Editing Geography of Nepal

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{{Country geography |
name = Nepal (नेपाल)|
map = Nepal topo en.jpg|
continent =[[Asia]]|
region =[[South Asia|Southern Asia]]<br/>
coordinates = {{Coord|28|00|N|84|00|E|type:country}}|
area ranking = 93rd|
km area =147516|
percent land= 92.94|
km coastline = 0|
borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:<br/>{{convert|2926|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br/>[[People's Republic of China|China (PRC)]]:<br/>{{convert|1236|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br/>[[India]]:<br/>{{convert|1690|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}|
highest point= [[Mount Everest]]<br/>{{convert|8848|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}|
lowest point= [[Mukhiyapatti Musharniya]]<br/>{{convert|59|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}|
longest river=[[Karnali River|Karnali]]|
largest lake=[[Rara Lake]]|
}}

[[Nepal]] measures about {{convert|880|km|mi|0|sp=us}} along its Himalayan axis by {{convert|150|to|250|km|mi|0|sp=us}} across. It has an area of {{Convert|147516|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government unveils new political map including Kalapani, Lipulekh and Limpiyadhura inside Nepal borders|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/20/government-unveils-new-political-map-including-kalapani-lipulekh-and-limpiyadhura-inside-nepal-borders|website=kathmandupost.com|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20|archive-date=7 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107024208/https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/05/20/government-unveils-new-political-map-including-kalapani-lipulekh-and-limpiyadhura-inside-nepal-borders|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nepal is landlocked by [[China]]'s [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] to the north and India on other three sides. [[West Bengal]]'s narrow ''[[Siliguri Corridor]]'' separate Nepal and [[Bangladesh]]. To the east are [[Bhutan]] and [[India]].

Nepal has a very high degree of geographic diversity and can be divided into three main regions: Terai, Hilly, and Himal. The Terai region, covering 17% of Nepal's area, is a lowland region with some hill ranges and is culturally more similar to parts of India. The Hilly region, encompassing 68% of the country's area, consists of mountainous terrain without snow and is inhabited by various indigenous ethnic groups. The Himal region, covering 15% of Nepal's area, contains snow and is home to several high mountain ranges, including Mount Everest, the world's highest peak.
Nepal, with elevations ranging from less than 100 meters to over 8,000 meters, has eight climate zones from tropical to perpetual snow. The majority of the country's population resides in the tropical and subtropical climate zones. The tropical zone, below 1,000 meters, experiences frost less than once per decade and is suitable for growing various fruits and crops. The subtropical climate zone, from 1,000 to 2,000 meters, is the most prevalent and suitable for growing rice, maize, millet, wheat, and other crops. The temperate climate zone, from 2,000 to 3,000 meters, occupies 12% of Nepal's land area and is suitable for cold-tolerant crops. The subalpine, alpine, and nival zones have progressively fewer human settlements and agricultural activities.

Seasons are divided into a wet season from June to September and a dry season from October to June. The summer monsoon can cause flooding and landslides, while the winter monsoon is marked by occasional rainfall and snowfall. The diverse elevation results in various biomes, including tropical savannas, subtropical and temperate forests, montane grasslands, and shrublands.

Nepal has three categories of rivers: the largest systems (Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani, Karnali/Goghra, and Mahakali), second category rivers (rising in the Middle Hills and Lower Himalayan Range), and third category rivers (rising in the outermost Siwalik foothills and mostly seasonal). These rivers can cause serious floods and pose challenges to transportation and communication networks. River management involves addressing flooding, sedimentation, and sustainable water sources for irrigation. Building dams in Nepal is controversial due to seismic activity, glacial lake formation, sedimentation rates, and cross-border equity issues between India and Nepal.

Nepal's land cover is dominated by forests, which cover 39.09% of the country's total geographical area, followed by agriculture areas at 29.83%. The hill region constitutes the largest portion of Nepal, with significant cultivated lands and natural vegetation. Forests in Nepal face deforestation due to over-harvesting of firewood, illegal logging, clearing for agriculture, and infrastructure expansion. As of 2010, 64.8% of the forested area in Nepal is covered by core forests of more than 500 ha in size. Deforestation and degradation are driven by multiple processes, including firewood harvesting, construction, urban expansion, and illegal logging.

Nepal has consistently been ranked as one of the most polluted countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/sacred-rivers-religion-nepal-kathmandu-trending-news-eb979fe5f88881b5273ad8bcd63dd3f2 | title=Nepal's holy Bagmati River choked with black sewage, trash | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=17 August 2022 | access-date=12 July 2023 | archive-date=12 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712141718/https://apnews.com/article/sacred-rivers-religion-nepal-kathmandu-trending-news-eb979fe5f88881b5273ad8bcd63dd3f2 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2020/10/21/one-more-report-ranks-nepal-among-most-polluted-countries-in-the-world | title=One more report ranks Nepal among most polluted countries in the world | access-date=8 July 2023 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708115740/https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2020/10/21/one-more-report-ranks-nepal-among-most-polluted-countries-in-the-world | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/urban-health-initiative/pilot-projects/kathmandu | title=Accra, Ghana | access-date=8 July 2023 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708115739/https://www.who.int/initiatives/urban-health-initiative/pilot-projects/kathmandu | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/21/averting-an-air-pollution-disaster-in-south-asia/ | title=Averting an air pollution disaster in South Asia | date=21 April 2023 | access-date=8 July 2023 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708115740/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/21/averting-an-air-pollution-disaster-in-south-asia/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/trash-and-overcrowding-top-world/ | title=Trash and Overcrowding at the Top of the World | access-date=8 July 2023 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708115739/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/trash-and-overcrowding-top-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/blog/very-air-we-breathe | title=The very air we breathe &#124; UNICEF Nepal | access-date=8 July 2023 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708115739/https://www.unicef.org/nepal/blog/very-air-we-breathe | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Landform regions ==
For a country of its size, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity. It rises from as low as {{convert|59|m|ft|0}} elevation in the tropical [[Terai]]—the northern rim of the [[Gangetic Plain]], through beyond the perpetual [[snow line]] to 90 peaks over {{convert|7000|m|ft|0}} including Earth's highest ({{convert|8848|m|ft|0|adj=on}} [[Mount Everest]] or ''Sagarmatha''). In addition to the continuum from tropical warmth to cold comparable to polar regions, average annual precipitation varies from as little as {{convert|160|mm|in|1}} in its narrow proportion of the [[Rain shadow|rainshadow]] north of the [[Himalayas]] to as much as {{convert|5500|mm|in|1}} on windward slopes, the maximum mainly resting on the magnitude of the [[South Asian monsoon]].<ref>[http://150.217.73.85/wlfpdf/02_Dahal.pdf Dahal]{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Forming south-to-north transects, Nepal can be divided into three belts: Terai, Pahad and Himal. In the other direction, it is divided into three major river systems, east to west: [[Koshi River|Koshi]], [[Gandaki River|Gandaki/Narayani]] and [[Karnali River|Karnali]] (including the [[Mahakali River|Mahakali]] along the western border), all tributaries of the [[Ganges River|Ganges river]]. The Ganges-[[Yarlung Zangbo River|Yarlung Zangbo]]/[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] watershed largely coincides with the Nepal-Tibet border, save for certain tributaries rising beyond it.

