Editing Geography of Lebanon

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{Infobox country geography
| name                 = Lebanon
| map                  = Lebanon 2002 CIA map.jpg
| map_alt              =
| continent            = [[Eurasia]]
| region               = [[Eastern Mediterranean]]
| coordinates          = {{coord|33|50|N|35|50|E|type:country}} 
| area ranking         = 161st
| km area              = 10,452 
| percent land         = 98.37
| km coastline         = 225
| exclusive economic zone = {{convert|19,516|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| borders              = 
| highest point        = [[Qurnat as Sawda']] <br> {{convert|3088|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| lowest point         = [[Mediterranean Sea]] <br> {{convert|0|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| longest river        = [[Litani River]] <br> {{convert|140|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| largest lake         = [[Lake Qaraoun]] <br> {{convert|1,600|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| climate              = [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]
| terrain              = 
| natural resources    = Limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land
| natural hazards      = [[dust storm]]s
| environmental issues = [[deforestation]], [[Erosion|soil erosion]], [[desertification]], [[air pollution]]
}}

'''[[Lebanon]]''' is a small country in the [[Levant|Levant region]] of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], located at approximately 34˚N, 35˚E. It stretches along the eastern shore of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and its length is almost three times its width. From north to south, the width of its terrain becomes narrower. Lebanon's mountainous terrain, proximity to the sea, and strategic location at a crossroads of the world were decisive factors in shaping its history.<ref name=":0">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite encyclopedia|title=Lebanon: a country study|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/88600488/|last=AbuKhalil|first=As'ad|date=1989|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|pages=42–48|isbn=|oclc=44356055|entry=Geography}} }}</ref>

The country's role in the region, as indeed in the world at large, was shaped by [[trade]].<ref name=":0" /> It serves as a link between the Mediterranean world and [[India]] and [[East Asia]].<ref name=":0" /> The [[merchant]]s of the region exported [[petroleum|oil]], [[grain]], [[textile]]s, [[metalworking|metal work]], and [[pottery]] through the [[port]] cities to [[Western world|Western]] markets.<ref name=":0" />

==Physical geography and regions==
The area of Lebanon is {{convert|10452|km2}}.<ref name=":0" /> The country is roughly rectangular in shape, becoming narrower toward the south and the farthest north.<ref name=":0" /> Its widest point is {{convert|88|km}}, and its narrowest is {{convert|32|km}}; the average width is about {{convert|56|km}}.<ref name=":0" /> Because Lebanon straddles the northwest of the [[Arabian Plate]], it is sometimes geopolitically grouped together with nations with adjacent tectonic proximations such as Syria, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, the Egyptian Sinai, Palestine, Israel and the [[UAE]].<ref>Egyptian Journal of Geology – Volume 42, Issue 1 – Page 263, 1998</ref>

The physical geography of Lebanon is influenced by natural systems that extend outside the country.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, the [[Beqaa Valley]] is part of the Great Rift system, which stretches from southern [[Turkey]] to [[Mozambique]] in Africa.<ref name=":0" /> Like any mountainous country, Lebanon's physical geography is complex.<ref name=":0" /> Land forms, climate, soils, and vegetation differ markedly within short distances.<ref name=":0" /> There are also sharp changes in other elements of the environment, from good to poor soils, as one moves through the Lebanese mountains.<ref name=":0" />

A major feature of Lebanese topography is the alternation of lowland and highland that runs generally parallel with a north-to-south orientation.<ref name=":0" /> There are four such longitudinal strips between the Mediterranean Sea and Syria: the coastal strip (or the maritime plain), western Lebanon, the central plateau, and eastern Lebanon.<ref name=":0" />

The extremely narrow coastal strip stretches along the shore of the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name=":0" /> Hemmed in between sea and mountain, the sahil, as it is called in Lebanon, is widest in the north near Tripoli, where it is only {{convert|6.5|km}} wide.<ref name=":0" /> A few kilometers south at Juniyah the approximately 1.5-kilometer-wide plain is succeeded by foothills that rise steeply to {{convert|750|m}} within {{convert|6.5|km}} from the sea.<ref name=":0" /> For the most part, the coast is abrupt and rocky.<ref name=":0" /> The shoreline is regular with no deep [[estuary]], gulf, or [[natural harbor]].<ref name=":0" /> The maritime plain is especially productive of fruits and vegetables.<ref name=":0" />

