Editing Geography of Canada

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{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Country geography
 | name              = Canada
 | map               = {{Canada provinces map|width =300px|border=none|align=center |prefix=Geography of|map=Canada topo.jpg}}
 | continent         = North America
 | region            = Northern America
 | coordinates       = {{coord|60|00|N|95|00|W|type:country}}
 | area ranking      = 2nd
 | km area           = 9,984,671
 | percent land      = 91.08
 | percent water     = 8.92
 | km coastline      = 243042
 | borders           = 8,893 km
 | highest point     = [[Mount Logan]],<br/> {{convert|5959|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
 | lowest point      = Atlantic Ocean, Sea Level
 | longest river     = [[Mackenzie River]], <br/>{{convert|4241|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
 | largest lake      = [[Great Bear Lake]]<br/> {{convert|31153|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}
 | climate           = [[temperate]], or [[Humid continental climate|humid continental]] to [[subarctic]] or [[arctic]] in north, and [[tundra]] in mountainous areas, and the far north
 | terrain           = mostly [[plain]]s and [[mountains]] in west, to highlands (low mountains) in the south east, and east, to flatlands in the [[Great lakes]]
 | natural resources = iron ore, [[nickel]], [[zinc]], copper, gold, lead, [[molybdenum]], [[potash]], [[diamonds]], silver, fish, timber, [[wildlife]], coal, petroleum, natural gas, [[hydropower]]
 | natural hazards   = [[permafrost]], [[cyclonic storm]]s, [[tornado]]es, earthquakes, [[forest fire]]s
 | environmental issues = [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]], [[acid rain]]s
 | exclusive economic zone = {{convert|5599077|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
}}

[[Canada]] has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of [[North America]], sharing a [[land border]] with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and the U.S. state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest. Canada stretches from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west; to the north lies the [[Arctic Ocean]].<ref name="cia">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Canada|access-date=23 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Greenland]] is to the northeast with a shared border on [[Hans Island]]. To the southeast Canada shares a [[Canada–France Maritime Boundary Case|maritime boundary]] with France's [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], the last vestige of [[New France]].<ref name="Gallay2015">{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Gallay |title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-48718-0 |pages=429– |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|second-largest country]] in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ranks fourth]], the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.<ref name="Battram2010da">{{cite book |first=Robert A. |last=Battram |title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6 |page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141921/https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |archive-date=12 April 2016}}</ref> Of Canada's [[Provinces and territories of Canada|thirteen provinces and territories]], only two are landlocked ([[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]]) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans.

Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |year=2008 |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |page=20}}</ref> Much of the [[Northern Canada|Canadian Arctic]] is covered by ice and [[permafrost]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/18/arctic-permafrost-canada-science-climate-crisis |title=Scientists shocked by Arctic permafrost thawing 70 years sooner than predicted |agency=Reuters |date=1 June 2019|work=The Guardian |access-date=2 July 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Canada has [[List of countries by length of coastline|the longest coastline]] in the world, with a total length of {{convert|243042|km|mi}};<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm |title=Geography |website=statcan.gc.ca |access-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307051855/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm |archive-date=7 March 2016}}</ref> additionally, [[Canada–United States border|its border with the United States]] is the world's longest land border, stretching {{convert|8891|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=International Boundary Commission |url=http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801080033/http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html |archive-date=1 August 2008 |title=The Boundary |year=1985 |access-date=17 May 2012}}</ref> Three of Canada's [[Arctic Archipelago|Arctic islands]], [[Baffin Island]], [[Victoria Island (Canada)|Victoria Island]] and [[Ellesmere Island]], are among the ten largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kids-world-travel-guide.com/canada-facts.html |title=Canada Facts: 25 Interesting and Fun Facts – not only for Kids |access-date=27 June 2018}}</ref>