{{Anchor|Himalaya}}

=== {{anchor|Himal|Mount}}Himal ===
[[Image:Himalayas.jpg|thumb|280px|right|[[Perspective (visual)|Perspective]] view of the Himalayas and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. ([[:Image:himalaya annotated.jpg|annotated version]])]]
Himal Region is a mountainous region containing snow.
The Mountain Region begins where high ridges (Nepali: लेक; lekh) begin substantially rising above {{convert|3000|m|ft|-3}} into the [[Montane#Subalpine zone|subalpine]] and [[Montane#Alpine grasslands and tundra|alpine zone]] which are mainly used for seasonal pasturage. By geographical view, it covers 15% of the total area of Nepal. A few tens kilometers further north the high Himalaya abruptly rise along the Main Central Thrust fault zone above the [[snow line]] at {{convert|5000|to|5500|m|ft|-2}}. Some 90 of Nepal's peaks exceed {{convert|7000|m|ft|-2}} and eight exceed {{convert|8000|m|ft|0}} including [[Mount Everest]] at {{convert|8848|m|ft|0}} and [[Kanchenjunga]] at {{convert|8598|m|ft}}.

There are some 20 subranges including the [[Kangchenjunga|Kanchenjunga]] massif along with the [[Mahalangur Himal]] around Mount Everest. [[Langtang]] north of Kathmandu, [[Annapurna]] and [[Manaslu]] north of Pokhara, then [[Dhaulagiri]] further west with [[Kanjiroba Himal|Kanjiroba]] north of [[Jumla district|Jumla]] and finally [[Gurans Himal]] in the far west.

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:85%; margin:auto; text-align:center;"
|+ style="font-size:125%;|'''Nepal’s highest mountains'''{{cn|date=April 2025}}
! style="text-align: center;" | '''Mountain'''
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:rgb(204, 153, 51); text-align:center;" | '''Height'''
! style="text-align:center; background:rgb(204, 153, 51); text-align:center;" | '''Section'''
! style="text-align:center; background:rgb(204, 153, 51); text-align:center;" | '''Location'''
|-
| [[Mount Everest]]<br />(Highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | &nbsp; 8,848&nbsp;m &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | &nbsp; 29,029&nbsp;ft &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | [[Khumbu]] [[Mahalangur Himal|Mahalangur]]
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" |[[Khumbu Pasanglhamu]], [[Solukhumbu District]],<br />[[Province No. 1]] (Nepal-China Border)
|-
| [[Kangchenjunga]]<br />(3rd highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | 8,586&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | 28,169&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | &nbsp; Northern Kanchenjunga &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | {{nbsp|4}}[[Phaktanglung]] / [[Sirijangha]], [[Taplejung District]],<br />[[Province No. 1]] (Nepal-India Border)
|-
| [[Lhotse]]<br />(4th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | 8,516&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | 27,940&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(146, 215, 200);" | Everest Group
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" |[[Khumbu Pasanglhamu]], [[Solukhumbu District]],<br />[[Province No. 1]] (Nepal-China Border)
|-
| [[Makalu]]<br />(5th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 8,462&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 27,762&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | Makalu Mahalangur
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | {{nbsp|4}}[[Makalu, Sankhuwasabha|Makalu]], [[Sankhuwasabha District]],<br />[[Province No. 1]] (Nepal-China Border)
|-
| [[Cho Oyu]]<br />(6th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 8,201&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 26,906&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | Khumbu Mahalangur
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | {{nbsp|4}}[[Khumbu Pasanglhamu]], [[Solukhumbu District]],<br /> [[Province No. 1]] (Nepal-China Border)
|-
| [[Dhaulagiri]]<br />(7th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 8,167&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 26,795&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | Dhaulagiri
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | Dhaulagiri, [[Myagdi District]],
[[Gandaki Province]]
|-
| [[Manaslu]]<br />(8th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 8,163&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 26,759&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" |[[Mansiri Himal]]
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | {{nbsp|4}}Tsum Nubri, [[Gorkha District]] / Nashong, [[Manang District]],
[[Gandaki Province]]
|-
| [[Annapurna]]<br />(10th highest in the world)
| style="text-align:center;background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 8,091&nbsp;m
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | 26,545&nbsp;ft
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" |[[Annapurna Massif]]
| style="text-align:center; background:rgb(145, 215, 200);" | {{nbsp|4}}Annapurna, [[Kaski District]] / Annapurna, [[Myagdi District]],
[[Gandaki Province]]
|}

==== Trans-Himalayan ====
The main watershed between the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] (called ''[[Yarlung Zangbo River|Yarlung Tsangpo]]'' in [[Tibet]]) and the [[Ganges]] system (including all of Nepal) actually lies north of the highest ranges. Alpine, often semi-arid valleys—including [[Humla district|Humla]], [[Jumla district|Jumla]], [[Dolpo]], [[Mustang District|Mustang]], [[Manang]] and [[Khumbu]]—cut between Himalayan sub ranges or lie north of them.

Some of these valleys historically were more accessible from [[Tibet]] than Nepal and are populated by people with [[Tibetan People|Tibetan]] affinities called ''[[Bhotiya]]'' or ''[[Bhutia]]'' including the famous [[Sherpa people|Sherpas]] in Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. With [[Sinicization of Tibet|Chinese cultural hegemony]] in Tibet itself, these valleys have become repositories of traditional ways. Valleys with better access from the hill regions to the south are culturally linked to Nepal as well as Tibet, notably the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]] where [[Thakali people|Thakali]] culture shows influences in both directions.

Permanent villages in the mountain region stand as high as {{convert|4500|m|ft|-3}} with summer encampments even higher. Bhotiyas graze [[yak]]s, grow cold-tolerant crops such as [[potato]]es, [[barley]], [[buckwheat]] and [[millet]]. They traditionally traded across the mountains, e.g., Tibetan salt for [[rice]] from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since trade was restricted in the 1950s they have found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_130-133_05.pdf | title = Important Trade Routes in Nepal and Their Importance to the Settlement Process | first1 = Rainer | last1 = Graafen | first2 = Christian | last2 = Seeber | work = Ancient Nepal | volume = 130 | date = June 1992 | access-date = 22 September 2020 | archive-date = 18 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210418194602/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_130-133_05.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

=== {{anchor|The Hilly |Hilly}} Hilly ===
[[File:Pame-pokhara - Flickr - thapa.laxman.jpg|thumb|Middle Hills]]
Hilly Region is a mountain region which does not generally contain snow. It is situated to the south of the Himal Region (the snowy mountain region). This region begins at the [[Lower Himalayan Range]], where a fault system called the ''Main Boundary Thrust'' creates an escarpment {{convert|1000|to|1500|m|ft|-3}} high, to a crest between {{convert|1500|and|2700|m|ft|-3}}. It covers 68% of the total area of Nepal.

