Editing Galerius

{{Short description|Roman emperor from 305 to 311}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Romuliana Galerius head.jpg
| image_size   = 
| alt          = Purple-red head statue
| caption      = Likely bust of Galerius in [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]], found in 1993 at [[Gamzigrad]] and held at the {{ill|National Museum Zaječar{{!}}National Museum|sr|Narodni muzej Zaječar}} in [[Zaječar]], [[Serbia]].<ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=1217 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-845 (Marianne Bergmann)]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Elsner|first=Jas|author-link=Jas Elsner|year=2018|title=The Art of the Roman Empire AD 100–450|page=58|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780198768630|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HpVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|quote=A recently discovered porphyry head of a tetrarch from Romuliana in modern Serbia—the birth and burial place of Galerius (293–311) [...] It is likely that the statue portrays Galerius as Caesar after his victory over the Persians in AD 297/8.}}</ref>
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext     = (in [[Eastern Roman Empire|the East]])
| reign        = 1 May 305&nbsp;–&nbsp;early May 311
| reign-type   = [[Augustus (title)|''Augustus'']]
| predecessor  = [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]]
| successor    = [[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus II]] and [[Licinius]]<br/>(both in the East)
| regent       = {{Collapsible list|title=''See list''|{{ubl
 |[[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius I]] (305–306){{efn|In the West; proclaimed by Maximian.}}
 |[[Severus II]] (306–307){{efn|In the West; proclaimed by Galerius.}}
 |[[Constantine I]] (306–311){{efn|In the West; not recognized by the other tetrarchs.}}
 |[[Maxentius]] (306–311){{efn|In Italy; not recognized by the other tetrarchs.}}
 |[[Maximian]] (306–310){{efn|In Italy; not recognized by the other tetrarchs. He was defeated in 308, but rebelled again in 310.}}
 |[[Licinius]] (308–311){{efn|In the Middle realms; proclaimed by Galerius. Emperor of the East following Maximinus' death.}}
 |[[Domitius Alexander|''Alexander'']] (308–311){{efn|Usurper in Africa, unrecognized elsewhere.}}
 |[[Maximinus II]] (310–311){{efn|In the East; proclaimed by his troops.}} }}}}
| reg-type     = {{nowrap|Co-rulers}}
| reign1       = 1 March 293{{efn|The earlier dates for Galerius' appointment have been argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes 1981, 8–9; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston, ''Dioclétien'', 88ff., stating that the evidence adduced (the 7th-century [[Chronicon Paschale|Paschal Chronicle]] [https://archive.org/details/chronicon-p/page/2/mode/1up Ol.268] and the contemporary [[Lactantius]], ''[[De mortibus persecutorum|DMP]]'' 19.2) is invalid and confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the "Maximianus" in the text is therefore a later gloss; the Paschal Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for events outside Egypt, and may simply be commenting on the day when the laureled image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Moreover, Lactantius ([https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm ''DMP'' 35]) explicitly states that Galerius' ''[[dies imperii]]'' fell on 1 March. Potter (2004, 650) agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but believes that Seston's other evidence makes a strong case for a temporal lag between the two Caesars' acclamations.}}&nbsp;–&nbsp;1 May 305 (under [[Diocletian]]){{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=4}}
| reign-type1  = [[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']]
| birth_date   = {{Circa|258}}{{sfn|Leadbetter|pp=18–21}}{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_place  = [[Felix Romuliana]]<!-- ([[Gamzigrad]])-->, [[Roman Dacia]], [[Roman Empire]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_name   = Galerius Maximinus<ref name=name>[[Lactantius]], ''[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm de Mortibus Persecutorum]'', 18. "Now Galerius had lately bestowed part of his own name on that youth [Daia], and called him Maximin, in like manner as Diocletian formerly bestowed on Galerius the name of Maximian".</ref><ref>For an analysis of the official nomenclature of the Tetrarchs, see {{cite journal |last=Salway |year=1994 |first=Benet |title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700 |journal=[[Journal of Roman Studies]] |volume=84 |pages=137–140 |doi=10.2307/300873 |jstor=300873 |s2cid=162435434 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf |author-link=Benet Salway}}</ref>
| death_date   = early May 311<ref>[[Lactantius]], [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm''DMP'' 35.4.] "This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the day preceding the kalends of May [30 April]... In a few days after he was consumed by the horrible disease that had brought on a universal putrefaction [...] This event was known at Nicomedia before the end of the month.".</ref> (aged {{Circa|53}})
| death_place  = [[Serdica]], [[Dacia Ripensis]], Roman Empire
| burial_place = [[Felix Romuliana]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| spouse       = [[Galeria Valeria]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=38}}
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Candidianus (son of Galerius)|Candidianus]]|[[Valeria Maximilla]]}}
| full name    = Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=4}}
| regnal name  = Imperator Caesar Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus
| father       = [[Diocletian]] (adoptive)
| mother       = Romula{{sfn|Barnes|1982|pp=37–38}}
| religion     = [[Roman polytheism]]
}}