The western range, the second major region, is the [[Lebanon Mountains]], sometimes called [[Mount Lebanon]], or Lebanon proper before 1920.<ref name=":0" /> Since [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] days the term Mount Lebanon has encompassed this area.<ref name=":0" /> Antilibanos ([[Anti-Lebanon]]) was used to designate the eastern range.<ref name=":0" /> Geologists believe that the twin mountains once formed one range.<ref name=":0" /> The Lebanon Mountains are the highest, most rugged, and most imposing of the whole maritime range of mountains and plateaus that start with the [[Nur Mountains]] in northern [[Syria]] and end with the towering massif of [[sinai peninsula|Sinai]].<ref name=":0" /> The mountain structure forms the first barrier to communication between the Mediterranean and Lebanon's eastern hinterland.<ref name=":0" /> The mountain range is a clearly defined unit having natural boundaries on all four sides.<ref name=":0" /> On the north it is separated from the [[Al-Ansariyah mountains]] of Syria by [[Nahr al-Kabir]] ("the great river"); on the south it is bounded by Al Qasimiyah River, giving it a length of 169 kilometers.<ref name=":0" /> Its width varies from about {{convert|56.5|km}} near [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] to {{convert|9.5|km}} on the southern end.<ref name=":0" /> It rises to alpine heights southeast of Tripoli.<ref name=":0" /> [[Qurnat as Sawda']] ("the black nook") reaches {{convert|3360|m}}<ref name=":0" /> and is the highest mountain of Lebanon.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} Of the other peaks that rise east of Beirut, [[Mount Sannine]] ({{convert|2695|m}}) is the highest.<ref name=":0" /> Ahl al Jabal ("people of the mountain"), or simply jabaliyyun, has referred traditionally to the inhabitants of western Lebanon. Near its southern end, the Lebanon Mountains branch off to the west to form the Shuf Mountains.<ref name=":0" />

The third geographical region is the [[Beqaa Valley]].<ref name=":0" /> This central highland between the Lebanon Mountains and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains is about {{convert|177|km}} in length and 9.6 to 16 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of {{convert|762|m}}.<ref name=":0" /> Its middle section spreads out more than its two extremities. Geologically, the [[Beqaa Valley|Beqaa]] is the medial part of a depression that extends north to the western bend of the [[Orontes River]] in Syria and south to [[Jordan]] through [[Arabah]] to [[Aqaba]], the eastern arm of the [[Red Sea]].<ref name=":0" /> The Beqaa is the country's chief agricultural area and served as a granary of Roman Syria.<ref name=":0" /> Beqaa is the Arabic plural of buqaah, meaning a place with [[stagnant water]].<ref name=":0" />

Emerging from a base south of [[Homs]] in [[Syria]], the eastern mountain range, or Anti-Lebanon (Lubnan ash Sharqi), is almost equal in length and height to the Lebanon Mountains.<ref name=":0" /> This fourth geographical region falls swiftly from [[Mount Hermon]] to the Hawran Plateau, whence it continues through Jordan south to the [[Dead Sea]].<ref name=":0" /> The Barada Gorge divides Anti-Lebanon.<ref name=":0" /> In the northern section, few villages are on the western slopes, but in the southern section, featuring Mount Hermon (2860 meters), the western slopes have many villages. Anti-Lebanon is more arid, especially in its northern parts, than Mount Lebanon and is consequently less productive and more thinly populated.<ref name=":0" /><gallery>
File:Jayroun, Lebanon - panoramio.jpg|Jayroun
File:White mule in the Dunnieh Mountains, North Lebanon.jpg|White mule in the Dunnieh Mountains
File:Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve 03.jpg|Jabal Moussa Biosphere Rerserve
File:View of the Kadisha Valley, Lebanon.jpg|Kadisha valley
File:Lebanese coastline, Oct 2012.jpg|Lebanese coastline
File:Bteghrine from Haret Ali.JPG|Mount Lebanon
File:Mount Sannine.jpg|Mount Sannine
</gallery>

