Editing Geography of Tajikistan

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
[[File:Tajikistan Map TI-map.gif|thumb|430px|Map of Tajikistan]]

[[Tajikistan]] is nestled between [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] to the north and west, [[China]] to the east, and [[Afghanistan]] to the south. Mountains cover 93 percent of Tajikistan's surface area. The two principal ranges, the [[Pamir Mountains]] and the [[Alay Mountains]], give rise to many glacier-fed streams and rivers, which have been used to irrigate farmlands since ancient times. [[Central Asia]]'s other major mountain range, the [[Tian Shan]], skirts northern Tajikistan. Mountainous terrain separates Tajikistan's two population centers, which are in the lowlands of the southern ([[Panj River]]) and northern ([[Fergana Valley]]) sections of the country.<ref name="countrystudies">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/12.htm|title=Geography|publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305071732/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/12.htm|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Especially in areas of intensive agricultural and industrial activity, the [[Soviet Union]]'s natural resource utilization policies left independent Tajikistan with a legacy of environmental problems.<ref name="environmental">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/16.htm|title=Environmental problems|publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306080135/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/16.htm|url-status=live}} {{Country study}}</ref>

==Dimensions and borders==
With an area of {{convert|142600|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, Tajikistan has a maximum east-to-west extent of {{convert|700|km|mi|abbr=on}}, and a maximum north-to-south extent of {{convert|350|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The country's highly irregular border is {{convert|3651|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, including {{convert|414|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the Chinese border to the east and {{convert|1206|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the frontier with Afghanistan to the south. Most of the southern border with Afghanistan is defined by the [[Amu Darya]] (''darya'' is the [[Persian language|Persian]] word for river) and its tributary the [[Panj River]] (Darya-ye Panj), which has headwaters in Afghanistan and Tajikistan. The other neighbors are the former Soviet republics of Uzbekistan (to the west and the north) and Kyrgyzstan (to the north).<ref name="countrystudies"/>

==Topography and drainage==
[[Image:Tajikistan 2001 CIA map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Tajikistan]]
[[Image:Tajikistan Topography.png|thumb|right|300px|Topography of Tajikistan]]
The lower elevations of Tajikistan are divided into northern and southern regions by a complex of three mountain chains that constitute the westernmost extension of the massive [[Tian Shan]] system. Running essentially parallel from east to west, the chains are the [[Turkestan Range|Turkestan]], [[Zeravshan Mountains|Zeravshan]] (Zarafshan), and Hisor ([[Gissar Range|Gissar]]) mountains. The last of these lies just north of the capital, [[Dushanbe]], which is situated in west-central Tajikistan.<ref name="topography">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/14.htm|title=Topography and Drainage|publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002433/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/14.htm|url-status=live}} {{Country study}}</ref>

More than half of Tajikistan lies above an elevation of {{convert|3000|m|ft}}. Even the lowlands, which are located in the [[Fergana Valley]] in the far north and in [[Khatlon Province]] in the southwest, are well above sea level. In the Turkestan range, highest of the western chains, the maximum elevation is {{convert|5510|m|ft}}. The highest elevations of this range are in the east, near the border with Kyrgyzstan. That region is dominated by the peaks of the Pamir-Alay mountain system, including two of the three highest elevations in the former Soviet Union: [[Lenin Peak|Mount Lenin]] — {{convert|7134|m|ft}} and [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]] — {{convert|7495|m|ft}}. Several other peaks in the region also exceed {{convert|7000|m|ft}}. The mountains contain numerous glaciers, the largest of which, [[Fedchenko Glacier]], covers more than {{convert|700|km2|sqmi}} and is the largest glacier in the world outside the polar regions. Because Tajikistan lies in an active seismic belt, severe earthquakes are common.<ref name="topography"/>

===Fergana Valley===
The Fergana Valley, the most densely populated region in Central Asia irrigated by the [[Syr Darya]] in its upper course, spreads across the north-eastern arm of Uzbekistan and Northern Tajikistan. This long valley, which lies between two mountain ranges — the [[Kuramin Range]] in the north and the [[Turkestan Range]] in the south, reaches its lowest elevation of {{convert|320|m|ft}} at [[Khujand]] on the Syr Darya. Rivers bring rich soil deposits into the Fergana Valley from the surrounding mountains, creating a series of fertile oases that have long been prized for agriculture.<ref name="topography"/>