'''Galerius Valerius Maximianus'''{{efn|Sometimes called "'''Maximian II'''" ,<ref>{{cite book|last=Sandys|first=John|author-link=John Sandys (classicist)|year=1927|title=Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maxwelll|first=Craven|year=2019|title=The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome|publisher=Fonthill Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEbCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT414|page=414}}</ref>
 since ancient sources often call him "Galerius Maximianus".}} ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|ə|s}}; [[Greek language|Greek]]: Γαλέριος; {{circa}} 258 – May 311) was [[Roman emperor]] from 305 to 311. He participated in the system of government later known as the [[Tetrarchy]], first acting as ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' under Emperor [[Diocletian]]. In this period Galerius obtained victory warring against the Persian [[Sassanian Empire]], defeating [[Narseh]] at the battle of Satala in 298 and possibly sacking the Sassanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]] in 299. He also campaigned across the [[Danube]] against the [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]], defeating them in 297 and 300. Galerius was promoted to ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' upon the abdication of Diocletian in 305, but had to contend with multiple usurpers as the Tetrarchic system broke down. Although he was a staunch opponent of [[Christianity]], he ended the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] by issuing the [[Edict of Serdica]] in 311.

==Early life==
Galerius was born in the Danube provinces, either near [[Sofia|Serdica]]<ref>"''Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus''", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.</ref> or at the place where he later built his palace named after his mother – [[Gamzigrad|Felix Romuliana]] ([[Gamzigrad]]), in the province later known as [[Dacia Ripensis]].<ref>"''ortus Dacia Ripensi ibique sepultus est; quem locum Romulianam ex vocabulo Romulae matris appellarat''", Epitome de Caesaribus 40.16.</ref>{{sfn|von Bülow|2023|p=575}} Under this palace, an older villa has been found that is sometimes interpreted as Galerius' birthplace.{{sfn|Kuhoff|2001|p=122}} His mother, Romula, had left [[Roman Dacia]] (today [[Romania]]) and settled in New Dacia south of the [[Danube]] because of the [[Carpi people|Carpians]]' attacks.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = de Mortibus Persecutorum}}, chapter 9</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm|title = Church Fathers: Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (Lactantius)}}</ref>{{rp |19}} He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman ({{langx|la|armentum|lit=herd}}).{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol. 1|p= 574}} His original ''[[cognomen]]'' was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''.<ref name=name/>

[[File:Istanbul - Museo archeol. - Diocleziano (284-305 d.C.) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006.jpg|thumb|Diocletian, Galerius' father-in-law and senior emperor]]
He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors [[Aurelian]] and [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]], and in 293, at the establishment of the [[Tetrarchy]], was designated ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' along with [[Constantius Chlorus]], receiving in marriage [[Diocletian]]'s daughter Valeria (later known as [[Galeria Valeria]]), and at the same time being entrusted with the care of the [[Illyria]]n provinces. After a few years campaigning against [[Sarmatians]] and [[Goths]] on the [[Danube]], he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities [[Busiris (Lower Egypt)|Busiris]] and [[Qift|Coptos]].<ref>Rees, ''Diocletian and the Tetrarchy'', p. 14, citing William Leadbetter, "Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid, 293/4," ''Antichthon'' 34 (2000) 82–94.</ref>

==War with Persia==
{{See also|Roman–Iranian relations|Roman–Persian Wars}}

===Invasion, counterinvasion===
In 294, [[Narseh]], a son of [[Shapur I]], who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate [[Bahram III]], a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}<ref name = "Williams Diocletian">{{citation | last = Williams | title = Diocletian}}</ref>{{rp |69}} In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of [[Ardashir I|Ardashir]] (r. 226–241) and [[Shapur I|Shapur]] (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref name = "Williams Diocletian" />{{rp |69–70}}