These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hilly. [[Pahari people (Nepal)|Paharis]] mainly populate river and stream bottoms that enable [[Paddy field|rice cultivation]] and are warm enough for winter/spring crops of [[wheat]] and [[potato]]. The increasingly urbanized [[Kathmandu Valley|Kathmandu]] and [[Pokhara Valley|Pokhara]] valleys fall within the Hill region. [[Newa people|Newars]] are an [[Adivasi|indigenous]] ethnic group with their own [[Tibeto-Burman]] [[Newar language|language]]. The Newar were originally indigenous to the Kathmandu valley but have spread into Pokhara and [[Newa people#Settlements|other towns]] alongside urbanized Pahari.

Other indigenous Janajati ethnic groups -— natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects -— populate hillsides up to about {{convert|2500|m|ft|-3}}. This group includes [[Magar people|Magar]] and [[Kham Magar]] west of Pokhara, [[Gurung]] south of the Annapurnas, [[Tamang people|Tamang]] around the periphery of Kathmandu Valley and [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sunuwar|Koinch Sunuwar]] and [[Limbu people|Limbu]] further east. Temperate and subtropical fruits are grown as cash crops. [[Cannabis (drug)|Marijuana]] was grown and processed into ''[[Charas]]'' ([[hashish]]) until international pressure persuaded the [[Kingdom of Nepal|government]] to outlaw it in 1976. There is increasing reliance on animal husbandry with elevation, using land above {{convert|2000|m|ft|-3}} for summer grazing and [[Transhumance|moving herds to lower elevations in winter]]. Grain production has not kept pace with population growth at elevations above {{convert|1000|m|ft|-2}} where colder temperatures inhibit [[Multiple cropping|double cropping]]. Food deficits drive emigration out of the Pahad in search of employment.

The Hilly ends where ridges begin substantially rising out of the [[temperate climate]] zone into [[subalpine zone]] above {{convert|3000|m|ft|-3}}.

{{Anchor|Terai}}

=== {{anchor|The Terai Region|Terai}} Terai ===
{{Main|Terai|Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal}}
Terai is a low land region containing some hill ranges. Looking out for its coverage, it covers 17% of the total area of Nepal. The Terai (also spelt Tarai) region begins at the Indian border and includes the southernmost part of the flat, intensively farmed [[Gangetic Plain]] called the ''Outer Terai''. By the 19th century, timber and other resources were being exported to India. Industrialization based on agricultural products such as [[jute]] began in the 1930s and infrastructure such as roadways, railways and electricity were extended across the border before it reached Nepal's Pahad region.

The Outer Terai is culturally more similar to adjacent parts of India's [[Bihari people|Bihar]] and [[Culture of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]] than to the Pahad of Nepal. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is taught in schools and often spoken in government offices, however, the local population mostly uses [[Maithil|Maithali]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Tharu languages|Tharu]] languages.

The Outer Terai ends at the base of the first range of foothills called the ''[[Sivalik Hills|Chure Hills]]'' or ''Churia''. This range has a densely forested skirt of coarse alluvium called the ''[[Bhabar]]''. Below the Bhabhar, finer, less permeable sediments force groundwater to the surface in a zone of springs and marshes. In [[Persian language|Persian]], ''terai'' refers to wet or marshy ground. Before the use of [[DDT#Use against malaria|DDT]] this was dangerously [[malaria]]l. Nepal's rulers used this for a defensive frontier called the ''char kose jhadi'' (four ''kos'' forest, one kos equaling about three kilometers or two miles).

Above the [[Bhabar]] belt, the [[Sivalik Hills|Chure Hills]] rise to about {{convert|700|m|ft|0}} with peaks as high as {{convert|1000|m|ft|0}}, steeper on their southern flanks because of faults are known as the Main Frontal Thrust. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that do not retain water or support soil development so there is virtually no agricultural potential and sparse population.

In several places beyond the Chure, there are [[Doon Valley|dūn valleys]] called [[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|'''Inner Terai''']]. These valleys have productive soil but were dangerously malarial except to [[Adivasi|indigenous]] [[Tharu people]] who had [[Thalassemia|genetic resistance]]. In the mid-1950s [[DDT]] came into use to [[DDT#Use against malaria|suppress mosquitos]] and the way was open to settlement from the land-poor hills, to the detriment of the Tharu.

The Terai ends and the Pahad begin at a higher range of foothills called the [[Lower Himalayan Range]].

==Climate==
[[File:Köppen climate types of Nepal.svg|thumb|300px|Nepal map of Köppen climate classification zones]]

===Altitudinal belts===
[[Image:Satellite image of Nepal in October 2002.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Satellite image of Nepal in October 2002]]
Nepal's latitude is about the same as that of the United States state of [[Florida]], however with elevations ranging from less than {{convert|100|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} to over {{convert|8000|m|ft|-3|sp=us}} and precipitation from {{convert|160|mm|in|0|sp=us}} to over {{convert|5000|mm|ft|0|sp=us}} the country has eight climate zones from tropical to perpetual snow.<ref>{{Citation
 | title = The Map of Potential Vegetation of Nepal - a forestry/agroecological/biodiversity classification system
 | series = Forest & Landscape Development and Environment Series 2-2005 and CFC-TIS Document Series No.110.
 | year = 2005
 | url = http://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/20497354/de2_001.pdf
 | isbn = 87-7903-210-9
 | access-date = Nov 22, 2013
 | archive-date = 3 December 2013
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032538/http://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/20497354/de2_001.pdf
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

The '''[[tropical climate|tropical]] zone''' below {{convert|1000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} experiences [[frost]] less than once per decade. It can be subdivided into lower tropical (below 300 meters or 1,000&nbsp;ft.) with 18% of the nation's land area) and upper (18% of land area) tropical zones. The best [[mango]]es and well as [[papaya]] and [[banana]] are largely confined to the lower zone. Other fruit such as [[litchee]], [[jackfruit]], [[citrus]] and mangoes of lower quality grow in the upper tropical zone as well. Winter crops include grains and vegetables typically grown in temperate climates. The Outer Terai is virtually all in the lower tropical zone. Inner Terai valleys span both tropical zones. The Sivalik Hills are mostly upper tropical. Tropical climate zones extend far upriver valleys across the Middle Hills and even into the Mountain regions.

The '''[[Subtropics|subtropical]] climate zone''' from {{convert|1000|to|2000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} occupies 22% of Nepal's land area and is the most prevalent climate of the Middle Hills above river valleys. It experiences frost up to 53 days per year, however, this varies greatly with elevation, proximity to high mountains and terrain either draining or ponding cold air drainage. Crops include [[rice]], [[maize]], [[millet]], [[wheat]], [[potato]], [[Drupe|stone fruits]] and citrus.

The great majority of Nepal's population occupies the tropical and subtropical climate zones. In the Middle Hills, "upper-caste" Hindus are concentrated in tropical valleys which are well suited for rice cultivation while [[Adivasi|Janajati]] ethnic groups mostly live above in the subtropical zone and grow other grains more than rice.