===Drainage===
In Tajikistan's dense river network, the largest rivers are the Syr Darya and the [[Amu Darya]]; the largest tributaries are the [[Vakhsh River|Vakhsh]] and the [[Kofarnihon River|Kofarnihon]], which form valleys from northeast to southwest across western Tajikistan. The Amu Darya carries more water than any other river in Central Asia. The upper course of the Amu Darya, called the [[Panj River]], is {{convert|921|km|mi}} long. The river's name changes at the confluence of the [[Panj River|Panj]], the Vakhsh, and the Kofarnihon rivers in far southwestern Tajikistan. The Vakhsh, called the [[Kyzyl-Suu River|Kyzyl-Suu]] (''"red water"'' in Turkic languages) upstream in Kyrgyzstan and the [[Vakhsh River|Surkhob]] in its middle course in north-central Tajikistan, is the second largest river in southern Tajikistan after the Amu-Panj system. In the Soviet era, the Vakhsh was dammed at several points for irrigation and electric power generation, most notably at [[Norak]] (Nurek), east of Dushanbe, where one of the world's highest dams forms the [[Nurek Dam|Nurek Reservoir]]. Numerous factories also were built along the Vakhsh to draw upon its waters and potential for electric power generation.<ref name="topography"/> Due to the uneven distribution of water throughout [[Central Asia]], the Soviets created a system in which [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Tajikistan]] provided water to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]] in summer, and these three countries provided oil and gas to Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan during winter. After the collapse of the [[USSR]] in 1991, this system fell apart and a new resource-sharing plan has yet to be put in place. According to research conducted by the [[International Crisis Group]], this is due to corruption and lack of political will; failure to solve this issue could lead to irreversible regional destabilization.<ref>International Crisis Group. "[http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/central-asia/233-water-pressures-in-central-asia.pdf Water Pressures in Central Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520103226/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/central-asia/233-water-pressures-in-central-asia.pdf |date=2016-05-20 }}", [http://www.crisisgroup.org CrisisGroup.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603105331/https://www.crisisgroup.org/ |date=2020-06-03 }}. 11 September 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.</ref>

The two most important rivers in northern Tajikistan are the Syr Darya and the [[Zeravshan]] (Zarafshan). The former, the second longest river in Central Asia with a total length of {{convert|2400|km|mi}}, stretches {{convert|195|km|mi}} across the Fergana Valley in far-northern Tajikistan. The Zeravshan River, with a total length of {{convert|781|km|mi}}, runs for {{convert|316|km|mi}} through the north-center of Tajikistan. Tajikistan's rivers reach high-water levels twice a year: in the spring, fed by the rainy season and melting mountain snow, and in the summer, fed by melting glaciers. The summer freshets are the more useful for irrigation, especially in the Fergana Valley and the valleys of southeastern Tajikistan. Most of Tajikistan's lakes are of glacial origin and are located in the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] region in the eastern half of the country. The largest, the [[Karakul (Tajikistan)|Karakul]] (Qarokul) Lake, is a salt lake devoid of life, lying at an elevation of {{convert|4200|m|ft}}.<ref name="topography"/> Tajikistan's second largest water body is the [[Kayrakum Lake|Kayrakum Reservoir]], a {{convert|44|km|mi|abbr=on}} long [[artificial lake]] in the heart of the [[Fergana Valley]], not far from the city of [[Khujand]] in [[Sughd Province]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.cawater-info.net/analysis/water/kayrakum.htm| title = Kayrakum Reservoir| access-date = 2008-08-14| archive-date = 2008-08-28| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080828234842/http://www.cawater-info.net/analysis/water/kayrakum.htm| url-status = live}}</ref> The lake is fed by the [[Syr Darya]]. Another well-known natural lake of glacial origin is [[Iskanderkul]]. It is smaller than the Kayrakum Reservoir and lies in the [[Fann Mountains]] in western Tajikistan.