In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=149}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}}<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.</ref> The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=651–652}} Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title ''Persici Maximi'' was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted [[Battle of Carrhae (296)|a severe defeat]] on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae ([[Harran]], Turkey) and Callinicum ([[Raqqa]], Syria).{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=652}} but  presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292–293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} [[David Stone Potter]] reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a ''Caesar''<nowiki/>'s deference to his ''Augustus''.{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=14}}

[[File:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Galerius attacking [[Narseh]] on the [[Arch and Tomb of Galerius#Arch of Galerius|Arch of Galerius]] at [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]], the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}}]]

Galerius' army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.<ref>Lactantius (''DMP'' 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of [[Marcus Aurelius]]' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–66|Parthian campaign]], which also had an emperor manning the southern flank.</ref> Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} During the second encounter, the [[Battle of Satala (298)|Battle of Satala]] in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}

Galerius advanced into [[Media (region)|Media]] and [[Adiabene]], winning continuous victories, most prominently near [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]] (Erzurum),{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}} and securing [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] (Nusaybin) before 1 October  298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the [[Tigris]], taking [[Ctesiphon]]. Barnes' main argument for this is that Eusebius' biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of [[Babylon]] according to this work.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dignas |first1=Beate |last2=Winter |first2=Engelbert |title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals |date=13 September 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84925-8 |pages=29–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA51 |language=en}}</ref>

===Peace negotiations===
Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and his beneficent conduct towards the family of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]].{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their ''magister memoriae'' (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}}

The conditions of the [[Peace of Nisibis (299)|Peace of Nisibis]] were heavy:{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Caucasian Iberia]] would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: [[Ingilene]], Sophanene ([[Sophene]]), Arzanene ([[Aghdznik]]), [[Corduene]], and [[Zabdicene]] (near modern [[Hakkâri (city)|Hakkâri]], Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the [[Anti-Taurus Mountains|Anti-Taurus]] range; the [[Bitlis]] pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the [[Tur Abdin]] plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.<ref>The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, ''The Roman Empire at Bay'', p. 293.</ref> Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it  has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}}

==Rule as Augustus==
[[File:Rare aureus of Galerius Caesar.jpg|thumb|280px|left|[[Aureus]] of Galerius as ''Caesar''. The reverse depicts the god [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]].{{efn|Emperor [[Maximian]] apparently never issued any coinage when he was ''Caesar'', so coins with the name "Maximianus Caesar" must represent Galerius. The only source that refers to Maximian as having been ''Caesar'' is [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]].<ref>Nixon 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbQwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 p. 47]</ref>}}]]

After the abdication of [[Diocletian]] in 305 and the elevation of [[Constantius I]] and Galerius to the rank of ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'', two new ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''s were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures.<ref name = "ReferenceA">{{citation | last = Gibbon | first = Edward | title = Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire | chapter = 14}}</ref> [[Maximinus Daza]], a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. [[Valerius Severus]], Galerius' comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in [[Mediolanum]]. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Constantius died at [[Eboracum]] in 306 and the legions elevated his son [[Constantine I|Constantine]] to the position of ''Augustus''. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|pp=28–29}}<ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.</ref><ref>Odahl, 79–80.</ref>{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=160}} Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at [[Nicomedia]].<ref name = "ReferenceA" /> Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of ''Caesar'' and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of ''Augustus''.

[[File:Гамзиград 04а.jpg|thumb|[[Gamzigrad|Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius]] in [[Zaječar]], Serbia, today a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]

Soon afterward, [[Maxentius]], son of Maximian and husband of Galerius' daughter [[Valeria Maximilla]], rebelled in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|title=Maxentius (306–312 A.D.)|last=DiMaio|first=Michael Jr.|work=De Imperatoribus Romanis|access-date=20 July 2013|archive-date=4 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140124/http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> A need for additional revenue had caused Galerius to disregard Italy's traditional exemption from any form of taxation, and Maxentius exploited local indignation to declare himself emperor. An army led by Severus hastened to Rome, hoping to catch the usurper by surprise,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> but Maximian, who had previously commanded many of the invading troops, came out of retirement in support of his son. The army switched sides, and Severus was arrested and later executed.