The '''[[Temperate climate]] zone''' from {{convert|2000|to|3000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} occupies 12% of Nepal's land area and has up to 153 annual days of frost. It is encountered in higher parts of the Middle Hills and throughout much of the Mountain region. Crops include cold-tolerant rice, maize, wheat, [[barley]], potato, [[apple]], [[walnut]], [[peach]], various cole, [[amaranth]]us and [[buckwheat]].

The '''[[Subalpine#Subalpine zone|Subalpine]] zone''' from {{convert|3000|to|4000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} occupies 9% of Nepal's land area, mainly in the Mountain and Himalayan regions. It has permanent settlements in the Himalaya, but further south it is only seasonally occupied as pasture for sheep, goats, yak and hybrids in warmer months. There are up to 229 annual days of frost here. Crops include barley, potato, [[cabbage]], [[cauliflower]], amaranthus, buckwheat and apple. Medicinal plants are also gathered.

The '''[[Montane ecology#Alpine grasslands and tundra|Alpine]] zone''' from {{convert|4000|to|5000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} occupies 8% of the country's land area. There are a few permanent settlements above 4,000 meters. There is virtually no plant cultivation although medicinal herbs are gathered. [[Sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[Domestic yak|yaks]] and hybrids are pastured in warmer months.

Above 5,000 meters the climate becomes '''[[Snow line|Nival]]''' and there is no human habitation or even seasonal use.

Arid and semi-arid land in the [[rainshadow]] of high ranges have a '''[[Cold desert#Cold desert climates|Transhimalayan climate]]'''. Population density is very low. Cultivation and husbandry conform to subalpine and alpine patterns but depend on snowmelt and streams for irrigation.

Precipitation generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance from the [[Bay of Bengal]], source of the summer monsoon. Eastern Nepal gets about {{convert|2500|mm|in|-1|abbr=on}} annually; the Kathmandu area about {{convert|1400|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} and western Nepal about {{convert|1000|mm|in|-1|abbr=on}}. This pattern is modified by adiabatic effects as rising air masses cool and drop their moisture content on windward slopes, then warm up as they descend so relative humidity drops. Annual precipitation reaches {{convert|5500|mm|ft|0|abbr=on}} on windward slopes in the [[Annapurna]] Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the [[Lower Himalayan Range]]. In [[Rain shadow|rainshadows]] beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation drops as low as {{convert|160|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}.

===Seasons===
The year is divided into a wet season from June to September—as summer warmth over Inner Asia creates a low-pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean—and a dry season from October to June as cold temperatures in the vast interior create a high-pressure zone causing dry air to flow outward. April and May are months of intense water stress when cumulative effects of the long dry season are exacerbated by temperatures rising over {{convert|40|°C|°F}} in the tropical climate belt. Seasonal drought further intensifies in the [[Siwaliks]] hills consisting of poorly consolidated, coarse, permeable sediments that do not retain water, so hillsides are often covered with drought-tolerant scrub forest. In fact, much of Nepal's native vegetation adapted to withstand drought, but less so at higher elevations where cooler temperatures mean less water stress.

The summer [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoon]] may be preceded by a buildup of thunderstorm activity that provides water for rice seedbeds. Sustained rain on average arrives in mid-June as rising temperatures over [[Inner Asia]] creates a low-pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean, but this can vary up to a month. Significant failure of monsoon rains historically meant drought and famine while above-normal rains still cause flooding and landslides with losses in human lives, farmland and buildings.

The monsoon also complicates transportation with roads and trails washing out while unpaved roads and airstrips may become unusable and cloud cover reduces safety margins for aviation. Rains diminish in September and generally end by mid-October, ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two largest and most important Hindu festivals—[[Dashain]] and [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]] ([[Diwali|Dipawali]])—arrive during this period, about one month apart. The post-monsoon season lasts until about December.

After the post-monsoon comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. In this season the Himalayas function as a barrier to cold air masses from Inner Asia, so southern Nepal and northern India have warmer winters than would otherwise be the case. April and May are dry and hot, especially below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-3|sp=us}} where afternoon temperatures may exceed {{convert|40|°C|°F}}.

==Environment==
The dramatic changes in elevation along this transect result in a variety of [[biome]]s, from [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical savannas]] along the Indian border, to [[subtropical]] [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|broadleaf]] and [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|coniferous forests]] in the hills, to [[temperate]] [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|broadleaf]] and [[Temperate coniferous forest|coniferous]] forests on the slopes of the Himalaya, to [[montane grasslands and shrublands]], and finally rock and ice at the highest elevations.

This corresponds to the [[Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands]] ecoregion.

Subtropical forests dominate the lower elevations of the Hill region. They form a mosaic running east–west across Nepal, with [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]] between {{convert|500|and|1000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}} and [[Himalayan subtropical pine forests]] between {{convert|1000|and|2000|m|ft|-2|sp=us}}. At higher elevations, to {{convert|3000|m|ft|-3|sp=us}}, are found temperate broadleaf forests: [[eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]] to the east of the [[Gandaki River]] and [[western Himalayan broadleaf forests]] to the west.

The native forests of the Mountain region change from east to west as precipitation decreases. They can be broadly classified by their relation to the Gandaki River. From {{convert|3000|to|4000|m|ft|-3|sp=us}} are the [[eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests|eastern]] and [[western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]]. To {{convert|5500|m|ft|-3|sp=us}} are the [[eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows|eastern]] and [[western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]].

=== Environmental issues ===
{{Main|Environmental issues in Nepal}}

; Natural hazards:
: [[Earthquake]]s, severe [[thunderstorm]]s ([[tornadoes]] are rare<ref>{{cite news  |last = Mallapaty  |first = Smriti  |title = Nepali scientists record country's first tornado: The team confirmed the rare event using satellite images, social-media posts and a visit to the affected area  |newspaper = Nature News  |publisher = Spring Nature Publishing  |date = 12 April 2019  |url = https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01159-w  |access-date = 21 April 2019  |archive-date = 17 April 2019  |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190417101005/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01159-w  |url-status = live  }}</ref>), [[flood]]ing and flash [[flood]]ing, [[landslide]]s, [[drought]], and [[famine]] depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer [[monsoon]]s
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Deforestation in Nepal|Deforestation]] (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions
; Environment - international agreements
:* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Desertification]], Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the sea|Law of the Sea]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
:* Signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation
:* Existing and proposed dams, barrages and canals for flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric generation

== River systems ==
{{see also|List of rivers of Nepal}}
Nepal has three categories of rivers. The largest systems -— from east to west the [[Koshi River|Koshi]], [[Gandaki River|Gandaki/Narayani]], [[Karnali River|Karnali/Goghra]] and [[Sarda River|Mahakali]]—originate in multiple [[Tributary|tributaries]] rising in or beyond the high Himalaya that maintain substantial flows from snowmelt through the hot, drought-stricken spring before the summer [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoon]]. These tributaries cross the highest mountains in deep gorges, flow south through the Middle Hills, then join in [[candelabra]]-like configuration before crossing the [[Lower Himalayan Range]] and emerging onto the plains where they have deposited [[alluvial fan|megafans]] exceeding {{convert|10000|km2|mi2|-3|abbr=on}} in area.