==Climate==
{{See also|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa}}[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_LBN_1991–2020.svg|thumb|315x315px|A [[Köppen climate classification]] map of Lebanon]]Lebanon has a [[Mediterranean climate]] characterized by a long, hot, and dry summer, and a cool, rainy winter.<ref name=":0" /> Fall is a transitional season with a lowering of temperature and little rain; spring occurs when the winter rains cause the vegetation to revive.<ref name=":0" /> Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern.<ref name=":0" /> Along the coast, summers are warm and humid, with little or no rain.<ref name=":0" /> Heavy dews form, which are beneficial to agriculture. The daily range of temperature is not wide.<ref name=":0" /> A west wind provides relief during the afternoon and evening; at night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea.<ref name=":0" />

Winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after December.<ref name=":0" /> Rainfall is generous but is concentrated during only a few days of the rainy season, falling in heavy cloudbursts.<ref name=":0" /> The amount of rainfall varies greatly from one year to another.<ref name=":0" /> A hot wind blowing from the Egyptian desert called the [[khamsin]] (Arabic for "fifty"), may provide a warming trend during the fall but more often occurs during the spring.<ref name=":0" /> Bitterly cold winds may come from Southern Europe.<ref name=":0" /> Along the coast the proximity to the sea provides a moderating influence on the climate, making the range of temperatures narrower than it is inland, but the temperatures are cooler in the northern parts of the coast where there is also more rain.<ref name=":0" />

In the [[Lebanon Mountains]] the gradual increase in altitudes produces extremely cold winters with more precipitation and snow.<ref name=":0" /> The summers have a wider daily range of temperatures and less humidity.<ref name=":0" /> In the winter, frosts are frequent and snows heavy; in fact, snow covers the highest peaks for much of the year.<ref name=":0" /> In the summer, temperatures may rise as high during the daytime as they do along the coast, but they fall far lower at night.<ref name=":0" /> Inhabitants of the coastal cities, as well as visitors, seek refuge from the oppressive humidity of the coast by spending much of the summer in the mountains, where numerous summer resorts are located.<ref name=":0" /> The influence of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] is abated by the altitude and, although the precipitation is even higher than it is along the coast, the range of temperatures is wider and the winters are more severe.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Beqaa Valley]] and the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]] are shielded from the influence of the sea by the Lebanon Mountains.<ref name=":0" /> The result is considerably less precipitation and humidity and a wider variation in daily and yearly temperatures.<ref name=":0" /> The khamsin does not occur in the Beqaa Valley, but the north winter wind is so severe that the inhabitants say it can "break nails".<ref name=":0" /> Despite the relatively low altitude of the Beqaa Valley (the highest point of which, near [[Baalbek]], is only {{convert|1100|m|ft|0|sp=us|disp=or}}) more snow falls there than at comparable altitudes west of the Lebanon Mountains.<ref name=":0" />

Because of their altitudes, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains receive more precipitation than the Beqaa Valley, despite their remoteness from maritime influences.<ref name=":0" /> Much of this precipitation appears as snow, and the peaks of the Anti-Lebanon, like those of the Lebanon Mountains, are snow-covered for much of the year.<ref name=":0" /> Temperatures are cooler than in the Beqaa Valley.<ref name=":0" />

The Beqaa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the [[Orontes river|Orontes]] flowing north (in Arabic it is called Nahr al-Asi, "the Rebel River", because this direction is unusual), and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley,<ref name=":0" /> where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in [[southern Lebanon]]. The river’s lower course is known as Qāsimiyyah.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-01 |title=Litani River {{!}} Lebanon, Middle East, Map, & UN Resolution {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Litani-River-Lebanon |access-date=2024-12-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The Orontes continues to flow north into [[Syria]] and eventually reaches the Mediterranean in [[Turkey]].<ref name=":0" /> Its waters, for much of its course, flow through a channel considerably lower than the surface of the ground.<ref name=":0" /> The Nahr Barada, which waters [[Damascus]], has as its source a spring in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.<ref name=":0" />

