio version] [[File:Speaker Icon.svg|20px]]{{in lang|fr}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=851 | name=George Sand}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=George Sand}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1055}}
* {{cite EB1911 |last=Storr |first=Francis |wstitle=Sand, George|volume=24|pages=131–135 |short=x}}
* Exhibition catalogue, ''[http://www.jillnewhouse.com/catalogues/the-watercolors-of-george-sand-she-her-hers The Watercolors of George Sand (she/her/hers)]'', Jill Newhouse Gallery, November 2023 (including essay by Cora Michael)

{{George Sand}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sand, George}}
[[Category:George Sand| ]]
[[Category:1804 births]]
[[Category:1876 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century French composers]]
[[Category:19th-century French dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:19th-century French novelists]]
[[Category:19th-century French women writers]]
[[Category:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[Category:French women novelists]]
[[Category:French socialists]]
[[Category:Legion of Honour refusals]]
[[Category:People from Indre]]
[[Category:Pseudonymous women writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Paris]]
[[Category:19th-century French letter writers]]
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[[Category:Romantic muses and models]]
[[Category:French women dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Writers of the Romantic era]]
[[Category:19th-century French women journalists]]
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[[Category:19th-century French memoirists]]
[[Category:French women's rights activists]]
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[[Category:Female-to-male cross-dressers]]
[[Category:French historical novelists]]
[[Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period]]
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[[Category:French newspaper editors]]
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[[Category:Gustave Flaubert]]