The Koshi is also called ''[[Sapta Koshi]]'' for its seven Himalayan tributaries in eastern Nepal: [[Indravati River, Nepal|Indrawati]], [[Sun Kosi|Sun Koshi]], Tama Koshi, [[Dudh Kosi|Dudh Koshi]], Liku, [[Arun River (Nepal)|Arun]], and [[Tamor River|Tamor]]. The Arun rises in Tibet some {{convert|150|km|mi|-2|sp=us}} beyond Nepal's northern border. A tributary of the Sun Koshi, [[Bhote Koshi]] also rises in Tibet and is followed by the [[Arniko Rajmarg|Arniko Highway]] connecting [[Kathmandu]] and [[Lhasa (prefecture-level city)|Lhasa]].

The ''[[Gandaki River|Gandaki/Narayani]]'' has seven Himalayan tributaries in the center of the country: [[Daraundi River|Daraundi]], [[Seti Gandaki River|Seti Gandaki]], Madi, Kali, [[Marsyandi]], Budhi, and [[Trisuli River|Trisuli]] also called ''Sapta Gandaki''. The ''Kali Gandaki'' rises on the edge of the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and flows through the semi-independent [[Mustang (kingdom)|Kingdom of Mustang]], then between the 8,000 meter [[Dhaulagiri]] and [[Annapurna]] ranges in the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge|world's deepest valley]]. The Trisuli rises north of the international border inside Tibet. After the seven upper tributaries join, the river becomes the ''Narayani'' inside Nepal and is joined by the East Rapti from [[Chitwan Valley]]. Crossing into [[India]], its name changes to ''Gandak''.

The [[Ghaghara River|Karnali]] drains western Nepal, with the [[Bheri River|Bheri]] and [[Seti River|Seti]] as major tributaries. The upper Bheri drains [[Dolpo]], a remote valley beyond the [[Dhaulagiri]] Himalaya with traditional Tibetan cultural affinities. The upper Karnali rises inside Tibet near-sacred [[Lake Manasarovar]] and [[Mount Kailash]]. The area around these features is the hydrographic nexus of [[South Asia]] since it holds the sources of the [[Indus River|Indus]] and its major tributary the [[Sutlej]], the Karnali—a [[Ganges Basin|Ganges tributary]]—and the [[Yarlung Zangbo River|Yarlung Tsangpo]]/[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]].  It is the centre of the universe according to [[Mount Meru (mythology)|traditional cosmography]]. The [[Sarda River|Mahakali]] or ''Kali'' along the Nepal-India border on the west joins the Karnali in India, where the river is known as ''Goghra'' or ''Ghaghara''.

'''Second category''' rivers rise in the Middle Hills and Lower Himalayan Range, from east to west the [[Mechi River|Mechi]], [[Kankai River|Kankai]] and [[Kamala River|Kamala]] south of the Kosi; the [[Bagmati]] that drains [[Kathmandu Valley]] between the Kosi and Gandaki systems, then the [[West Rapti River|West Rapti]] and the Babai between the Gandaki and Karnali systems. Without glacial sources, annual flow regimes in these rivers are more variable although limited flow persists through the dry season.

'''Third category''' rivers rise in the outermost [[Siwalik]] foothills and are mostly seasonal.

None of these river systems supports significant commercial navigation. Instead, deep gorges create obstacles to establishing transport and communication networks and de-fragmenting the economy. Foot-trails are still the primary transportation routes in many hill districts.

[[Image:NepalOMC.png|thumb|500px|Nepal's towns, villages, rivers and peaks]]

===River management===
Rivers in all three categories are capable of causing serious floods. Koshi River in the first category caused a major flood in [[2008 Bihar flood|August 2008]] in [[Bihar]] state, India after breaking through a poorly maintained embankment just inside Nepal. The West Rapti in the second category is called "[[Gorakhpur]]'s Sorrow" for its history of [[urban flooding]]. Third category Terai rivers are associated with flash floods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aryal |first1=Ravi Sharma |last2=Rajkarnikar |first2=Gautam |year=2011 |title=Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change |page=vii |url=http://www.wecs.gov.np/pdf/water-recource-climate-change.pdf |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Government of Nepal, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat |access-date=Dec 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103110505/http://www.wecs.gov.np/pdf/water-recource-climate-change.pdf |archive-date=January 3, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Since uplift and erosion are more or less in equilibrium in the Himalaya, at least where the climate is humid,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hack |first=John T. |year=1960 |title=Interpretation of Erosional Topography in Humid Temperate Regions |url=http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1960/ajs_258A_11.pdf/80.pdf |journal=American Journal of Science |volume=258-A |pages=80–97 |access-date=December 10, 2013 |archive-date=17 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417030202/http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1960/ajs_258A_11.pdf/80.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> rapid uplift must be balanced out by annual increments of millions tonnes of sediments washing down from the mountains; then on the plains settling out of suspension on vast [[alluvial fan]]s over which rivers meander and change course at least every few decades, causing some experts to question whether manmade embankments can contain the problem of flooding.<ref>
{{cite journal |last1=Devkota |first1=Lochan |last2=Crosato |first2=Alessandra | last3=Giri |first3=Sanjay
|year=2012 |title=Effect of the barrage and embankments on flooding and channel avulsion, case study Koshi River, Nepal
|url= http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:b9026f10-e9b8-4cc6-9e27-93416804eac5 |journal=Rural Infrastructure |volume=3 |issue=3
|pages=124–132 |access-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref> Traditional ''[[Mithila (Nepal)|Mithila]]'' culture along the lower Koshi in Nepal and Bihar celebrated the river as the giver of life for its fertile alluvial soil, yet also the taker of life through its catastrophic floods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://onesstandpoint.blogspot.com/2009/05/floods-of-mithila-region-raising.html |title=Floods of Mithila Region: Raising Questions on Survival |last1=Thakur |first1=Atul Kumar |date=May 7, 2009 |website=Standpoint |access-date=December 9, 2013 |archive-date=18 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218165541/http://onesstandpoint.blogspot.com/2009/05/floods-of-mithila-region-raising.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Large [[reservoir]]s in the Middle Hills may be able to capture peak flows and mitigate downstream flooding, to store surplus monsoon flows for dry season irrigation and to generate [[hydroelectricity|electricity]]. Water for irrigation is especially compelling because the Indian Terai is suspected to have entered a food bubble where dry season crops are dependent on water from [[tube well]]s that in the aggregate are unsustainably "mining" groundwater.
<ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=November 29, 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/la-xpm-2013-nov-29-la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=December 18, 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=Dec 10, 2013 }} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716002335/http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 |date=16 July 2014 }}</ref>