Smaller springs and streams serve as tributaries to the principal rivers.<ref name=":0" /> Because the rivers and streams have such steep gradients and are so fast moving, they are erosive instead of depository in nature.<ref name=":0" /> This process is aided by the soft character of the limestone that composes much of the mountains, the steep slopes of the mountains, and the heavy rainstorms.<ref name=":0" /> The only permanent lake is [[Lake Qaraoun]], about ten kilometers east of [[Jezzine]].<ref name=":0" /> There is one seasonal lake, fed by springs, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains near Yammunah, about {{convert|40|km|mi|0}} southeast of Tripoli.<ref name=":0" />

Temperatures are rising in Lebanon as a part of [[Climate change|global warming]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taher |first1=Hanadi |title=Climate Change and Economic Growth in Lebanon |journal=International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy |date=23 July 2019 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=20–24 |doi=10.32479/ijeep.7806 |s2cid=200071211 |id={{ProQuest|2288759604}} |url=https://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijeep/article/view/7806 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Lebanon is considered to be part of the Fertile Crescent, yet in the meantime with the severe climate changes, it might lose fertility.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Göll|first=Edgar|date=2017-07-12|title=Future Challenges of Climate Change in the MENA Region|url=https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/future-challenges-climate-change-mena-region|access-date=2020-11-30|website=IAI Istituto Affari Internazionali|language=it}}</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Danniyeh.jpg|Snow-covered [[karst]]ic formations in the Danniyeh mountains.
Image:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2002.jpg|Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the [[Lebanon Mountains|western]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|eastern]] mountain ranges.
Image:March 2011 Snow in Lebanon.jpg|Snow in Lebanon's two mountain ranges, Jebel Liban and Jabal ash Sharqi in March 2011.
</gallery>

{{Weather box 
|width = auto
|location = [[Beirut International Airport]]
|metric first = Yes 
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 27.9
|Feb record high C = 30.5
|Mar record high C = 36.6
|Apr record high C = 39.3
|May record high C = 39.0
|Jun record high C = 40.0
|Jul record high C = 40.4
|Aug record high C = 39.5
|Sep record high C = 37.5
|Oct record high C = 37.0
|Nov record high C = 33.1
|Dec record high C = 30.0
|year record high C = 40.4
|Jan high C = 17.4
|Feb high C = 17.5
|Mar high C = 19.6
|Apr high C = 22.6
|May high C = 25.4
|Jun high C = 27.9
|Jul high C = 30.0
|Aug high C = 30.7
|Sep high C = 29.8
|Oct high C = 27.5
|Nov high C = 23.2
|Dec high C = 19.4
|year high C = 24.3
|Jan mean C = 14.0
|Feb mean C = 14.0
|Mar mean C = 16.0
|Apr mean C = 18.7
|May mean C = 21.7
|Jun mean C = 24.9
|Jul mean C = 27.1
|Aug mean C = 27.8
|Sep mean C = 26.8
|Oct mean C = 24.1
|Nov mean C = 19.5
|Dec mean C = 15.8
|year mean C = 20.9
|Jan low C = 11.2
|Feb low C = 11.0
|Mar low C = 12.6
|Apr low C = 15.2
|May low C = 18.2
|Jun low C = 21.6
|Jul low C = 24.0
|Aug low C = 24.8
|Sep low C = 23.7
|Oct low C = 21.0
|Nov low C = 16.3
|Dec low C = 12.9
|year low C = 17.7
|Jan record low C = 0.8
|Feb record low C = 3.0
|Mar record low C = 0.2
|Apr record low C = 7.6
|May record low C = 10.0
|Jun record low C = 15.0
|Jul record low C = 18.0
|Aug record low C = 19.0
|Sep record low C = 17.0
|Oct record low C = 11.1
|Nov record low C = 7.0
|Dec record low C = 4.6
|year record low C = 0.2
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 154
|Feb precipitation mm = 127
|Mar precipitation mm = 84
|Apr precipitation mm = 31
|May precipitation mm = 11
|Jun precipitation mm = 1
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.3
|Aug precipitation mm = 0
|Sep precipitation mm = 5
|Oct precipitation mm = 60
|Nov precipitation mm = 115
|Dec precipitation mm = 141
|year precipitation mm = 730
|Jan rain days = 12
|Feb rain days = 10
|Mar rain days = 8
|Apr rain days = 5
|May rain days = 2
|Jun rain days = 2
|Jul rain days = 0.04
|Aug rain days = 0.1
|Sep rain days = 1
|Oct rain days = 4
|Nov rain days = 7
|Dec rain days = 11
|year rain days = 62
|Jan humidity = 64
|Feb humidity = 64
|Mar humidity = 64
|Apr humidity = 66
|May humidity = 70
|Jun humidity = 71
|Jul humidity = 72
|Aug humidity = 71
|Sep humidity = 65
|Oct humidity = 62
|Nov humidity = 60
|Dec humidity = 63
|year humidity = 66
| Jan dew point C =7
| Feb dew point C =8
| Mar dew point C =9
| Apr dew point C =12
| May dew point C =16
| Jun dew point C =19
| Jul dew point C =22
| Aug dew point C =22
| Sep dew point C =19
| Oct dew point C =16
| Nov dew point C =11
| Dec dew point C =8
|Jan sun = 131
|Feb sun = 143
|Mar sun = 191
|Apr sun = 243
|May sun = 310
|Jun sun = 348
|Jul sun = 360
|Aug sun = 334
|Sep sun = 288
|Oct sun = 245
|Nov sun = 200
|Dec sun = 147
|year sun = 2940
|source 1 = Pogodaiklimat.ru<ref name="pogodaiklimat">{{cite web|url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate2/40100.htm|title=Climate of Beirut|publisher=Weather and Climate (Погода и климат)|language=ru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521202352/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate2/40100.htm|archive-date=21 May 2019|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref>
|source 2 = Danish Meteorological Institute (sun 1931–1960)<ref name=DMI>{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/tr01-17.pdf|title=Libanon – Beyrouth|last1=Cappelen|first1=John|last2=Jensen|first2=Jens|work=Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931–1960)|page=167|publisher=Danish Meteorological Institute|language=da|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116071752/http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/tr01-17.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2013|access-date=2 March 2013}}</ref>
Source 3: [https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/lebanon/beirut/climate Time and Date] (dewpoints, between 1985–2015)<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/lebanon/beirut/climate
|title = Climate & Weather Averages at Beirut Airport weather station (40100)
|publisher = Time and Date
|access-date = 4 February 2022}}</ref>
|date=October 2011}}