==Climate==
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_TJK_1991–2020.svg|thumb|300px|Tajikistan map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]]
[[Image:Kara-kul lake.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Karakul (Tajikistan)|Karakul]] is a lake formed inside a meteor crater in Tajikistan.]]
Tajikistan's climate is continental, subtropical, and semiarid, with some desert areas. The [[climate change]]s drastically according to elevation, however. The Fergana Valley and other lowlands are shielded by mountains from Arctic air masses, but temperatures in that region still drop below freezing for more than 100 days a year. In the subtropical southwestern lowlands, which have the highest average temperatures, the climate is arid, although some sections now are irrigated for farming. At Tajikistan's lower elevations, the average temperature range is {{convert|23|to|30|°C|°F|1}} in July and {{convert|-1|to|3|°C|°F|1}} in January. In the eastern Pamirs, the average July temperature is {{convert|5|to|10|°C|°F}}, and the average January temperature is {{convert|-15|to|-20|°C|°F}}.<ref name="climatestudies">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/15.htm|title=Climate|publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=9 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409201948/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/15.htm|url-status=live}} {{Country study}}</ref>

Tajikistan is the wettest of the Central Asian republics,<ref>{{cite web |title=Water in Tajikistan, abundant yet challenging |url=https://www.acted.org/en/water-in-tajikistan-abundant-yet-challenging/ |website=ACTED |date=5 December 2017 |access-date=25 June 2022 |archive-date=18 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518033619/https://www.acted.org/en/water-in-tajikistan-abundant-yet-challenging/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with the average annual precipitation for the Kafernigan and Vakhsh valleys in the south being around {{convert|500|to|600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, and up to {{convert|1500|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in the mountains{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}. At the Fedchenko Glacier, as much as {{convert|223.6|cm|in|abbr=on}} of snow falls each year{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}. Only in the northern Fergana Valley and in the rain shadow areas of the eastern Pamirs is precipitation as low as in other parts of Central Asia: in the eastern Pamirs less than {{convert|100|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} falls per year{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}. Most precipitation occurs in the winter and spring.

{{Weather box
|location = Dushanbe (1991–2020, extremes 1926–present)
|width = auto
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|collapsed = Yes
|Jan record high C = 21.8
|Feb record high C = 27.7
|Mar record high C = 32.2
|Apr record high C = 35.3
|May record high C = 38.8
|Jun record high C = 43.0
|Jul record high C = 43.7
|Aug record high C = 45.0
|Sep record high C = 38.9
|Oct record high C = 36.8
|Nov record high C = 31.9
|Dec record high C = 24.3
|year record high C = 45.0
|Jan high C = 9.0
|Feb high C = 11.0
|Mar high C = 17.0
|Apr high C = 22.8
|May high C = 27.9
|Jun high C = 33.6
|Jul high C = 36.4
|Aug high C = 35.5
|Sep high C = 31.3
|Oct high C = 24.4
|Nov high C = 16.7
|Dec high C = 11.1
|year high C = 23.1
|Jan mean C = 3.1
|Feb mean C = 5.0
|Mar mean C = 10.5
|Apr mean C = 15.8
|May mean C = 20.1
|Jun mean C = 25.1
|Jul mean C = 27.4
|Aug mean C = 26.0
|Sep mean C = 21.2
|Oct mean C = 14.7
|Nov mean C = 9.0
|Dec mean C = 4.6
|year mean C = 15.2
|Jan low C = -0.9
|Feb low C = 0.5
|Mar low C = 5.5
|Apr low C = 10.1
|May low C = 13.4
|Jun low C = 17.2
|Jul low C = 18.9
|Aug low C = 17.2
|Sep low C = 12.7
|Oct low C = 7.8
|Nov low C = 3.8
|Dec low C = 0.4
|year low C = 8.9
|Jan record low C = −26.6
|Feb record low C = −17.6
|Mar record low C = −12.9
|Apr record low C = -6.1
|May record low C = 1.2
|Jun record low C = 8.4
|Jul record low C = 10.9
|Aug record low C = 8.2
|Sep record low C = -1.0
|Oct record low C = −4.4
|Nov record low C = −13.5
|Dec record low C = −19.5
|year record low C = −26.6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 100
|Feb precipitation mm = 95
|Mar precipitation mm = 102
|Apr precipitation mm = 112
|May precipitation mm = 75
|Jun precipitation mm = 17
|Jul precipitation mm = 4
|Aug precipitation mm = 1
|Sep precipitation mm = 4
|Oct precipitation mm = 29
|Nov precipitation mm = 55
|Dec precipitation mm = 60
|year precipitation mm = 654
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 8.5
|Feb precipitation days = 9.1
|Mar precipitation days = 13.4
|Apr precipitation days = 9.8
|May precipitation days = 7.8
|Jun precipitation days = 1.5
|Jul precipitation days = 0.7
|Aug precipitation days = 0.1
|Sep precipitation days = 0.8
|Oct precipitation days = 3.7
|Nov precipitation days = 5.3
|Dec precipitation days = 8.1
|year precipitation days = 68.8
|Jan humidity = 69
|Feb humidity = 67
|Mar humidity = 65
|Apr humidity = 63
|May humidity = 57
|Jun humidity = 42
|Jul humidity = 41
|Aug humidity = 44
|Sep humidity = 44
|Oct humidity = 56
|Nov humidity = 63
|Dec humidity = 69
|year humidity = 57
|Jan sun = 120
|Feb sun = 121
|Mar sun = 156
|Apr sun = 198
|May sun = 281
|Jun sun = 337
|Jul sun = 352
|Aug sun = 338
|Sep sun = 289
|Oct sun = 224
|Nov sun = 164
|Dec sun = 119
|year sun = 2699
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net<ref name = PogodaDushanbe >{{cite web
| url = http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/38836.htm
| title = Weather and Climate-The Climate of Dushanbe
| publisher = Weather and Climate
| language = ru
| access-date = 28 October 2021
| archive-date = 29 October 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211029033404/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/38836.htm
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
|source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (humidity 1951–1993 and precipitation days 1961–1990)<ref name = dushanbeDWD>{{cite web
| url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_388360_kt.pdf
| title = Klimatafel von Duschanbe / Tadschikistan
| work = Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world
| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst
| language = de
| access-date = 18 February 2016
| archive-date = 13 November 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211113104255/https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_388360_kt.pdf
| url-status = live
}}</ref> NOAA (sun, 1961–1990)<ref name= DushanbeNOAA>{{cite web
| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/TABLES/REG_II/TK/38836.TXT
| title = Dushanbe Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| access-date = 18 February 2016
| archive-date = 29 October 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211029033530/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/TABLES/REG_II/TK/38836.TXT
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}