Depletion of aquifers without building upstream dams as a sustainable alternative water source could precipitate a [[Malthusian catastrophe]] in India's [[Food security|food insecure]] states [[Uttar Pradesh]]{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} and [[Bihar]],<ref>{{cite book |author=The United Nations. World Food Programme |title=Food Security Atlas of Rural Bihar |url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/FSARB.pdf |location=New Delhi |publisher=Institute for Human Development |year=2009 |access-date=Dec 11, 2013 |archive-date=14 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214121843/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/FSARB.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with over 300 million combined population. With India already experiencing a [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/the-naxalite-insurgency-in-india-3823/ |title=The Naxalite Insurgency in India |last1=Kennedy |first1=Kristian A. |date=May 17, 2010 |website=Geopolitical Monitor |access-date=December 11, 2013 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215140334/http://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/the-naxalite-insurgency-in-india-3823/ |url-status=live }}</ref> in Bihar, [[Jharkhand]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], Nepalese reluctance to agree to water projects could even seem an existential threat to India.<ref name="Malhotra">{{cite journal |last=Malhotra |first=Pia |date=July 2010 |title=Water Issues between Nepal, India & Bangladesh, a Review of Literature |url=http://www.ipcs.org/pdf_file/issue/SR95.pdf |journal=IPCS Special Report No. 95 |publisher=Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies |location=New Delhi |page=11 |access-date=December 11, 2013 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126095018/http://www.ipcs.org/pdf_file/issue/SR95.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

As Nepal builds barrages to divert more water for irrigation during the dry season preceding the summer monsoon, there is less for downstream users in [[Bangladesh]] and India's Bihar and Uttar Pradesh states. The best solution could be building large upstream reservoirs, to capture and store surplus flows during the summer monsoon as well as providing flood control benefits to Bangladesh and India. Then water-sharing agreements could allocate a portion of the stored water to be left to flow into India during the following dry season.

Nevertheless, building dams in Nepal is controversial for several reasons. First, the region is seismically active. Dam failures caused by earthquakes could cause tremendous death and destruction downstream, particularly on the densely populated Gangetic Plain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thapa |first=A.B. |date=January 2010 |title=Revision of the West Seti Dam Design in Nepal |url=http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/HN/article/download/4195/3569 |journal=Hydro Nepal |place=Kathmandu |issue=6 |access-date=December 11, 2013 |archive-date=14 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214021551/http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/HN/article/download/4195/3569 |url-status=live }}</ref> Second, global warming has led to the formation of [[glacial lake]]s dammed by unstable [[moraine]]s. Sudden failures of these moraines can cause [[Glacial lake outburst flood|floods]] with cascading failures of manmade structures downstream.<ref>{{cite journal |last=ICIMOD |year=2011 |title=Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal |url=http://www.icimod.org/dvds/201104_GLOF/reports/final_report.pdf |publisher=International Center for Integrated Mountain Development |place=Kathmandu |access-date=December 11, 2013 |archive-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124041219/http://www.icimod.org/dvds/201104_GLOF/reports/final_report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Third, sedimentation rates in the Himalaya are extremely high, leading to rapid loss of storage capacity as sediments accumulate behind dams.<ref>{{cite journal
 |last=Choden
 |first=Sonam
 |year=2009
 |title=Sediment Transport Studies in Punatsangchu River, Bhutan
 |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=1415878&fileOId=1415879
 |publisher=Lund University, Water Resources Engineering
 |place=Lund, Sweden
 |access-date=December 11, 2013
 |archive-date=15 December 2013
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215211600/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=1415878&fileOId=1415879
 |url-status=live
 }}</ref> Fourth, there are complicated questions of cross-border equity in how India and Nepal would share costs and benefits that have proven difficult to resolve in the context of frequent acrimony between the two countries.<ref name="Malhotra" />

== Area ==
:* Total: {{convert|147516|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us|abbr=on}}
:* Land: {{convert|143181|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us|abbr=on}}
:* Water: {{convert|4000|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us|abbr=on}}

; Coastline:
: 0 km (landlocked)
: 
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Kechana Kawal]], [[jhapa district]] 59 m
:* Highest point: Sagarmatha ([[Mount Everest]]) 8,848 m

== Resources and land use ==
; Natural resources:
:[[Quartz]], water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of [[lignite]], [[copper]], [[cobalt]], [[iron ore]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 16.0%
:* Permanent crops: 0.8%
:* Other: 83.2% (2001)
; Irrigated land:
: 11,680 km² (2003) Nearly 50% of arable land
; Total renewable water resources
: 210.2 km<sup>3</sup> (2011)

== Land cover ==
[[File:Land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30 m (2010) data.jpg|alt=Land cover map of 2010|thumb|450px|A land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30 m (2010) data.]]
[[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development|ICIMOD]]’s first and most complete national land cover<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Development of 2010 national land cover database for the Nepal|journal = Journal of Environmental Management|date = 2015-01-15|pages = 82–90|volume = 148|series = Land Cover/Land Use Change (LC/LUC) and Environmental Impacts in South Asia|doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.047|pmid = 25181944|first1 = Kabir|last1 = Uddin|first2 = Him Lal|last2 = Shrestha|first3 = M. S. R.|last3 = Murthy|first4 = Birendra|last4 = Bajracharya|first5 = Basanta|last5 = Shrestha|first6 = Hammad|last6 = Gilani|first7 = Sudip|last7 = Pradhan|first8 = Bikash|last8 = Dangol}}</ref> database of Nepal prepared using public domain [[Landsat program|Landsat]] [[Thematic Mapper|TM]] data of 2010 shows that show that forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country. Most of this [[forest cover]] is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> or 14.4% of the geographical area.

Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8267&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (5.62%). Agriculture area is significant extending over 43,910&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (29.83%). As would be expected, the high mountain area is largely covered by snow and glaciers and barren land.

[[File:Agriculture land of Nepal.jpg|alt=Terrance agriculture land of Nepal|thumb|300px|Terraced farmland in Nepal.]]
The Hill region constitutes the largest portion of [[Nepal]], covering 29.5% of the geographical area, and has a large area (19,783&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) of cultivated or managed lands, natural and semi natural vegetation (22,621&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) and artificial surfaces (200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). The Tarai region has more cultivated or managed land (14,104&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) and comparatively less natural and semi natural vegetation (4280&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). The Tarai has only 267&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of natural water bodies. The High mountain region has 12,062&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of natural water bodies, snow/glaciers and 13,105&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> barren areas.

