Editing Gaia philosophy

{{short description|Broadly inclusive term}}
{{Other uses|Gaia (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2006}}

'''Gaia philosophy''' (named after [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of the [[Earth]]) is a broadly inclusive term for relating concepts about humanity as an effect of the life of this [[planet]].

The [[Gaia hypothesis]] holds that all organisms on a life-giving planet regulate the [[biosphere]] in such a way as to promote its habitability. Gaia concepts draw a connection between the survivability of a species (hence its [[evolutionary]] course) and its usefulness to the survival of other species. While there were a number of precursors to Gaia hypothesis, the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the Gaia hypothesis by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist, in 1970. The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of biological [[homeostasis]], and claims the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act like a single, self-regulating system. This system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere. These theories are, however, significant in [[green politics]].

== Predecessors to the Gaia theory ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Gaia hypothesis]] -->
There are some mystical, scientific and religious predecessors to the Gaia philosophy, which had a Gaia-like conceptual basis.  Many religious mythologies had a view of Earth as being a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g. some Native American religions and various forms of [[shamanism]]).

[[Isaac Newton]] wrote of the earth, "Thus this Earth resembles a great animal or rather inanimate vegetable, draws in [[Aether (classical element)|æthereall]] breath for its dayly refreshment & vitall ferment & transpires again with gross exhalations, And according to the condition of all other things living ought to have its times of beginning youth old age & perishing."<ref>Of Natures obvious laws & processes in vegetation, [http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/norm/ALCH00081 Dibner MS 1031]</ref>

[[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]], a [[paleontologist]] and [[geologist]], believed that evolution fractally unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and ultimately the whole universe, as we humans see it from our limited perspective. Teilhard later influenced [[Thomas Berry]] and many Catholic humanist thinkers of the 20th century.

[[Lewis Thomas]] believed that Earth should be viewed as a single cell; he derived this view from [[Johannes Kepler]]'s view of Earth as a single round organism.<ref>1974,[[The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher]]</ref>

[[Buckminster Fuller]] is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century.  Building to some degree on his observations and artifacts, e.g. the [[Dymaxion map]] of the Earth he created, others began to ask if there was a way to make the Gaia theory scientifically sound.

In 1931, [[Lourens Baas Becking|L.G.M. Baas Becking]] delivered an inaugural lecture about Gaia in the sense of life and earth.<ref>L.G.M. Baas Becking (1931) 'Gaia of leven en aarde' (Gaia or life and earth), inaugural lecture for a chair at Leiden university.</ref> 

[[Oberon Zell-Ravenheart]] in 1970 in an article in ''[[Green Egg]]'' Magazine, independently articulated the Gaia Thesis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://original.caw.org/articles/theagenesis.html |title=CAWeb - CAW Articles - Theagenesis: The Birth of the Goddess |access-date=2009-03-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617000211/http://original.caw.org/articles/theagenesis.html |archive-date=2010-06-17 }}</ref>

Many believe that these ideas cannot be considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions. As the above claims are not currently testable, they are outside the bounds of current science. This does not mean that these ideas are not theoretically testable. As one can postulate tests that could be applied, given enough time and space, then these ideas should be seen as scientific hypotheses.

These are conjectures and perhaps can only be considered as social and maybe political philosophy; they may have implications for [[theology]], or ''[[thealogy]]'' as Zell-Ravenheart and [[Isaac Bonewits]] put it.

== Range of views ==

According to [[James Kirchner]] there is a spectrum of Gaia hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable to radical. At one end is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition. A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of equilibrium that is conducive to life. Today many scientists consider that such a view (and any stronger views) are unlikely to be correct.<ref>{{cite book |last=Waltham |first=David |date=2014 |title=Lucky Planet: Why Earth is Exceptional – and What that Means for Life in the Universe |url=https://archive.org/details/luckyplanetwhyea0000walt |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=9781848316560 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Beerling |first=David |author-link=David Beerling|date=2007 |title=The Emerald Planet: How plants changed Earth's history |url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780192806024.do |location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-19-280602-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cockell |first1=Charles |author-link1=Charles Cockell |last2=Corfield |first2=Richard |last3=Dise |first3= Nancy  |last4=Edwards |first4=Neil  |last5=Harris |first5=Nigel  |date=2008 |title= An Introduction to the Earth-Life System |url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/earth-and-environmental-science/palaeontology-and-life-history/introduction-earth-life-system |location=Cambridge (UK) |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 9780521729536 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last= Tyrrell |first = Toby |title =Gaia: the verdict is… |journal = New Scientist |volume = 220 |pages = 30–31 |date= 26 October 2013 |doi=10.1016/s0262-4079(13)62532-4}}</ref><ref name="tyrrell209">{{citation |last=Tyrrell |first=Toby |date= 2013|title= On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9959.html |location=Princeton |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |page=209 |isbn=9780691121581 }}</ref> An even stronger claim is that all lifeforms are part of a single planetary being, called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas, the terrestrial crust would be the result of interventions carried out by Gaia, through the [[coevolution|coevolving]] diversity of living organisms.

The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism with a highly intelligent mind that arose as an [[emergent property]] of the whole biosphere. In this view, the Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of [[homeostasis]]. Many non-scientists instinctively and incorrectly see homeostasis as a process that requires conscious control.{{dubious|date=October 2014}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crystalinks.com/gaia.html|title=Gaia Hypothesis, Mythology, Metaphysics - Crystalinks|website=www.crystalinks.com|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref>

The more speculative versions of Gaia, including versions in which it is believed that the Earth is actually conscious, sentient, and highly intelligent, are usually considered outside the bounds of what is usually considered science.

== Gaia in biology and science ==
{{Main|Gaia hypothesis}}

[[Buckminster Fuller]] has been credited as the first to incorporate scientific ideas into a Gaia theory, which he did with his [[Dymaxion map]] of the Earth.