{{Weather box
|location = Khujand (1961–1990, extremes 1936–present)
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|width = auto
|collapsed = Yes 
|Jan record high C = 15.7
|Feb record high C = 22.1
|Mar record high C = 28.8
|Apr record high C = 36.5
|May record high C = 39.9
|Jun record high C = 43.5
|Jul record high C = 45.9
|Aug record high C = 43.8
|Sep record high C = 38.4
|Oct record high C = 33.8
|Nov record high C = 25.0
|Dec record high C = 21.1
|year record high C = 45.9
|Jan high C = 3.5
|Feb high C = 6.2
|Mar high C = 13.8
|Apr high C = 21.9
|May high C = 28.6
|Jun high C = 34.2
|Jul high C = 35.5
|Aug high C = 32.4
|Sep high C = 28.8
|Oct high C = 20.6
|Nov high C = 12.3
|Dec high C = 5.6
|year high C = 
|Jan mean C = -0.3
|Feb mean C = 1.7
|Mar mean C = 8.5
|Apr mean C = 16.2
|May mean C = 21.8
|Jun mean C = 26.9
|Jul mean C = 28.3
|Aug mean C = 26.1
|Sep mean C = 20.8
|Oct mean C = 13.9
|Nov mean C = 7.3
|Dec mean C = 2.0
|year mean C = 14.4
|Jan low C = -3.4
|Feb low C = -1.8
|Mar low C = 4.2
|Apr low C = 10.7
|May low C = 15.5
|Jun low C = 19.6
|Jul low C = 21.2
|Aug low C = 18.8
|Sep low C = 13.6
|Oct low C = 8.1
|Nov low C = 3.4
|Dec low C = -0.5
|year low C = 
|Jan record low C = -22.8
|Feb record low C = -22.2
|Mar record low C = -13.6
|Apr record low C = -3.9
|May record low C = 0.8
|Jun record low C = 8.7
|Jul record low C = 10.5
|Aug record low C = 7.0
|Sep record low C = 1.4
|Oct record low C = -6.8
|Nov record low C = -18.8
|Dec record low C = -20.0
|year record low C = -22.8
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 15.7
|Feb precipitation mm = 15.7
|Mar precipitation mm = 26.1
|Apr precipitation mm = 31.4
|May precipitation mm = 17.2
|Jun precipitation mm = 4.6
|Jul precipitation mm = 2.3
|Aug precipitation mm = 1.7
|Sep precipitation mm = 2.7
|Oct precipitation mm = 16.9
|Nov precipitation mm = 13.7
|Dec precipitation mm = 16.8
|year precipitation mm = 164.8
|Jan precipitation days = 11.4
|Feb precipitation days = 11.0
|Mar precipitation days = 12.7
|Apr precipitation days = 12.6
|May precipitation days = 12.0
|Jun precipitation days = 6.3
|Jul precipitation days = 4.1
|Aug precipitation days = 2.6
|Sep precipitation days = 3.2
|Oct precipitation days = 6.8
|Nov precipitation days = 7.4
|Dec precipitation days = 10.4
|year precipitation days = 
|Jan humidity = 77.8
|Feb humidity = 75.4
|Mar humidity = 64.0
|Apr humidity = 56.3
|May humidity = 48.7
|Jun humidity = 34.8
|Jul humidity = 33.8
|Aug humidity = 38.4
|Sep humidity = 43.3
|Oct humidity = 55.4
|Nov humidity = 75.2
|Dec humidity = 76.4
|Jan sun = 126
|Feb sun = 131
|Mar sun = 168
|Apr sun = 211
|May sun = 297
|Jun sun = 358
|Jul sun = 382
|Aug sun = 363
|Sep sun = 300
|Oct sun = 225
|Nov sun = 160
|Dec sun = 106
|year sun = 2827
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organisation]] (average high and low/precipitation/precipitation days 1961–1990)<ref name= WMOkhujand >{{cite web
| url = http://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=910
| title = World Weather Information Service – Khujand
| access-date = 18 December 2019
| publisher = World Meteorological Organization
| archive-date = 20 January 2022
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220120071636/http://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=910
| url-status = live
}}</ref> [[NOAA]] (mean temperatures and sun 1961–1990)<ref name = NOAAkhujane>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_II/RA/38599.TXT
| title = Leninbad (Khujand) Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 18 December 2019
| archive-date = 25 January 2023
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230125191907/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_II/RA/38599.TXT
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
|source 2 = climatebase.ru (humidity),<ref name="climatebasekhujand">{{cite web|title=Leninabad, Tajikistan|url=http://climatebase.ru/station/38599/?lang=en|publisher=Climatebase.ru|access-date=30 January 2013|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014034332/http://climatebase.ru/station/38599/?lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref> Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)<ref name = meteoclimatkhujand>{{cite web
| url = http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1171
| title = Station Khudjand
| publisher = Meteo Climat
| language = fr
| access-date = 18 December 2019
| archive-date = 20 January 2022
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220120231916/http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1171
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
}}