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the [[Canadian Shield]], the [[interior plains]], the [[Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands]], the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian region]], the [[Pacific Cordillera (Canada)|Western Cordillera]], [[Hudson Bay Lowlands]] and the [[Arctic Archipelago]].<ref name=Atlas>{{Cite web|url=https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html|title=Natural Resources Canada. The Atlas of Canada. Physiographic Regions of Canada|first=Natural Resources Canada|last=Government of Canada|date=12 September 2016|website=atlas.gc.ca}}</ref> Canada is also divided into [[Ecozones of Canada|fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones]],<ref name="intro">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=Statistics Canada|date=2018-01-10|title=Introduction to the Ecological Land Classification (ELC) 2017|url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-1|access-date=2020-11-09|website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>  encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html|publisher=Species at Risk Public Registry|title=COSEWIC Annual Report|year=2019}}</ref>  Since the end of the last [[glacial period]], Canada has consisted of [[Forests of Canada#Regions|eight distinct forest regions]], including extensive [[taiga|boreal]] forest on the [[Canadian Shield]];<ref>{{cite book |title=National Atlas of Canada |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7705-1198-2 |page=1}}</ref> 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of [[spruce]], [[Populus|poplar]] and [[pine]].<ref name="LuckertHaley2011">{{cite book |first1=Martin K. |last1=Luckert |first2=David |last2=Haley |first3=George |last3=Hoberg |title=Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1 |year=2012 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2069-1 |page=1}}</ref> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=William G |last2=Oke |first2=TR |last3=Rouse |first3=Wayne R |title=The surface climates of Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142210/https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |archive-date=12 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |title=The Atlas of Canada – Physical Components of Watersheds |date=5 December 2012 |access-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archive-date=5 December 2012}}</ref> There are also freshwater glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]], the [[Coast Mountains]] and the [[Arctic Cordillera]].<ref name="Sandford2012">{{cite book |first=Robert William |last=Sandford |title=Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |year=2012 |publisher=Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary |isbn=978-1-927330-20-3 |page=11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |archive-date=3 July 2017}}</ref> A recent global [[remote sensing]] analysis also suggested that there were 6,477&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=N.J. |last2=Phinn |first2=S.R. |last3=DeWitt |first3=M. |last4=Ferrari |first4=R. |last5=Johnston |first5=R. |last6=Lyons |first6=M.B. |last7=Clinton |first7=N. |last8=Thau |first8=D. |last9=Fuller |first9=R.A. |title=The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats |journal=Nature |date=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7738 |pages=222–225 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0805-8 |pmid=30568300 |s2cid=56481043 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0805-8}}</ref> [[Protected areas of Canada]]  and [[National Wildlife Area]]s have been established to preserve ecosystems.<ref name=conserved/>

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably the [[Mount Meager massif]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Etkin |first1=David |last2=Haque |first2=CE |last3=Brooks |first3=Gregory R |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |date=30 April 2003 |pages=569, 582, 583 |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5}}</ref> Average winter and summer high [[Temperature in Canada|temperatures across Canada]] range from [[Climate of the Arctic|Arctic weather]] in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.

==Physiography {{anchor|Physical geography}}==
{{further|List of regions of Canada#Primary, secondary, and local geographic}}
{{see also|Geological history of North America}}
[[Image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the [[Canadian Shield]], the [[interior plains]], the [[Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands]], the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian region]], the [[Pacific Cordillera (Canada)|Western Cordillera]], [[Hudson Bay Lowlands]], and the [[Arctic Archipelago]].]]
Canada covers {{convert|9984670|km2|abbr=on}} and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions.<ref name=Atlas/> Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm|title=Geography|website=www.statcan.gc.ca|access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The [[physical geography]] of Canada is widely varied. [[Taiga|Boreal forests]] prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in [[Northern Canada|northerly Arctic regions]] and through the [[Canadian Rocky Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Canadian Prairies]] in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.<ref name="McColl2005">{{cite book|author=R. W. McColl|title=Encyclopedia of world geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA135|access-date=22 November 2011|date=September 2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3|page=135}}</ref> The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

The [[National Topographic System]] is used by [[Natural Resources Canada]] for providing general purpose [[topography|topographic]] maps of the country. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features.<ref name=Topographic >{{cite web|url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/national-topographic-system-maps/9767|title=National Topographic System Maps|website=www.nrcan.gc.ca|date=29 May 2007}}</ref> These maps are used by all levels of government and industry for [[wildfire|forest fire]] and [[flood control]] (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.<ref name=Topographic />

===Appalachian Mountains===
The [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian mountain range]] extends from [[Alabama]] in [[southern United States]] through the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] and the [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Provinces]], creating rolling hills indented by river valleys.<ref name="Haggett2001">{{cite book|author=Peter Haggett|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbBzHuDQssMC&pg=PA78|access-date=22 November 2011|date=July 2001|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7289-6|pages=78–}}</ref> It also runs through parts of southern [[Quebec]].<ref name="Haggett2001"/>

The Appalachian Mountains (more specifically the [[Chic-Choc Mountains|Chic-Choc]], [[Notre Dame Mountains|Notre Dame]], and [[Long Range Mountains]]) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include [[Mount Jacques-Cartier]] (Quebec, {{convert|1268|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[Mount Carleton]] ([[New Brunswick]], {{convert|817|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}), [[The Cabox]] ([[Newfoundland]], {{convert|814|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}).<ref name="DiPietro2012">{{cite book|author=Joseph A. DiPietro|title=Landscape Evolution in the United States: An Introduction to the Geography, Geology, and Natural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZWWAA-USoUC&pg=PA400|year=2012|publisher=Newnes|isbn=978-0-12-397806-6|page=400}}</ref> Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] flora and fauna and are considered to have been [[nunatak]]s during the last [[glaciation]] era.

===Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands===
[[File:Sub-basins Great Lakes Basin.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|A map of the [[Great Lakes Basin]] showing the five sub-basins within. Left to right they are: [[Lake Superior|Superior]], including [[Lake Nipigon|Nipigon]]'s basin, (magenta); [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]] (cyan); [[Lake Huron|Huron]] (pale green); [[Lake Erie|Erie]] (yellow); [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] (light coral).]]
{{excerpt|Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands| hat=no}}

===Canadian Shield===
{{further|Canadian Shield}}
[[File:Canada geological map.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Canadian Shield]] is a broad region of Precambrian rock (pictured in shades of red)]]
The northeastern part of [[Alberta]], northern parts of [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], Ontario and Quebec, all of [[Labrador]] and the [[Great Northern Peninsula]] of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], eastern mainland [[Northwest Territories]], most of [[Nunavut]]'s mainland and, of its [[Arctic Archipelago]], [[Baffin Island]] and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vast [[bedrock|rock base]] known as the [[Canadian Shield]].<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|title=Canadian Shield|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Canadian-Shield|author=Encyclopædia Britannica|author-link=Encyclopædia Britannica|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624232123/https://www.britannica.com/place/Canadian-Shield|archive-date=24 June 2015|access-date=10 February 2009}}</ref> The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The Shield also encloses an area of [[wetlands]] around the [[Hudson Bay]]. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as [[mountain range]]s, including the [[Torngat Mountains|Torngat]] and [[Laurentian Mountains]].<ref name="SonPress2002">{{cite book|author1=George Philip and Son|author2=Oxford University Press|title=Encyclopedic World Atlas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UD0kOEb1XIC&pg=PA68|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-521920-3|page=68}}</ref>

The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. [[Boreal forest]] covers much of the shield, with a mix of [[conifers]] that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the [[Central Canadian Shield forests]] [[ecoregion]] that covers much of [[Northern Ontario]].

The Canadian Shield is known for its vast [[mineral]] reserves such as [[emerald]]s, [[diamond]]s and [[copper]], and is there also called the "mineral house".<ref name="SonPress2002"/>

===Canadian Interior Plains===
{{further|Interior Plains}}[[File:Palliser's Triangle map.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Palliser's Triangle]], delineating prairie soil types in the [[Prairie provinces]].]]
{{excerpt|Canadian Prairies| hat=no}}

===Canadian Arctic===
{{Main|Arctic Archipelago}}
While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endless [[permafrost]] and [[tundra]] north of the [[tree line]], it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the [[Arctic Cordillera]] (with the [[British Empire Range]] and the [[United States Range]] on [[Ellesmere Island]]) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The [[Arctic Lowlands]] and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.<ref name=James>Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "[https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/arctic-archipelago Arctic Archipelago]" ''[[Canadian Encyclopedia|The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Toronto: Hurtig Publishers.</ref>

The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of [[Nunavut]] and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, [[Yukon]], Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador. The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than {{cvt|130|km2}}, and cover a total area of {{cvt|1400000|km2}}.<ref name=James/>

===Western Cordillera===
{{further|Pacific Cordillera (Canada)}}
[[File:Canadian Rockies HartRanges.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the [[Hart Ranges]] in British Columbia]]
The [[Coast Mountains]] in [[British Columbia]] run from the lower [[Fraser River]] and the [[Fraser Canyon]] northwestward, separating the [[Interior Plateau]] from the Pacific Ocean.<ref name=Wilson>Wilson, Robert J.  ''Geology and Economic Minerals of Canada'', p. 26 (Geological Survey of Canada, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, 1976).</ref>  Its southeastern end is separated from the [[North Cascades]] by the [[Fraser Lowland]], where nearly a third of [[Western Canada]]'s population reside.

The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network of [[fjord]]s and associated islands, very similar to the [[Norway|Norwegian]] coastline in [[Northern Europe]]; while their inland side transitions to the high [[plateau]] with [[dryland]] valleys notable for a series of large [[alpine lake]]s similar to those in southern [[Switzerland]], beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland. They are subdivided in three main groups, the [[Pacific Ranges]] between the Fraser River and [[Bella Coola, British Columbia|Bella Coola]], the [[Kitimat Ranges]] from there northwards to the [[Nass River]]<!--or Skeena?-->, and the [[Boundary Ranges]] from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon at [[Champagne, Yukon|Champagne Pass]] and [[Chilkat Pass]] northwest of [[Haines, Alaska]].<ref name=Wilson /> The [[Saint Elias Mountains]] lie to their west and northwest, while the [[Yukon Ranges]] and Yukon Basin lie to their north. On the inland side of the Boundary Ranges are the [[Tahltan Highland|Tahltan]] and [[Tagish Highland]]s and also the [[Skeena Mountains]], part of the [[Interior Mountains]] system, which also extend southwards on the inland side of the [[Kitimat Ranges]].<ref name=Wilson />

The terrain of the main spine of the Coast Mountains is typified by heavy [[glaciation]], including several very large [[icefield]]s of varying elevation. Of the three subdivisions, the Pacific Ranges are the highest and are crowned by [[Mount Waddington]], while the Boundary Ranges contain the largest icefields, the [[Juneau Icefield]] being the largest. The Kitimat Ranges are lower and less glacier-covered than either of the other two groupings, but are extremely rugged and dense.