=== Forests ===
25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about {{convert|36360|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}} is covered with forest according to [[FAO]] figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of ''primary forest'' which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as ''protected'' while about 21.4% is ''conserved'' according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as ''production forest''. Between 2000 and 2005, Nepal lost about {{convert|2640|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}} of forest. Nepal's 2000–2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of {{convert|530|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}} of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990 to 2000 was {{convert|920|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}} or 2.1% per year. The 2000–2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is −0.4% or {{convert|70|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}} per year. Forest is not changing in the plan land of Nepal, forest fragmenting on the "Roof of the World".<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The changing land cover and fragmenting forest on the Roof of the World: A case study in Nepal's Kailash Sacred Landscape|journal = Landscape and Urban Planning|date = September 2015|pages = 1–10|volume = 141|doi = 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.04.003|first1 = Kabir|last1 = Uddin|first2 = Sunita|last2 = Chaudhary|first3 = Nakul|last3 = Chettri|first4 = Rajan|last4 = Kotru|first5 = Manchiraju|last5 = Murthy|first6 = Ram Prasad|last6 = Chaudhary|first7 = Wu|last7 = Ning|first8 = Sahas Man|last8 = Shrestha|first9 = Shree Krishna|last9 = Gautam|doi-access = free}}</ref>

According to [[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development|ICIMOD]] figures from 2010, forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country.<ref name="Uddin 82–90">{{Cite journal|title = Development of 2010 national land cover database for the Nepal|journal = Journal of Environmental Management|date = January 15, 2015|pages = 82–90|volume = 148|series = Land Cover/Land Use Change (LC/LUC) and Environmental Impacts in South Asia|doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.047|first1 = Kabir|last1 = Uddin|first2 = Him Lal|last2 = Shrestha|first3 = M. S. R.|last3 = Murthy|first4 = Birendra|last4 = Bajracharya|first5 = Basanta|last5 = Shrestha|first6 = Hammad|last6 = Gilani|first7 = Sudip|last7 = Pradhan|first8 = Bikash|last8 = Dangol|pmid = 25181944}}</ref> Most of this forest cover is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> or 14.4% of the geographical area. Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8,267&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (5.62%). At national level 64.8% area is covered by core forests of > 500 ha size and 23.8% forests belong to patch and edge category forests. The patch forest constituted 748&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> at national level, out of which 494&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of patch forests are present in hill regions. Middle mountains, Siwaliks and Terai regions have more than 70% of the forest area under core forest category > 500 ha size. The edge forests constituted around 30% of forest area of High Mountain and Hill regions.<ref name="Uddin 82–90"/>
Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) which was conducted between 2010 and 2014 by the Ministry of Forest and Soil conservation with the financial and technical help of the Government of Finland shows that 40.36% of the land of Nepal is forested. 4.40% of the land has shrubs and bushes.

Deforestation is driven by multiple processes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kathmandu Forestry College |year=2013 |title=Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/chal_deforestation_report_final__15nov13.pdf |location=Kathmandu |publisher=World Wildlife Fund Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program |access-date=Dec 11, 2013 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305003731/http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/chal_deforestation_report_final__15nov13.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
Virtually throughout the nation, over-harvest of [[firewood]] remains problematic. Despite the availability of [[liquefied petroleum gas]] in towns and cities, firewood is sold more at energy-competitive prices because cutting and selling it is a fallback when better employment opportunities aren't forthcoming. Firewood still supplies 80% of Nepal's energy for heating and cooking. Harvesting construction timber and lopping branches for fodder for cattle and other farm animals are also deforestation/degradation drivers in all geographic zones.

[[Illegal logging]] is a problem in the Siwaliks, with sawlogs smuggled into India.<ref>{{cite news
 |last=Khadka
 |first=Navin Singh
 |date=September 28, 2010
 |title=Nepal's forests 'being stripped by Indian timber demand'
 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11430622
 |location=London
 |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation
 |access-date=December 11, 2013
 |archive-date=13 October 2018
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013044307/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11430622
 |url-status=live
 }}</ref> Clearing for resettlement and agriculture expansion also causes deforestation as does urban expansion, building infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, electric transmission lines, water tanks, police and army barracks, temples and picnic areas.

In the Middle Hills road construction, reservoirs, transmission lines and extractive manufacturing such as cement factories cause deforestation. In the mountains building hotels, monasteries and trekking trails cause deforestation while timber-smuggling into the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and over-grazing cause degradation.

==Boundaries==
:* Total: 2,926 km
:* Border countries: [[China]] 1,236 km, [[India]] 1,690 km

===Border crossings with India===
While India and Nepal have an open border with no restrictions on movement of their citizens on either side, there are 23 [[Border checkpoint|checkpoints]] for trade purposes.  These are listed in clockwise order, east to west.  The six in '''''italics''''' are also used for entry/exit by third country nationals.<ref name=border>{{cite web
| url = http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm
| title = Nepal-India Open Border: Prospects, Problems and Challenges
| publisher = Nepal Democracy
| access-date = 2012-01-02
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051018202001/http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm
| archive-date = 2005-10-18
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Crossing<br>Name
!Crossing<br>Location
![[List of cities in Nepal|Nepali town]]
![[List of districts of Nepal|District]]
![[Provinces of Nepal|Province]]
!Indian town
![[List of districts of India|District]]
![[States and territories of India|State]]
|-
| Pashupatinagar
| {{coord|26|56|54|N|88|07|20|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Pashupatinagar, Mechi|Pashupatinagar]]
| [[Ilam District|Ilam]]
| [[Province No. 1]]
| [[Sukhiapokhri]]
| [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]]
| [[West Bengal]]
|-
| '''''Mechi'''''
| {{coord|26|38|41|N|88|09|43|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Kankarbhitta|Kakarbhitta]]
| [[Jhapa district|Jhapa]]
| [[Province No. 1]]
| [[Naxalbari]] (Panitanki)
| [[Darjeeling district]]
| [[West Bengal]]
|-
|
| {{coord|26|32|50|N|88|06|36|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Bhadrapur, Mechi|Bhadrapur]]
| [[Jhapa district]]
| [[Province No. 1]]
| [[Galgalia]]
| [[Kishanganj district|Kishanganj]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Biratnagar
| {{coord|26|24|09|N|87|15|57|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Biratnagar]]
| [[Morang District|Morang]]
| [[Province No. 1]]
| [[Jogbani]]
| [[Araria district|Araria]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Sunsari
| {{coord|26|31|07|N|86|57|04|E|scale:250000}}
| 
| [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]]
| [[Province No. 1]]
| [[Bhimnagar, Supaul|Bhimnagar]]
| [[Supaul District|Supaul]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Rajbiraj
| {{coord|26|27|00|N|86|47|34|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Rajbiraj]]
| [[Saptari District|Saptari]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Kunauli]]
| [[Supaul District]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Siraha
|{{coord|26|36|22|N|86|08|14|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Siraha]]
| [[Siraha District|Siraha]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Jainagar, Bihar|Jayanagar]]
| [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
|
|{{coord|26|39|29|N|86|04|04|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Thadi Jhijha]]
| [[Dhanusa District|Dhanusa]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Laukaha]]
| [[Madhubani district]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Jaleshwar
|
| [[Jaleswor|Jaleswar]]
| [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Sursand]]
| [[Sitamarhi district|Sitamarhi]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
|
|
| [[Malangawa]]
| [[Sarlahi District|Sarlahi]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Sonbarsa, Sitamarhi|Sonbarsa]]
| [[Sitamarhi district]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| Gaur
|
| [[Gaur, Nepal|Gaur]]
| [[Rautahat district|Rautahat]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Bairgania]]
| [[Sitamarhi district]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| '''''Birganj'''''
|
| [[Birganj]]
| [[Parsa District|Parsa]]
| [[Province No. 2]]
| [[Raxaul]]
| [[East Champaran district|East Champaran]]
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| '''''Parasi'''''
|
| Mahespur
| 
| 
| [[Thutibari]]
| [[Maharajganj district|Maharajganj]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| '''''Bhairahawa'''''
|
| [[Siddharthanagar]]<br>(Bhairahawa)
| [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| [[Nautanwa]]
| [[Maharajganj district|Maharajganj]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| Taulihawa-Siddharthnagar
|{{coord|27|27|30|N|82|59|40|E|scale:250000}}
| [[Taulihawa]]
| [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| [[Khunwa]]
| [[Siddharthnagar district|Siddharthanagar]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| Krishnanagar
|
| [[Krishnanagar, Nepal|Krishnanagar]]
| [[Kapilvastu District]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| [[Barhani Bazar|Barhni]]
| [[Siddharthnagar district]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| Koilabas
|
| [[Koilabas]]
| [[Dang Deukhuri District|Dang]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| [[Jarwa]]
| [[Balrampur district, Uttar Pradesh|Balrampur]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| '''''Nepalganj'''''
|
| [[Nepalgunj|Nepalganj]]
| [[Banke District|Banke]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| [[Rupaidiha]]
| [[Bahraich district|Bahraich]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| Rajapur
|
| [[Rajapur, Nepal|Rajapur]]
| [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]]
| [[Lumbini Province]]
| Katerniyaghat
| [[Bahraich district]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
|
|
| Prithivipur (Sati)
| [[Kailali District|Kailali]]
| [[Sudurpashchim Province]]
| Tikonia
| [[Lakhimpur Kheri district|Lakhimpur Kheri]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
|
|
| '''''[[Dhangadhi]]'''''
| [[Kailali District]]
| [[Sudurpashchim Province]]
| [[Gauriphanta]]
| [[Lakhimpur Kheri district]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
|
|
| '''''[[Mahendranagar, Mahakali|Bhim Datta]]<br>(Mahendranagar)'''''
| [[Kanchanpur District|Kanchanpur]]
| [[Sudurpashchim Province]]
| [[Banbasa]]
| [[Champawat district|Champawat]]
| [[Uttarakhand]]
|-
| Mahakali
|
| [[Mahakali, Mahakali|Mahakali]]
| [[Baitadi District|Baitadi]]
| [[Sudurpashchim Province]]
| [[Jhulaghat]] (Pithoragarh)
| [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]]
| [[Uttarakhand]]
|-
|
|
| [[Khalanga, Mahakali|Darchula]]
| [[Darchula District|Darchula]]
| [[Sudurpashchim Province]]
| [[Dharchula]]
| [[Pithoragarh district]]
| [[Uttarakhand]]
|}