==Environmental problems==
Most of [[Environmental issues in Tajikistan|Tajikistan's environmental problems]] are associated with the agricultural policies imposed on the country during the Soviet period. By 1991 heavy use of mineral fertilizers and agricultural chemicals was a major cause of pollution in the republic. Among those chemicals were [[DDT]], banned by international convention, and several defoliants and herbicides. In addition to the damage they have done to the air, land, and water, the chemicals have contaminated the cottonseeds whose oil is used widely for cooking. [[Cotton]] farmers and their families are at particular risk from the overuse of agricultural chemicals, both from direct physical contact in the field and from the use of the branches of cotton plants at home for fuel. All of these toxic sources are believed to contribute to a high incidence of maternal and child mortality and birth defects. In 1994 the infant mortality rate was 43.2 per 1,000 births, the second highest rate among former Soviet republics. The rate in 1990 had been 40.0 infant deaths per 1,000 births.<ref name="environmental"/>

Cotton requires particularly intense irrigation. In Tajikistan's cotton-growing regions, farms were established in large, semiarid tracts and in tracts reclaimed from the desert, but cotton's growing season is summer, when the region receives virtually no rainfall. The 50 percent increase in cotton cultivation mandated by Soviet and post-Soviet agricultural planners between 1964 and 1994 consequently overtaxed the regional water supply. Poorly designed irrigation networks led to massive runoff, which increased [[soil salinity]] and carried toxic agricultural chemicals downstream to other fields, the [[Aral Sea]], and populated areas of the region.<ref name="environmental"/>

By the 1980s, nearly 90 percent of water use in [[Central Asia]] was for agriculture. Of that quantity, nearly 75 percent came from the [[Amu Darya]] and the [[Syr Darya]], the chief tributaries of the Aral Sea on the Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan border to the northwest of Tajikistan. As the desiccation of the [[Aral Sea]] came to international attention in the 1980s, water-use policy became a contentious issue between Soviet republics such as Tajikistan, where the main rivers rise, and those farther downstream, including Uzbekistan. By the end of the Soviet era, the central government had relinquished central control of water-use policy for Central Asia, but the republics had not agreed on an allocation policy.<ref name="environmental"/>