The Coast Mountains are made of [[igneous]] and [[metamorphic rock]] from an episode of [[volcanic arc|arc volcanism]] related to [[subduction]] of the [[Kula Plate|Kula]] and [[Farallon Plate]]s during the [[Laramide orogeny]] about 100 million years ago.<ref>Rogers, John.  ''A History of the Earth'', p. 281 (CUP Archive, November 18, 1993).</ref> The widespread [[granite]] forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of the [[Coast Range Arc]] whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produce [[schist]].

The [[Insular Mountains]] extend from [[Vancouver Island]] in the south to the [[Haida Gwaii]] in the north on the [[British Columbia Coast]]. It contains two main mountain ranges, the [[Vancouver Island Ranges]] on Vancouver Island and the [[Queen Charlotte Mountains]] on Haida Gwaii.<ref>Solski, Ruth. ''Canadian Provinces & Territories Gr. 4-6'', p. 91 (S&S Learning Materials 2003).</ref>

===Hudson Bay Lowlands===
[[File:Southern Hudson Bay Taiga map.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Hudson Bay Lowlands approximately coincide with the [[Southern Hudson Bay taiga]] [[ecoregion]] of North America.]]
{{excerpt|Hudson Bay Lowlands |hat=no|only=paragraphs}}

====Extreme points====
{{Main|Extreme points of Canada}}
{{See also|Extreme points of Canadian provinces}}
[[Image:Canada topo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Topographic map]]
The northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada is [[Cape Columbia]], [[Ellesmere Island]], [[Nunavut]] {{Coord|83.111|N|69.972|W|name=Cape Columbia, Nunavut}}.<ref name = Toporama>{{cite web|url = http://atlas.gc.ca/toporama/en/index.html|title = Toporama|website = Atlas of Canada| date=12 September 2016 |publisher = Natural Resources Canada}}</ref> The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is [[Zenith Point]] on [[Boothia Peninsula]], Nunavut {{Coord|72.002|N|94.655|W|name=Zenith Point, Nunavut}}.<ref name = Toporama/> The southernmost point is [[Middle Island (Lake Erie)|Middle Island]], in [[Lake Erie]], Ontario (41°41′N 82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario–[[Ohio]] border (41°40′35″N). The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland is [[Point Pelee National Park|Point Pelee]], Ontario {{Coord|41.909|N|82.509|W|name=Point Pelee, Ontario}}.<ref name = Toporama/> The lowest point is sea level at 0 m,<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Canada| date=21 June 2022 }}</ref> whilst the highest point is [[Mount Logan]], [[Yukon]], at 5,959 m&nbsp;/&nbsp;19,550&nbsp;ft {{Coord|60.567|N|140.405|W|name=Mount Logan, Yukon}}.<ref name = Toporama/>
 
The westernmost point is [[Boundary Peak 187]] (60°18′22.929″N 141°00′7.128″W) at the southern end of the [[Yukon]]–[[Alaska]] border, which roughly follows 141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North {{Coord|60.301|N|141.010|W|name=Boundary Peak 187}}.<ref>{{cite web
  | title = 141st Meridian Boundary Points
  | publisher = International Boundary Commission
  | url = http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/coordinates/141st.htm
  | access-date = 20 December 2010
  | archive-date = 17 July 2011
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717054610/http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/coordinates/141st.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref><ref name =Toporama/> The easternmost point is [[Cape Spear]], Newfoundland (47°31′N 52°37′W) {{Coord|47.523|N|52.619|W|name=Cape Spear, Newfoundland}}.<ref name = Toporama/> The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point, [[Cape St. Charles]], Labrador (52°13′N 55°37′W) {{Coord|52.217|N|55.621|W|name=Elijah Point, Labrador}}.<ref name = Toporama/>

The Canadian [[pole of inaccessibility]] is allegedly near Jackfish River, [[Alberta]] (59°2′N 112°49′W).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/toporama?center=-988148.64891657,1235111.2884945&zoom=9|title=Jackfish River, Alberta|website=Natural Resources Canada|publisher=[[Atlas of Canada]]|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140924185755/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/toporama?center=-988148.64891657,1235111.2884945&zoom=9|archive-date=24 September 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=10 November 2016}}</ref> The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip of [[Kluane National Park and Reserve]] (next to [[Mount Saint Elias]]) and Cripple Cove, [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] (near [[Cape Race]]) at a distance of {{convert|3005.60|nmi|km mi}}.