Leaving his long-time friend and military companion [[Licinius]] to guard the Danube, Galerius personally invaded Italy with a powerful army collected from [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]] and the East. He forced his way as far as [[Narni]], within sixty miles of Rome, but skillful preparations by Maximian prevented him from capturing any territory along the way.
[[File:Portrait of Galerius, Thessaloniki.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Galerius on his [[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda|Arch]] ]]
The strength of the enemy's position made Galerius send peace overtures to Rome, professing his fatherly affection for Maxentius and promising to be generous if the rebels cooperated. Maxentius refused the offer, and meanwhile compromised the loyalty of the invasion force by sending bribes to the Illyrian legions. Galerius was compelled to began a withdrawal from Italy, and it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an [[Conference of Carnuntum|imperial conference]] at [[Carnuntum]] on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the government. Here it was agreed that Licinius would become ''Augustus'' in the West, with Constantine as his ''Caesar''. In the East, Galerius remained ''Augustus'' and Maximinus remained his ''Caesar''. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

Galerius' plan soon failed. Envious of Licinius' promotion, Maximinus also claimed the title of ''Augustus''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Maximian, still not willing to retire, declared himself emperor in [[Arles]] in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the [[Franks]]. An additional usurper, [[Domitius Alexander]], arose in Africa, bringing the number of claimants of imperial power up to seven. Galerius maintained his seniority and ceased trying to encroach on the other emperors' domains; he spent his later years in recreation and in public works, such as an extensive logging and drainage project at Lake Pelso (modern [[Lake Balaton]]).<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Persecution of Christians==
{{Main|Diocletian Persecution}}
[[File:Thessaloniki-Arch of Galerius (detail).jpg|thumb|right| Detail of the [[Arch and Tomb of Galerius|Arch of Galerius]] in [[Thessaloniki]].]]

Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. [[Diocletian]] was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the [[Roman Empire]].{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}

It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the [[Christians]] were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in [[Serdica]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Gibbon |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pksA7j6ZXLgC&pg=PA132 |year= 2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-122-1 |page=132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Ramsay |last1=MacMullen |author-link=Ramsay MacMullen |first2=Eugene |last2=Lane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_lvnk-z5QUC&pg=PA219 |title=Paganism and Christianity, 100–425 C.E.: A Sourcebook |publisher=[[Fortress Press]] |date= 1992 |page=219 |isbn=9781451407853}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Sarolta Anna |last1=Takacs |first2=Eric H. |last2=Cline |author2-link=Eric H. Cline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |title=The Ancient World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2015 |page=202 |isbn=9781317458395}}</ref> in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see ''[[Edict of Toleration by Galerius]]''). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, AD 30–312 |first=J. |last=Davidson |publisher=Monarch Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1854246585}}</ref>

Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying:  "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes."  [[Lactantius]] gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum''.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = De Mortibus Persecutorum |trans-title=On the Deaths of the Persecutors | chapter = 34, 35}}</ref> This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and [[Licinius]] in the [[Edict of Milan]].

==Death==
[[File:Bust of Galerius, Canellopoulos Museum.jpg|thumb|Head in the [[Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulou|Canellopoulos Museum]] – once part of an over life-sized statue, possibly Galerius.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA13 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=13–14|isbn=9780870991790 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Marble portrait of Roman Emperor |url=https://camu.gr/en/item/portraito-tou-aftokratora-galeriou/ |website=Canellopoulos Museum  |quote=}}</ref>]]
Galerius died in late April or early May 311<ref>{{citation | last = Corcoran | first = Simon | title = The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial pronouncements and government, AD 284–324 | page = 187}}</ref> from a horribly gruesome disease described by [[Eusebius]]<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]'' 352–356</ref> and [[Lactantius]],<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 33</ref> possibly some form of [[Colorectal cancer|bowel cancer]], [[gangrene]] or [[Fournier gangrene]].

Galerius was buried in his [[mausoleum]] at [[Gamzigrad-Romuliana]], which was part of the palace he built at his birthplace, today's [[Zaječar]] in [[Serbia]]. Several lumps composed of corroded iron ring mail (''[[lorica hamata]]'') have been found at the site. This mail armour may have been worn by the wax figure of the emperor that was burned during the imperial funeral and [[Apotheosis#Ancient Rome|apotheosis]] ceremony.<ref>RING MAIL FROM GALERIUS' BURIAL RITE AT GAMZIGRAD (ROMULIANA), ANTE PORTAM AUREAM : STUDIA IN HONOREM PROFESSORIS ALEKSANDAR JOVANOVIĆ, Belgrade 2017, 239–250. MIROSLAV B. VUJOVIĆ.</ref> The entire site has been inscribed into the [[World Heritage List]] in June 2007.