Industry also causes [[Industrial pollution|pollution]] problems. A major offender is the production of nonferrous metals. One of Tajikistan's leading industrial sites, the aluminum plant at [[Tursunzoda]] (formerly known as Regar), west of Dushanbe near the border with Uzbekistan, generates large amounts of toxic waste gases that have been blamed for a sharp increase in the number of birth defects among people who live within range of its emissions.<ref name="environmental"/>

In 1992 the Supreme Soviet of Tajikistan established a Ministry of Environmental Protection. However, the enforcement activity of the ministry was limited severely by the political upheavals that plagued Tajikistan in its first years of independence. The only registered private environmental group in Tajikistan in the early 1990s was a chapter of the Social-Ecological Alliance, the largest informal environmental association in the former Soviet Union. The Tajik branch's main functions have been to conduct environmental research and to organize protests against the [[Rogun Dam|Roghun Hydroelectric Plant project]].<ref name="environmental"/>

'''Natural hazards:''' [[Earthquake]]s are of varying degrees and are frequent. [[Flood]]ing and [[landslide]]s sometimes occur during the annual Spring thaw.<ref name="CIA"/>

'''Environment - current issues:''' inadequate sanitation facilities; increasing levels of soil salinity; industrial pollution; excessive [[pesticide]]s; part of the basin of the shrinking [[Aral Sea]] suffers from severe overutilization of available water for irrigation and associated pollution.

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, [[Desertification]], Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection

==Pamir Mountains==
[[File:1982 expedition to Tartu Ülikool 350 (40).jpg|thumb|[[Tartu Ülikool 350]] is a 6,258-meter peak in Pamir Mountains.]]
{{main|Pamir Mountains}}
Tajikistan is home to some of the highest mountains in the world, including the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] and [[Alay Mountains|Alay]] ranges. 93% of Tajikistan is mountainous with altitudes ranging from {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}} to almost {{convert|7500|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and nearly 50% of Tajikistan's territory is above {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

The massive mountain ranges are cut by hundreds of [[canyon]]s and gorges at the bottom of which run streams that flow into larger river valleys where the majority of the country's population lives and works.  The [[Pamir Mountains|Pamirs]] in particular are heavily [[glacier|glaciated]], and Tajikistan is home to the largest non-polar glacier in the world, the [[Fedchenko Glacier]].

The Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan lie in [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province]] ([[GBAO]]) in the east half of the country. The northern border is formed by the [[Trans-Alay Range]] ([[Independence Peak]] {{convert|7174|m|ft|abbr=on}}, [[Kyzylart Pass]] {{convert|4280|m|ft|abbr=on}}). The highest peak is [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]] ({{convert|7495|m|ft|abbr=on}}) (formerly known as Stalin Peak and Communism Peak), on the north-western edge of GBAO. It lies between [[Ibn Sina Peak]] ({{convert|7134|m|ft|abbr=on}}) (also known as [[Lenin Peak]]) on the border with [[Kyrgyzstan]] to the north and [[Peak Korzhenevskaya]] ({{convert|7105|m|ft|abbr=on}}) in [[Academy of Sciences Range]] ({{convert|6785|m|ft|abbr=on}}) further south. The southern border is formed by the northernmost ridges of the [[Karakoram Range]], with [[Mayakovskiy Peak]] ({{convert|6096|m|ft|abbr=on}}), [[Karl Marx Peak]] ({{convert|6726|m|ft|abbr=on}}), [[Engels Peak]] ({{convert|6510|m|ft|abbr=on}}), and [[Concord Peak]] ({{convert|5469|m|ft|abbr=on}}) stretching west to east along the border to Afghanistan.

==Rivers==
The principal rivers of [[Central Asia]], the [[Amu Darya]] and the [[Syr Darya]], both flow through Tajikistan, fed by melting snow and glaciers from the mountains of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.  There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than {{convert|10|km|mi}}.