===Border crossings with China===

{{See|China–Nepal border}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ports of Entry According to 2012 Treaty<ref name="mfa">{{Cite web|title = 中华人民共和国政府和尼泊尔政府关于边境口岸及其管理制度的协定|trans-title = China-Nepal Agreement on Port of Entry|publisher = Chinese Embassy in Nepal|date = 2012-01-14|access-date = 2017-02-10|url = http://np.chineseembassy.org/chn/zngxs/zywj/t1059642.htm|language = zh|archive-date = 19 October 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201019223303/http://np.chineseembassy.org/chn/zngxs/zywj/t1059642.htm|url-status = live}}</ref>
|-
!Crossing Name<ref name="mfa" /><br>(Other Name)
!Nepali Jurisdiction
!Chinese Jurisdiction
!Status
!Crossing<br>Location
!Border<br>elevation
|-
| Burang–[[Yari Valley|Yari]]<br>(Xieerwa<ref>{{Cite magazine| title = News from China| volume = XXVIII| number = 7| magazine = Chinese Embassy in India| date = July 2016| access-date = 2017-02-15| url = http://in.china-embassy.org/chn/xwfw/zgxw/P020160729462948006907.pdf| archive-date = 13 July 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190713204052/http://in.china-embassy.org/chn/xwfw/zgxw/P020160729462948006907.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref>)
| [[Hilsa, Nepal|Hilsa]], [[Humla District]]
| [[Burang Town|Burang]], [[Burang County]]
| {{active}}
| {{coord|30|09|12|N|81|20|00|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|3640|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Lizi Town|Lizi]]—Nechung<br>([[Kora La]])
| [[Lo Manthang]], [[Mustang District]]
| [[Zhongba County]]
| {{planned}}
| {{coord|29|19|24|N|83|59|09|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|4620|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|-
| Gyirong–Rasuwa
| [[Rasuwa Gadhi]], [[Rasuwa District]]
| [[Gyirong Town|Gyirong]], [[Gyirong County]]
| {{active}}
| {{coord|28|16|45|N|85|22|43|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|1850|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|-
| Zhangmu–[[Kodari]]
| [[Tatopani, Bagmati|Tatopani]], [[Sindhupalchok District]]
| [[Zhangmu]], [[Nyalam County]]
| {{active}}<ref>{{Cite web| title = Kodari Checkpoint To Open Today| work = The Spotlight Online| date = 2019-05-29| access-date = 2019-06-28| url = https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2019/05/29/kodari-checkpoint-open-today/| archive-date = 19 October 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201019143945/https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2019/05/29/kodari-checkpoint-open-today/| url-status = live}}</ref>
| {{coord|27|58|24|N|85|57|50|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|1760|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|-
| Chentang–Kimathanka
| [[Kimathanka]], [[Sankhuwasabha District]]
| [[Chentang]], [[Dinggyê County]]
| {{planned}}
| {{coord|27|51|30|N|87|25|30|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|2248|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|-
| Ri'og–Olangchung Gola<br>([[Tipta La]])
| [[Olangchung Gola]], [[Taplejung District]]
| [[Ri'og]], [[Dinggyê County]]
| {{planned}}
| {{coord|27|49|00|N|87|44|00|E|scale:1000000}}
| {{convert|5095|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[Geology of Nepal]]
* [[List of mountains in Nepal]]
* [[Valleys of Nepal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{country study|title=Nepal and Bhutan : country studies|abbr=np}}
* {{CIA World Factbook|year=2005}}
* [http://gis.calvin.edu/atlas/Nepal.html Atlas of Nepal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111172322/http://gis.calvin.edu/atlas/Nepal.html |date=11 January 2012 }}
* [http://www.planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/CategoryGeoPolitical Nepal Encyclopedia Geopolitical category] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214022113/http://www.planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/CategoryGeoPolitical |date=14 February 2009 }}
* [http://www.outdoorhimalayan.com/nepal-geography Brief and Concise Geography of Nepal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925015230/https://outdoorhimalayan.com/nepal-geography/ |date=25 September 2022 }}

{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Climate of}}

[[Category:Geography of Nepal| ]]