{|class="wikitable"
|+Beirut mean sea temperature<ref name="Seatemperature">{{cite web|url=http://www.seatemperature.org/middle-east/lebanon/beirut-february.htm|title=Monthly Beirut water temperature chart|publisher=seatemperature.org|access-date=20 January 2014}}</ref>
|-
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
|-
|{{convert|18.5|°C}}
|{{convert|17.5|°C}}
|{{convert|17.5|°C}}
|{{convert|18.5|°C}}
|{{convert|21.3|°C}}
|{{convert|24.9|°C}}
|{{convert|27.5|°C}}
|{{convert|28.5|°C}}
|{{convert|28.1|°C}}
|{{convert|26.0|°C}}
|{{convert|22.6|°C}}
|{{convert|20.1|°C}}
|}

== Area and boundaries ==
[[File:Map_of_Lebanon.png|thumb|right|General map]]
[[File:Lebanon2025aOSM.png|thumb|right|Detailed map with places marked in both Arabic and Latin script]]

Area<br>Total: {{convert|10452|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}
<br>Land: {{convert|10282|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}
<br>Water: {{convert|170|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}

'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''Total:'' {{convert|454|km|0|abbr=on}}
<br>''Border countries:''Israel {{convert|79|km|1|abbr=on}}, Syria {{convert|375|km|0|abbr=on}}

'''Coastline:''' {{convert|225|km|0|abbr=on}}

'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''Territorial sea:'' {{convert|12|nmi|km mi|1|abbr=on|lk=in}}
<br>''[[Exclusive Economic Zone]]:'' {{convert|19,516|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}

'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''Lowest point:'' [[Mediterranean Sea]] {{convert|0|m|ft|abbr=on}} ([[sea level]])
<br>''Highest point:'' [[Qurnat as Sawda']] {{convert|3088|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

==Resources and land use==
[[Limestone]], [[iron ore]], [[salt]], [[water]]-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land