==Anti-Roman accusations==
According to [[Lactantius]], a Christian and adviser to Constantine, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. Lactantius further states that Galerius exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment that the victorious [[Trajan]] had applied to the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|conquered Dacians]], forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 23</ref>

==Honours==
[[Galerius Peak]] in [[Antarctica]] is named after Emperor Galerius.<ref>[https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=139000 Galerius Peak.] SCAR [[Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica]]</ref>

==Family tree==
{{Simplified Tetrarchs family tree}}

==See also==
* [[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda]]
* [[Civil wars of the Tetrarchy]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==

===Ancient sources===
{{Refbegin|2}}
*''Codex Theodosianus''.
**Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. ''Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes''<sup>2</sup> (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history2/volterra/texts/cthinfo.htm University College London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826174516/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history2/volterra/texts/cthinfo.htm |date=26 August 2009 }} and the [http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/codtheod.html University of Grenoble]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
**Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at [http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/ AncientRome.ru]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020340/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Eusebius of Caesarea.
**''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'').
***McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. ''Church History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2501.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
**''Vita Constantini'' (''Life of Constantine'').
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
*Festus. ''Breviarium''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. ''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20220422150556/http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Lactantius. ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' (''On the Deaths of the Persecutors'').
**Fletcher, William, trans. ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
*''XII Panegyrici Latini'' (''Twelve Latin Panegyrics'').
**Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor Rodgers, ed. and trans. ''In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.
*Zosimus. ''Historia Nova'' (''New History'').
**Unknown, trans. ''The History of Count Zosimus''. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus00_intro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 15 August 2009.{{efn|This edition and translation is not very good. The pagination is broken in several places, there are many typographical errors (including several replacements of "Julian" with "Jovian" and "Constantine" with "Constantius"). It is nonetheless the only translation of the ''Historia Nova'' in the public domain.
{{Refend}}