==Climatology {{Anchor|Climate}}==
{{further|Temperature in Canada}}
[[File:Canada Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Köppen climate classification types of Canada]]

Climate varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a [[continental climate]], where daily average temperatures are near {{convert|-15|C|F|abbr=|lk=on}}, but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe [[wind chill]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics, Regina SK |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archive-date=January 5, 2009 |access-date=January 18, 2010 |publisher=[[The Weather Network]]}}</ref> In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="ccnRegina">{{Cite web |date=September 25, 2013 |title=Regina International Airport |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084648/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archive-date=May 18, 2015 |access-date=May 12, 2015 |website=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]]}}</ref>

Much of [[Northern Canada]] is covered by ice and [[permafrost]]; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of [[climate change in Canada]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bush, E |last2=Lemmen, D.S. |year=2019 |title=Canada's Changing Climate Report |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422235552/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-22 |url-status=live |publisher=Government of Canada |page=84}}</ref> Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by {{convert|1.7|C-change}}, with changes ranging from {{convert|1.1|to|2.3|C-change}} in various regions, since 1948.<ref name="ClimateReport" /> The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.<ref name="ClimateReport">{{Cite web |author1=Zhang, X. |author2=Flato, G. |author3=Kirchmeier-Young, M. |author4=Vincent, L. |author5=Wan, H. |author6=Wang, X. |author7=Rong, R. |author8=Fyfe, J. |author9=Li, G. |author10=Kharin, V.V. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Across Canada]; Chapter 4 |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422235728/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-22 |url-status=live |website=Canada's Changing Climate Report |publisher=Government of Canada |pages=112&ndash;193 |editor-last=Bush |editor-first=E. |editor-last2=Lemmen |editor-first2=D.S.}}</ref> In the southern regions of Canada, [[Air pollution in Canada|air pollution]] from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in [[acid rain]], which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and [[Agriculture in Canada|agricultural productivity in Canada]].<ref name="Boyd2011">{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=David R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeYgVGE9j3EC&pg=PA67 |title=Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4063-7 |pages=67–69}}</ref>

==Biogeography==
{{main|Wildlife of Canada}}
[[File:Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada, 2017.gif|thumb|right|upright=1.4|ELC Ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada]]
[[Ecozones of Canada|Canada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones]], that are further subdivided into 53 [[ecoprovince]]s, 194 [[ecoregion]]s, and 1,027 [[ecodistrict]]s.<ref name="intro"/>  These eco-areas encompass over 80,000 classified species of [[Wildlife of Canada|Canadian wildlife]], with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.<ref name=Species>{{cite web|url=https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=  Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada|work= National General Status Working Group: 1|publisher =Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council|year=2016|page=2}}</ref> Due to pollution, [[loss of biodiversity]], over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than [[List of Wildlife Species at Risk (Canada)|800 wild life species at risk of being lost]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=69DCE5B9-1|title=Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Annual Report 2013-2014|first=Environment Canada|last=Government of Canada|date=September 30, 2014|website=www.sararegistry.gc.ca}}</ref>

Canada's major biomes are the [[tundra]], [[boreal forest]], [[grassland]], and [[temperate deciduous forest]]. [[British Columbia]] contains several smaller biomes, including; [[subalpine|mountain forest]]  which extends to [[Alberta]], and a small [[temperate rainforest]] along the [[Pacific coast]], the [[Semi-arid climate|semi arid desert]] located in the [[Okanagan]] and [[alpine tundra]] in the higher mountainous regions.<ref name="BenkeCushing2011">{{cite book|author1=Arthur C. Benke|author2=Colbert E. Cushing|title=Rivers of North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faOU1wkiYFIC&pg=PA6|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-045418-4|pages=6–9}}</ref>

Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/|title=State of Canada's Biodiversity Highlighted in New Government Report|date=October 22, 2010}}</ref> Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around {{cvt|2.4|sqkm||disp=preunit|million }}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/datablog/2009/sep/02/total-forest-area-by-country|title=Total forest coverage by country|date=2 September 2009|website=The Guardian|access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref>  The [[boreal forest of Canada]] is considered to be the largest [[intact forest landscape|intact forest]] on Earth, with around {{convert|3,000,00|km2}} undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.<ref name="RavenBerg2012">{{cite book|author1=Peter H. Raven|author2=Linda R. Berg|author3=David M. Hassenzahl|title=Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVpO2R51JBIC&pg=RA1-PA361|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-94570-4|pages=1–3}}</ref> The [[Canadian Arctic tundra]]  is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarf [[shrubs]], [[Cyperaceae|sedges]] and [[Poaceae|grasses]], [[moss]]es and [[lichen]]s.<ref name="Marsh1999a">{{cite book|author=James H. Marsh|title=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PA2446|year=1999|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5|page=2446}}</ref>