'''Land use:'''
''arable land:'' 10.72%
<br>''permanent crops:'' 12.06%
<br>''other:'' 77.22% (2011)

'''Irrigated land:''' {{convert|1040|km2|2|abbr=on}} (2011)

'''Total renewable water resources:''' {{convert|4.5|km3|abbr=on}} (2011)

===Water in Lebanon===
[[File:Lebanon Rivers Map.jpg|thumb|353x353px|Main rivers of Lebanon]]
[[Water]] is becoming a scarce resource in Lebanon due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country. Most of Lebanon's rainfall is in the four months of winter, but over the last 45 years, the [[Ministry of Environment (Lebanon)]] estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent.<ref name="Nisreen">{{cite journal |last1=Salti |first1=Nisreen |last2=Chaaban |first2=Jad |title=The role of sectarianism in the allocation of public expenditure in postwar Lebanon |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=November 2010 |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=637–655 |doi=10.1017/S0020743810000851 |jstor=41308713 |s2cid=163433882 |url=https://osf.io/faedu/ }}</ref> The coastal strip of Lebanon gets approximately 2,000&nbsp;mm of rain per year, while the [[Beqaa Valley]] to the east gets only one-tenth as much.<ref name="Brooks">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5986-5_2 |chapter=Fresh Water in the Middle East and North Africa |title=Integrated Water Resources Management and Security in the Middle East |series=NATO Science for Peace and Security Series |year=2007 |last1=Brooks |first1=David B. |pages=33–64 |isbn=978-1-4020-5984-1 }}</ref> In 2004, only about 21% of households across Lebanon had constant access to water in the summer months, with most of those households concentrated in or near [[Beirut]].<ref name="Nisreen" /> It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water.<ref name = "Brooks" /> According to the Ministry of Environment, several factors that are putting stress on Lebanon's water resources are unsustainable water management practices, increasing water demand from all sectors, water pollution, and ineffective water governance.<ref name= "MOE">{{Cite web |url=http://www.moe.gov.lb/Sectors/Water.aspx |title=Republic of Lebanon, Ministry of Environment. "Water Sector" 2012. |access-date=2015-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219173522/http://www.moe.gov.lb/Sectors/Water.aspx |archive-date=2016-12-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lebanon has struggled with inadequate water and sanitation services for many years.<ref name= "UN Refugees" /> The factors with the greatest effect on quality and quantity of water resources in Lebanon are population growth, urbanization (88% of the population now lives in urban areas), economic growth, and climate change.<ref name= "Climate Change Lebanon">{{Cite web |url=http://climatechange.moe.gov.lb/water |title=Climate Change Lebanon. "Water." Republic of Lebanon Ministry of Environment. 2014. |access-date=2015-05-16 |archive-date=2015-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702061946/http://climatechange.moe.gov.lb/water |url-status=dead }}</ref> In recent years, population growth has been increased rapidly with the addition of many Syrian refugees.<ref name= "UN Refugees" /> Some new projects have been proposed to restructure the water sector. Currently, over 48 percent of water supplied by the public system is lost through seepage and wastewater networks are extremely poor, or even non-existent in some areas.<ref name= "UN Refugees">UNHCR. Refugees from Syria: Lebanon. UNHCR, March 2015. Print.</ref> One project that is currently being implemented by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) focusses on harvesting rainwater from agricultural greenhouse tops in order to increase water harvesting and reduce the pressure on pumping groundwater.<ref name= "Climate Change Lebanon" /> This project is expected to increase water availability during the especially critical months of late summer and early autumn when there is less precipitation, which would help to reduce the risk of salinity in both soil and water, and to increase the resilience of crops faced with prolonged drought.<ref name= "Climate Change Lebanon" /> There are also proposed projects that suggest the agricultural sector use recycled waste water to allow for more fresh and potable water for consumption.<ref name= "Climate Change Lebanon" /> This would be a huge improvement, as solid-waste treatment facilities are in short supply, and over 92 percent of Lebanon's sewage runs untreated directly into water-courses and the sea.<ref name= "UN Refugees" /> If Lebanon does not reform its water sector, it is likely that there will be chronic and critical water shortages by 2020, which would create needs the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) would be unable to meet.<ref name= "UNDP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/operations/projects/environment_and_energy/lebanese-centre-for-water-conservation-and-management--lcwcm-.html |title=UNDP: Lebanon. "Lebanese Centre for Water Conservation and Management (LCWCM)." UNDP, 2012. |access-date=2015-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715095848/http://www.lb.undp.org/content/lebanon/en/home/operations/projects/environment_and_energy/lebanese-centre-for-water-conservation-and-management--lcwcm-.html |archive-date=2018-07-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Water is becoming a scarce resource and if Lebanon instates reformed practices, the progression forward into future [[water scarcity]] can be slowed.