===Modern sources===
{{Refbegin|2|indent=y}}
*{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/299163 | jstor=299163 | title=Lactantius and Constantine | last1=Barnes | first1=T. D. | journal=The Journal of Roman Studies | date=7 December 1973 | volume=63 | pages=29–46 | doi=10.2307/299163 | s2cid=163051414 }}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Timothy D. |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) |title=Constantine and Eusebius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGDjJK-JeSwC |year=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-674-16531-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |year=1982 |first=Timothy D. |title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine |publisher=Harvard University Press |place=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-28066-0 |url={{googlebooks|K3poAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) }}
* Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In ''Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4'', edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–438. Leiden: Brill, 2002. {{ISBN|90-04-12259-1}}
* Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. ''The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-30199-8}}
* Brown, Peter. ''The Rise of Western Christendom''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN|0-631-22138-7}}
* {{cite book|last=von Bülow|first=Gerda|chapter=Die Palastbauten des Kaisers Galerius als Zeugnis für die kaiserliche Machtpräsentation in der Metropole und in der Provinz|trans-chapter=The palace buildings of Emperor Galerius as evidence of the imperial display of power in the metropolis and the provinces|editor1-last=Mihailescu-Bîrliba|editor1-first=Lucreţiu|editor2-last=Piso|editor2-first=Ioan|title=Romans and Natives in the Danubian Provinces (1st–6th C. AD)|series=Philippika|volume=173|publisher=Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden|year=2023|ISBN=978-3-447-39440-6|pages=567–586}}
* Burgess, R.W. "The Date of the Persecution of Christians in the Army". ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 47:1 (1996): 157–158.
* Corcoran, Simon. ''The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-19-815304-X}}
* Corcoran, "Before Constantine", Simon. "Before Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-81838-9}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-52157-2}}
* Elliott, T. G. ''The Christianity of Constantine the Great''. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-940866-59-5}}
* Gibbon, Edward, 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire', Chapter 14
* Harries, Jill. ''Law and Empire in Late Antiquity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-41087-8}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-42273-6}}
* Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337." ''Church History'' 43:2 (1974): 149–163, 200.
* {{cite book|title=[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]]|chapter=C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus 9|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I/page/574/mode/1up?view=theater|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971|editor-last1=Jones|editor-first1=A. H. M.|editor-link1=A. H. M. Jones|ref=CITEREFPLRE|editor-last2=Martindale|editor-first2=J. R.|editor-link2=John Robert Martindale|editor-last3=Morris|editor-first3=John|editor-link3=John Morris (historian)|location=Cambridge|pages=574–575}}
* Jones, A.H.M. ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986.
* {{cite book|last=Kuhoff|first=Wolfgang|title=Diokletian und die Epoche der Tetrarchie. Das römische Reich zwischen Krisenbewältigung und Neuaufbau (284–313 n. Chr.)|trans-title=Diocletian and the era of the Tetrarchy. The Roman Empire between crisis management and reconstruction (284-313 AD)|publisher=Lang|location=Frankfurt|year=2001|isbn=3-631-36792-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Leadbetter |year=2010 |first=Bill |title=Galerius and the Will of Diocletian |publisher=Routledge |place=London |isbn=978-0-415-40488-4 |url={{googlebooks|QBBjy7l-NWQC|plainurl=y}} |ref={{sfnref|Leadbetter}} }}
* Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-81838-9}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-52157-2}}
* Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." ''Classical Philology'' 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
* Mathisen, Ralph W. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220326091219/http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian (284–305 AD.)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008.
* Odahl, Charles Matson. ''Constantine and the Christian Empire''. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}
* Pohlsander, Hans. ''The Emperor Constantine''. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-31937-4}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-31938-2}}
* Pohlsander, Hans. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220317022900/http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (2004b). Accessed 16 December 2007.
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-10057-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott }}
* {{Cite book|last=Rees|first=Roger|title=Diocletian and the Tetrarchy|year=2004|location=Edinburgh, UK|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748616602|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wV5oAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Southern|first=Pat. |title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=0-415-23944-3}}
* Rostovtzeff, Michael. ''The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. {{ISBN|978-0-19-814231-7}}
* Treadgold, Warren. ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8047-2630-2}}
* Williams, Stephen. ''Diocletian and the Roman Recovery''. New York: Routledge, 1997. {{ISBN|0-415-91827-8}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/edict-milan.html Medieval Sourcebook]: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
* [http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/galerius.html Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus]
* [https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html Lactantius about Galerius in his "''De Mortibus Persecutorum''" chapter XXIII & XXVII]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06341a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|||c. 258|May|311}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Diocletian]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        | years=305–311
        | with=[[Constantius I]], [[Severus II]], [[Constantine I]], [[Maxentius]],<br/>[[Licinius]], [[Maximian]] and [[Maximinus II]]}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Maximinus Daza]], [[Licinius]]<br />and [[Constantine I]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Diocletian]] |before2=[[Maximian]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=294 |regent1= [[Constantius Chlorus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Nummius Tuscus]] |after2=[[Gaius Annius Anullinus|G. Annius Anullinus]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Diocletian]] |before2=[[Constantius Chlorus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years=297 |regent1= [[Maximian]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Anicius Faustus Paulinus (consul 298)|Anicius Faustus Paulinus]] |after2=[[Virius Gallus]]}}
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{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=300 |regent1= [[Constantius Chlorus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Titus Flavius Postumius Titianus|T. Flavius Postumius Titianus]] |after2=Virius Nepotianus}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Titus Flavius Postumius Titianus|T. Flavius Postumius Titianus]] |before2=Virius Nepotianus}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=302 |regent1= [[Constantius Chlorus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Diocletian]] |after2=[[Maximian]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Diocletian]] |before2=[[Maximian]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=305–308 |regent1= [[Constantius Chlorus]],<br />[[Maximian]],<br />[[Constantine I]],<br />[[Valerius Severus]],<br />[[Maximinus Daza]],<br />[[Diocletian]],<br /> [[Maxentius]],<br />[[Valerius Romulus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Licinius]] |after2=[[Constantine I]] |after3=[[Maxentius]] |after4=[[Valerius Romulus]]}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Tatius Andronicus]] |before2=[[Pompeius Probus]] |before3=[[Maxentius]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=311 |regent1= [[Maximinus Daza]] ,<br />[[Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus|G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus]],<br />[[Aradius Rufinus]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Constantine I]] |after2=[[Licinius]] |after3=[[Maxentius]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Galerius| ]]
[[Category:250s births]]
[[Category:311 deaths]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Caesars (heirs apparent)]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Galerii]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars]]
[[Category:Tetrarchy]]
[[Category:Valerii]]
[[Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Roman pharaohs]]
[[Category:Illyrian emperors]]
[[Category:Damnatio memoriae]]