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are  [[National Wildlife Area|conservation areas]], including 11.4 percent designated as [[Protected areas of Canada|protected areas]].<ref name=conserved/> Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.<ref name=conserved>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html|title=Canada's conserved areas|publisher=Environment and Climate Canada|year=2020}}</ref>

==Palaeogeography==
{{Main|Volcanism of Canada|Geology of Canada}}

{{excerpt|Volcanism of Canada| hat=no}}

== Hydrography ==
{{main|List of rivers of Canada|Watersheds of North America}}
[[Image:Longest_Rivers_of_Canada.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Rivers of Canada]]
Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world's renewable water supply,<ref>{{cite web| url= http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/freshwater/distribution/1 | author= Atlas of Canada | title= Distribution of Freshwater |date=February 2004 | access-date=1 February 2007}}</ref> [[List of lakes of Canada|Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes]]—563 greater than {{convert|100|km2}}—which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount of [[glacier]] water.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274077247|title=Status and Trends of Biodiversity of Inland Water Ecosystems|year=2003|publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity|isbn=92-807-2398-7}}</ref> Canada is also home to about twenty five percent  (134.6 million ha) of the world's [[wetlands]] that support a vast array of local ecosystems.<ref name="Education1">{{cite book|title=Living in the Environment, Canadian Edition, 4th ed.| date=16 May 2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r5qzDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT404|publisher=Nelson Education|isbn=978-0-17-675682-6|page=404}}</ref>

[[List of longest rivers of Canada|Canada's waterways]] host forty-seven rivers of at least {{convert|600|km}} in length, with the two longest being the [[Mackenzie River]], that begins at [[Great Slave Lake]] and ends in the [[Arctic Ocean]], with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and the [[Saint Lawrence River]], which drains the [[Great Lakes]] into the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] ending in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over {{convert|4200|km}} in length and lies within the second largest [[Watersheds of North America|drainage basin of North America]], while the St. Lawrence {{convert|3058|km}} in length, drains the world's [[Great Lakes Basin|largest system of freshwater lakes]].<ref name=Longest >{{cite web | url=https://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.asp?lang=En&n=45BBB7B8-1#canada | title=Rivers: Longest rivers in Canada | publisher=[[Environment Canada]] | date=22 July 2013 | access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref>

The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the [[Atlantic provinces]] (parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean [[Laurentian Divide|continental divide]]), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the [[Saguenay River|Saguenay]], [[Manicouagan River|Manicouagan]], and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes and [[Lake Nipigon]] are also drained by the St. Lawrence. The [[Churchill River (Atlantic)|Churchill River]] and [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|Saint John River]] are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.<ref name=canadian>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC819565
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608054957/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC819565
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=8 June 2011
|title=Drainage Basin
|publisher=thecanadianencyclopedia
|access-date=21 February 2008
}}
</ref>
[[File:Canada ocean drainage areas and drainage regions.gif|right|upright=1.4|Drainage basins of Canada|thumb]]
The [[Hudson Bay drainage basin|Hudson Bay watershed]] drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half of [[Baffin Island]]. This basin is most important in fighting drought in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include [[Lake Winnipeg]], Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and [[South Saskatchewan River]]s, [[Assiniboine River]], and [[Nettilling Lake]] on Baffin Island. [[Wollaston Lake]] lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and [[Bifurcation lake|drains into both]]. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.<ref name=canadian/>

The [[Continental Divide of the Americas|continental divide]] in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as the [[Okanagan River|Okanagan]] and [[Kootenay River|Kootenay]] valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon, [[Columbia River|Columbia]] and Fraser rivers.<ref name=canadian/>

The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace]], Athabasca and [[Liard River]]s, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.<ref name=canadian/>

The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the [[Milk River (Alberta–Montana)|Milk River]] and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains of [[Montana]], then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by the [[Missouri River]]. A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by [[Battle Creek (Milk River tributary)|Battle Creek]], which empties into the Milk River.<ref name=canadian/>

==Natural resources==
{{see also|Economy of Canada}}

Canada's abundance of [[natural resource]]s is reflected in their continued importance in the [[economy of Canada]]. Major resource-based industries are [[Fishery|fisheries]], [[forestry]], agriculture, [[petroleum product]]s and mining.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022">{{cite web | title=The Daily — Canada's natural resource wealth, 2021 (preliminary data) | website=Statistics Canada | date=2022-11-14 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221114/dq221114d-eng.htm | access-date=2023-04-29}}</ref>

The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest. Unmatched [[cod]] stocks on the [[Grand Banks]] of Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the [[Atlantic Provinces]]. On the West Coast, [[tuna]] stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but still greatly diminished) [[salmon]] population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims {{convert|12|nmi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of {{convert|24|nmi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}}, an [[exclusive economic zone]] of {{convert|5599077|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} with {{convert|200|nmi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} and a continental shelf of {{convert|200|nmi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} or to the edge of the continental margin.

Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has {{convert|7,200|km2|mi2|abbr=out}} of irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, the [[Lower Mainland]] and various regions within the [[British Columbia Interior|Interior of British Columbia]], the [[St. Lawrence Basin]] and the Canadian [[Maritimes]]. Main crops in Canada include [[flax]], [[oat]]s, wheat, maize, [[barley]], [[sugar beet]]s and [[rye]] in the prairies; flax and maize in [[Western Ontario]]; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes. [[Fruit]] and vegetables are grown primarily in the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia, [[Southwestern Ontario]], the [[Golden Horseshoe]] region of Ontario, along the south coast of [[Georgian Bay]] and in the [[Okanagan]] Valley of British Columbia. Cattle and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep and [[Hog (swine)|hog]]s are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley, [[northeastern Ontario]], southwestern Ontario, the [[Red River of the North|Red River]] valley of Manitoba and the valleys in the [[British Columbia Interior]], on [[Vancouver Island]] and in the [[Lower Mainland]].
[[Image:Canada geological map-WCSB.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|The bulk of oil and gas production occurs in the [[Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin]] (mostly light green), which stretches from southwestern [[Manitoba]] to northeastern [[British Columbia]].]]

Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with [[petroleum|oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] being extracted from deposits in the [[Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin]] since the mid-1900s. While Canada's [[crude oil]] deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta's [[Oil Sands]] to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.

Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, [[nickel]], [[zinc]], copper, gold, lead, [[molybdenum]], and [[uranium]] reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]], Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the [[Sudbury Basin]] is an ancient [[meteorite]] [[impact crater]]. The nearby, but less known [[Temagami Magnetic Anomaly]] has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater.<ref name="GH">{{cite web |website=Geological Survey of Canada |url=http://gdcinfo.agg.nrcan.gc.ca/app/3Dimaging/temagami_e.html |title=3-D Magnetic Imaging using Conjugate Gradients: Temagami anomaly |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711184237/http://gdcinfo.agg.nrcan.gc.ca/app/3Dimaging/temagami_e.html |archive-date=11 July 2009 |access-date=13 March 2008}}</ref> The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.

Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy.

==Environmental issues==
{{main|Environmental issues in Canada}}
[[File:Heavy night industrial light pollution.jpg|thumb|right|[[Economy of Canada|Industry]] is a significant source of air pollution in Canada.]]

Air pollution and resulting [[acid rain]] severely affects lakes and damages forests.<ref name="Boyd2011"/> Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity. Ocean waters are also becoming contaminated by agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.<ref name="Boyd2011"/>

Global [[climate change]] and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of the [[polar bear]],<ref>{{cite web
  | title = The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
  | publisher = Government of Canada
  | url = http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct0/sct0_200804_e.cfm
  | access-date = 7 November 2008
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721203415/http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct0/sct0_200804_e.cfm
  | archive-date = 21 July 2011
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref> the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the [[Panama Canal]] through the [[Northwest Passage]].

Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canada warming up twice as fast as rest of the world, and it's 'irreversible': report|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/5119325/canada-warming-rate-environment-canada/|access-date=2020-09-24|website=Global News|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Political geography==
{{For|historical political boundaries of Canada|Territorial evolution of Canada}}
[[File:Political map of Canada.png|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories|A political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories|link=Provinces and territories of Canada]]

Canada is divided into [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]]. According to [[Statistics Canada]], 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between [[Windsor, Ontario]], and [[Quebec City]]. This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is {{convert|3.5|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people&nbsp;|people}}, among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo62a-eng.htm|title=Population, urban and rural, by province and territory (Canada)|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www.statcan.gc.ca|date=15 January 2001 |language=en|access-date=30 January 2018}}</ref>