==Environmental concerns==
[[Natural hazard]]s include [[dust storm]]s.

Current [[environmental degradation]] concerns include [[deforestation]], [[Erosion|soil erosion]], [[desertification]], [[air pollution]] in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of [[industrial waste]]s, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.

Lebanon's rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity.

===Air quality in Lebanon===
[[File:Flagship air monitoring station in Beirut.jpg|thumb|EU-funded air monitoring in Beirut]]
As a result of increasingly hot summers and its location within the Mediterranean region, which is often cited for having long episodes of pollution, Lebanon, Beirut in particular, is at high risk for air pollution.<ref name= "Saliba">{{cite journal |last1=Saliba |first1=N. A. |last2=Moussa |first2=S. |last3=Salame |first3=H. |last4=El-Fadel |first4=M. |title=Variation of selected air quality indicators over the city of Beirut, Lebanon: Assessment of emission sources |journal=Atmospheric Environment |date=June 2006 |volume=40 |issue=18 |pages=3263–3268 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.054 |bibcode=2006AtmEn..40.3263S }}</ref> Approximately 93 percent of Beirut's population is exposed to high levels of air pollution, which can most often be attributed to vehicle-induced emissions, whether it be long-range travel or short commuting traffic.<ref name= "Saliba" /><ref name="AUB">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aub.edu.lb/news/Pages/air-pollution-beirutis.aspx |title=Al-Azar, Maha. "AUB Air Pollution Study: Almost All Beirutis Exposed to High Levels of Air Pollution." American University of Beirut. N.p., 7 May 2011. Web. |access-date=16 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224015414/http://www.aub.edu.lb/news/Pages/air-pollution-beirutis.aspx |archive-date=24 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The cost of air pollution to health may exceed ten million dollars a year.<ref name= "AUB" /> The levels of air pollution in Beirut are increasing annually, and were already above acceptable WHO (World Health Organization) standards by 2011.<ref name= "AUB" /> The most noted pollution in Beirut is particulate matter (street dust), chemicals in the air, and vehicle exhaust. Air pollution is exacerbated by city structure and inadequate urban management as indicated by high buildings on narrow streets, which contain air pollutants.<ref name= "AUB" /> Some recommendations for improvement of air quality include encouragement of carpooling and citywide biking, alternative fuels for vehicles, and a widened public transit sector.<ref name= "AUB" />

The question of air quality has received considerable attention and funding by Lebanon's foreign partners. Between 2013 and 2017, the Lebanese ministry of environment was granted a donation of over 10 million Euros by Greece and the European Union to establish a national air monitoring network, which included at its peak 25 stations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Lebanon's air pollution nears alarming level - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2019/07/lebanon-budget-cuts-environment-air-monitoring-pollution.html |access-date=2022-05-11 |website=www.al-monitor.com |language=en}}</ref> This network was launched in October 2017 at a major event bringing together 26 different institutions;<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU supports Lebanon in its quest for a cleaner air {{!}} EU Neighbours |url=https://www.euneighbours.eu/en/south/stay-informed/news/eu-supports-lebanon-its-quest-cleaner-air |access-date=2022-05-11 |website=www.euneighbours.eu |language=en}}</ref> it was to serve as the cornerstone of Lebanon's National Strategy for Air Quality Management, which was released at the end of the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebanon's National Air Quality Management Strategy 2015-2030 |url=http://www.databank.com.lb/docs/MoE-(2017)-National-Air-Quality-Management-Strategy-EN.pdf |access-date=2022-05-11 |archive-date=2019-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713101438/http://www.databank.com.lb/docs/MoE-(2017)-National-Air-Quality-Management-Strategy-EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By mid-2019, however, the ministry of environment ceased to maintain and operate this network, involving budgetary restrictions.<ref name=":1" /> Stations were subsequently looted, even in central Beirut.