The first scientifically rigorous theory was the [[Gaia hypothesis]] by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist.

A variant of this hypothesis was developed by [[Lynn Margulis]], a microbiologist, in 1979.
Her version is sometimes called the "Gaia Theory" (note uppercase-T). Her model is more limited in scope than the one that Lovelock proposed.

Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Other biological effects and feedbacks exist,<ref name="tyrrell209"/> but the extent to which these mechanisms have stabilized and modified the Earth's overall climate is largely not known.

The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's [[ecosystem]] is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected [[emergent property]] of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.

Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream [[neo-Darwinism]]. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would certainly not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism.

A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief.

== Gaia in the social sciences and politics ==
A [[social science]] view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a [[keystone species]] who may be able to accomplish global [[homeostasis]]. Whilst a few social scientists who draw inspiration from 'organic' views of society have embraced Gaia philosophy as a way to explain the human-nature interconnections, most professional social scientists are more involved in reflecting upon the way Gaia philosophy is used and engaged with within sub-sections of society. [[Alan Marshall (New Zealand author)|Alan Marshall]], in the Department of Social Sciences at [[Mahidol University]], for example, reflects upon the way Gaia philosophy has been used and advocated in various societal settings by environmentalists, spiritualists, managers, economists, and scientists and engineers. As Marshall explains, most social scientists had already given up on systems ideas of society in the 1960s before Gaia philosophy was born under James Lovelock's ideas since such ideas were interpreted as supporting conservatism and traditionalism.<ref>The Unity of Nature, 2002, Imperial College Press: London and Singapore</ref> Gaia theory also influenced the dynamics of green politics.<ref name=book1/>

== Gaia in religion ==

[[Rosemary Radford Ruether]], the American feminist scholar and theologian, wrote a book called ''Gaia and God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing''.

A book edited by Allan Hunt Badiner called Dharma Gaia explores the ground where Buddhism and ecology meet through writings by the [[Dalai Lama]], [[Gary Snyder]], [[Thich Nhat Hanh]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[David Abram]], [[Joanna Macy]], [[Robert Baker Aitken|Robert Aitken]], and 25 other Buddhists and ecologists.<ref>[http://www.parallax.org/cgi-bin/shopper.cgi?preadd=action&key=BOOKDG] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315015100/http://www.parallax.org/cgi-bin/shopper.cgi?preadd=action&key=BOOKDG|date=March 15, 2012}}</ref>

[[Gaianism]], an earth-centered philosophical, [[holistic]], and spiritual belief that shares expressions with [[earth religion]]s and [[paganism]] while not identifying exclusively with any specific religion, sprang from the gaia hypothesis.<ref name=book1>{{cite book|last= Dobson|first = Andrew|title=The Politics of Nature: Explorations in Green Political Theory|date=1995|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415124719|pages=8, 9, 14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvWHAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Gaianism%22&pg=PA9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Richard Peet|first=Nigel Thrift|title=New Models in Geography - Vol 1: The Political-Economy Perspective|date=1989|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0049101013|pages=90, 97–99|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdyHAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Gaianism%22&pg=PA97}}</ref>

==Criticism==
One of the most problematic issues with referring to Gaia as an organism is its apparent failure to meet the [[biological]] criterion of being able to [[reproduce]]. [[Richard Dawkins]] has asserted that the planet is not the offspring of any parents and is unable to reproduce.<ref name="Harding2006">{{cite book |author=Harding, Stephan |title=Animate Earth |publisher=[[Chelsea Green Publishing]] |date=2006 |pages=65 |isbn=1-933392-29-0 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Arcology]]
* [[Climate engineering]]
* [[Environmental philosophy]]
* [[Gaia (mythology)]]
* [[Gaia hypothesis]] (James Lovelock's ideas)
* [[Gardening]]
* [[James Kirchner]]
* [[Guy Murchie]]
* [[Keystone species]]
* [[Odic force]]
* [[Pachamama]]
* [[Places to intervene in a system]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Technogaianism]]
* [[Teleology]]
* [[Urban ecology]]
* [[Steven M. Greer]] - Categorises entire planets to be individual conscious organisms
* [[Superorganism]]
*[[Edward Goldsmith]]

== Books on Gaia ==
*Toby Tyrrell (2013), ''[[On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth]]''
*Anne Primavesi (2008), ''Gaia and Climate Change: A Theology of Gift Events''
*Mary Midgley (2007), ''Earthy realism: the meaning of Gaia''
*Pepper Lewis (2005), ''Gaia Speaks''
*Stephen Henry Schneider (2004), ''Scientists debate gaia: the next century''
*Tyler Volk (2003), ''Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth ''
*Anne Primavesi (2003), ''Gaia's gift: earth, ourselves, and God after Copernicus''
*Alan Marshall (2002), ''The Unity of Nature'', Imperial College Press.
*Francesca Ciancimino Howell (2002), ''Making Magic with Gaia: Practices to Heal Ourselves and Our Planet ''
*Mary Midgley (2001), ''Gaia: the next big idea''
*Anne Primavesi (2000), ''Sacred Gaia: holistic theology and earth system science''
*George Ronald Williams (1996), ''The molecular biology of Gaia''
*Peter Bunyard (1996), ''Gaia in Action: Science of the Living Earth''
*Norman Myers (1993), ''Gaia An Atlas of Planet Management''
*Lawrence E. Joseph (1991), ''Gaia: the growth of an idea''
*Allan Hunt Badiner (1990), ''Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology ''

== References ==
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{{Philosophy topics}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaia Philosophy}}
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Matriarchy]]
[[Category:Nature and religion]]
[[Category:Environment and religion]]

[[ru:Философия Гайи]]