Canada shares with the U.S. the world's [[Canada–United States border|longest binational border]] at {{convert|8893|km|mi}}; {{convert|2477|km|mi}} are with [[Alaska]]. The Danish island dependency of [[Greenland]] lies to Canada's northeast, separated from the [[Canadian Arctic islands]] by [[Baffin Bay]] and [[Davis Strait]]. As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarkar |first=Alisha Rahaman |date=14 June 2022 |title=That's how to solve an international row: Canada and Denmark agree to split disputed Arctic island |url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/that-e2-80-99s-how-to-solve-an-international-row-canada-and-denmark-agree-to-split-disputed-arctic-island/ar-AAYrjkN |access-date=14 June 2022 |website=MSN}}</ref> The French islands of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] lie off the southern coast of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada's [[exclusive economic zone]].<ref name=Hans>{{cite news |agency=[[The Canadian Press]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/satellite-imagery-moves-hans-island-boundary-report-1.684285 |title=Satellite imagery moves Hans Island boundary: report |work=[[CBC News]] |date=2 July 2007|access-date=27 February 2011}}</ref>

Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between the [[Soviet Union]] (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the [[Cold War]] since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that [[Canadian Arctic|Canada's Arctic]] maritime claims may become increasingly important if [[global warming]] melts the ice enough to open the [[Northwest Passage]].

==See also==
{{Canada provinces map |align=right|prefix=Geography of|width=230px|caption=Geography by province}}
* [[Atlas of Canada]]
* ''[[Canadian Geographic]]''
* [[Canadian Rockies]]
* [[Extreme points of North America]]
* [[List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories]]
* [[National parks of Canada|National Parks of Canada]]
* [[List of Ultras of Canada]]
* [[Mountain peaks of Canada]]
* [[Temperature in Canada]]
*{{Portal-inline|Canada}}{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<!--<ref name="Kottek 2006 259–263">
  {{cite journal | title =World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated
  | last1 = Kottek | first1 = M.
  | author2=J. Grieser |author3=C. Beck |author4=B. Rudolf |author5=F. Rubel
  | journal =Meteorol. Z. | year =2006 | volume =15 | issue = 3 | pages =259–263
  | url =http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif
  | doi =10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130
  | bibcode = 2006MetZe..15..259K | access-date = 15 February 2007}}</ref>
<ref name=Timoney1991>
  {{cite web | title=The High Subarctic Forest-Tundra of Northwestern Canada: Position, Width, and Vegetation Gradients in Relation to Climate
   | publisher=University of Calgary |year=1991|author1=Timoney, K.P.
   | author2= la Roi, G.H. | author3=Zoltai, S.C. | author4=Robinson, A.L.
   | url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic45-1-1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic45-1-1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2008}}</ref>-->
}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Bailey|first=William G|author2=Oke, TR |author3=Rouse, Wayne R |title=The surface climates of Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&q=The%20surface%20climates%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1|isbn=0-7735-1672-7}}
*{{cite book | last = Drushka | first = Ken | year = 2003 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XnTeW9Q4udQC&q=Canada's%20forests%3A%20a%20history&pg=PP1 | title = Canada's forests: a history | publisher = McGill-Queen's University Press | isbn = 0-7735-2660-9}}
*{{cite book |last1=Etkin |first1=David |author2=Haque, CE |author3=Brooks, Gregory R |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |publisher=Springer |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaJz_SNNuKMC&q=wells%20%22gray%20clearwater%22%20volcanic%20field%20earthquakes&pg=PR5 |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Feldhamer |first=George A |author2=Thompson, Bruce Carlyle |author3=Chapman, Joseph A. |year=2003 |title=Wild mammals of North America |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xQalfqP7BcC&q=mammals%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=0801874165}}
* {{Cite book |last =Fick |first =Steven |year =2004 |title =The Canadian atlas: our nation, environment and people
  | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=vDR7hrnO1aYC&q=Canadian%20Geography&pg=PP1 |publisher=Douglas & McIntyre |isbn= 0888507704}}
* {{Cite book |last = French|first = Hugh M |author2=Slaymaker, Olav |year =1993 |title =Canada's Cold Environments
  |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=nmTREEU3l2sC&q=Canadian%20flora&pg=PP1 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=0-7735-0925-9 }}
* {{Cite book |last = Hudson |first =John C |year =2002 |title =Across this land: a regional geography of the United States and Canada |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=FQUbfAWhh-oC&q=Geography%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=0-8018-6567-0 }}
* {{Cite journal |last =  Nils|first =John Macoun |author2=Kindberg, Conrad |year =1883 |title =Catalogue of Canadian plants
  | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=EBq1AAAAIAAJ&q=Canadian%20flora&pg=PP1 |publisher=Geological Survey of Canada }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Geography of Canada}}
* Government of Canada – [https://web.archive.org/web/20050115094903/http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference The Atlas of Canada]
* Canadian Geographic – [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/ The Canadian Atlas Online]
* Cartography of Canada – [http://geamap.com/en/canada The Canadian Map Online]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/ Canada]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].

{{Canada Geography|state=expanded}}
{{Geography of North America}}
{{Canada topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geography Of Canada}}
[[Category:Geography of Canada| ]]