===Land pollution in Lebanon===

Sukleen, Lebanon's largest waste disposal company has a waste management process that goes through several stages, including clean-up and collection, sorting and composting, and burial.<ref name= "Sukleen" /> However, many argue that Lebanon needs a much better system for disposal of waste to reduce pollution and environmental degradation. The [[Litani River]] is Lebanon's largest river and many farms use the river's water to irrigate land and crops.<ref name= "Litani">{{Cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/2617 |title=Hamieh, Rameh. "Lebanon's Litani Pollution Levels Threaten Agricultural Sector." Al Akhbar English. N.p., 19 Dec. 2011. Web |access-date=2015-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084202/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/2617 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Because of Lebanon's poor waste management system, a lot of waste and pollution ends up in the Litani and contaminates the crops, in turn endangering the health of consumers and farmers alike, contributing to environmental degradation, as well as hurting the agricultural reputation and economy.<ref name= "Litani" />

=== Trash protests of January 2014 ===
In January 2014, protests in the town of Naameh began to arise, effectively blocking disposal of garbage at the landfill for three days.<ref name= "Standoff">"Lebanon's Garbage Standoff." The Stream. Al Jazeera, 20 Jan. 2014. Web. http://stream.aljazeera.com/story/201401202105-0023403 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726061716/http://stream.aljazeera.com/story/201401202105-0023403 |date=2015-07-26 }}</ref> The protests were instated in response to the continued use of the landfill in Naameh beyond the date it was originally meant to close.<ref name="Daily 2015">{{cite news|newspaper=The Daily Star|title=Waste Can't Be Managed without Landfills: Lebanon Environment Minister|location=Lebanon|date= 5 January 2015|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2015/Jan-05/283108-waste-cant-be-managed-without-landfills-lebanon-environment-minister.ashx}}</ref> The landfill began as a six-year project in 1997, but has remained open for seventeen years as of 2015, and without a sufficient alternative location for garbage disposal, it is likely that it will remain open for the foreseeable future.<ref name="Daily 2015" /> In 1997, Naameh became the country's primary landfill and was initially supposed to hold two million tons of waste.<ref name= "Standoff" /> The landfill currently holds ten million tons of trash, and is still in use.<ref name= "Standoff" /> Residents of the area in 2014 did not want to extend the landfill agreement, and staged the protests to prevent future plans.<ref name= "Standoff" />

The company in charge of the majority of the area's collection and cleanup of trash is called Sukleen. It serves 364 towns and municipalities within Beirut and Mount Lebanon.<ref name= "Sukleen" /> The total waste collected by the company rose from 1,140 tons daily in 1994, to 3,100 tons in 2014.<ref name= "Sukleen">{{Cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanon-garbage-drowns-364-towns-amid-landfill-dispute |title=Alkantar, Bassam. "Lebanon: Garbage Drowns 364 Towns Amid Landfill Dispute." Al Akhbar- English. 20 Jan. 2014. Web |access-date=2015-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724014954/http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanon-garbage-drowns-364-towns-amid-landfill-dispute |archive-date=2014-07-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sukleen is the largest government-contracted private waste management company in Lebanon.<ref name= "Standoff" /> In response to the protests, which were asking the government for more efficient waste management systems along with the closure of the landfill in Naameh, Sukleen responded to environmentalists by halting service to Beirut and [[Mount Lebanon]] for three days.<ref name="Standoff" /> Because the Naameh landfills were closed and Sukleen was out of service, trash began to pile up in the streets of the city, affecting everyone citywide and drawing attention to the issue of city/region waste-management issues.<ref name="Daily 2015" />

== See also ==

* [[List of mountains in Lebanon]]
* [[List of rivers of Lebanon]]

==References==
{{commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Lebanon topics}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Climate of}}

[[Category:Geography of Lebanon| ]]

[[bn:লেবানন#ভূগোল]]