The largest rivers of Tajikistan are:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Amu Darya]]/[[Panj River|Panj]]
*[[Bartang River|Bartang]]
*[[Gunt River|Gunt]]
*[[Kofarnihon River|Kofarnihon]] ([[Kafirnigan River|Kafirnigan]])
*[[Kyzylsu River|Kyzylsu]]
*[[Muksu River|Muksu]]
*[[Murghab River (Tajikistan)|Murghab]]
*[[Vakhsh River|Obihingou]]
*[[Murghab River (Tajikistan)|Oksu]]
*[[Syr Darya]]
*[[Surxondaryo River|Surkhandarya]]
*[[Vakhsh River|Vakhsh]]/[[Surkhob]]
*[[Vanj River|Vanj]]
*[[yazgulyam River|Yazgulyam]]
*[[Zeravshan River|Zeravshan]]
{{div col end}}

==Lakes==
About 2% of the country's area is covered by lakes:<ref name="CIA">[[The World Factbook]], [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tajikistan/ Economy of Tajikistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820040637/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tajikistan/ |date=2021-08-20 }} {{CIA World Factbook}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Ghafurov district|Kayrakum (Qairoqqum) Reservoir]] ([[Sughd]])
*[[Iskanderkul]] ([[Fann Mountains]])
*[[Kulikalon Lakes|Kulikalon]] (Kul-i Kalon) ([[Fann Mountains]])
*[[Nurek Dam|Nurek Reservoir]] ([[Khatlon]])
*[[Bulunkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Drumkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Karakul (Tajikistan)|Karakul]] ({{langx|tg|Qarokul}}; eastern [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Rangkul Valley Important Bird Area|Rangkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Sarez Lake|Sarez]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Sasykkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Shadau Lake]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Rangkul Valley Important Bird Area|Shorkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Turumtaikul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Tuzkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Yashilkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
*[[Zorkul]] ([[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]])
{{div col end}}

==Area and boundaries==
;Area:
:*total: {{convert|142600|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
:**''country rank in the world:'' 94th
:*land: {{convert|141510|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
:*water: {{convert|2590|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}

;Area — comparative:
:* slightly smaller than [[Nepal]]
:* Australia comparative: slightly more than twice the size of [[Tasmania]]
:* Canada comparative: slightly less than twice the size of [[New Brunswick]]
:* United Kingdom comparative: slightly larger than [[England]]
:* United States comparative: slightly larger than [[North Carolina]]
:* [[European Union|EU]] comparative: slightly larger than [[Greece]]

;Land boundaries:
:*total: {{convert|3651|km|mi|abbr=on}}
:*border countries: [[Afghanistan]] {{convert|1206|km|mi|abbr=on}}, [[China]] {{convert|414|km|mi|abbr=on}}, [[Kyrgyzstan]] {{convert|870|km|mi|abbr=on}}, [[Uzbekistan]] {{convert|1161|km|mi|abbr=on}}

;Coastline: {{convert|0|km|mi|abbr=on}} ([[landlocked]])

;Elevation extremes:
:*lowest point: [[Syr Darya]] {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}}
:*highest point: [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]] {{convert|7495|m|ft|abbr=on}}

Other peaks include: [[Lenin Peak]] {{convert|7134|m|ft|abbr=on}}; [[Peak Korzhenevskaya]] {{convert|7105|m|ft|abbr=on}}; [[Independence Peak]] {{convert|6974|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="CIA"/>

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[hydropower]], some [[petroleum]], [[uranium]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[brown coal]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[antimony]], [[tungsten]], [[silver]], [[gold]]

'''Land use (2006 data):'''<ref>''Agriculture in Tajikistan'', statistical yearbook, State Statistical Committee, Dushanbe, 2007, in Russian</ref>
<br>''arable land:'' 6%
<br>''permanent crops:'' 1%
<br>''pastures:'' 21%
<br>''non-agricultural land:'' 72%
<br>''including forests and woodland:'' 3%

'''Irrigated land:'''
<br> ''2006:'' {{convert|7235|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}

'''Total renewable water resources:'''
99.7 cu km (1997)

'''Natural hazards:'''
earthquakes, floods<ref name="CIA"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.tajik-gateway.org/index.phtml?lang=en&id=170 More information about the lakes of Tajikistan via the Tajikistan Gateway]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/enclaves/centralasia.htm On enclaves in Central Asia, incl. Tajikistan]

{{Tajikistan topics}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Climate of}}

{{coord|39|00|N|71|00|E|type:country|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Tajikistan| ]]

[[bn:তাজিকিস্তান#ভূগোল]]