Editing French Wars of Religion

{{Short description|1562–1598 Catholic-Protestant conflicts}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}{{Use British English|date=January 2025}}

{{more citations needed|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| partof            = the [[European wars of religion]]
| conflict          = French Wars of Religion
| image             = La masacre de San Bartolomé, por François Dubois.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = The [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]]<br>(1572) by [[François Dubois]]
| date              = 2 April 1562 – 30 April 1598<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=4|day1=2|year1=1562|month2=4|day2=30|year2=1598}})
| place             = [[Kingdom of France|France]], particularly in the west and southwest of the country
| result            = See [[#Aftermath|Aftermath]]
| combatant1        = {{ubl|'''[[Protestantism|Protestants]]''':|[[Huguenots]]|[[Kingdom of England]]|[[Kingdom of Scotland]]|[[Kingdom of Navarre]]|[[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]]
----
[[Politique]]s|
[[Malcontents (France)|Malcontents]]}}
| combatant2        = [[Kingdom of France]]<br />[[Spanish Empire]] (until 1588)<br />[[Papal States]] (until 1588)<br />[[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]]
| combatant3        = {{ubl|'''[[Catholic Church|Catholics]]''':|[[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]]|[[Spanish Empire]] (from 1588)|[[Duchy of Savoy]]|[[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]]}}
| commander1        = {{ubl|[[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]] (until 1589)|[[Louis I, Prince of Condé]]{{executed}}|[[Gaspard II de Coligny]]{{assassinated}}|[[Gabriel de Lorges, Count of Montgomery]]{{executed}}|[[Elizabeth I]]|[[James VI and I|James VI]]|[[Jeanne d'Albret]]|[[Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken]]{{KIA}}|[[John I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken]]|[[Louis of Nassau]]|[[William the Silent]]|[[Francis, Duke of Anjou]]|[[Henri I de Montmorency]] (from 1574)}}
| commander2        = {{ubl|[[Catherine de' Medici]]|[[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]]|[[Henry III of France|Henry&nbsp;III]]{{assassinated}}|[[Henry IV of France|Henry&nbsp;IV]] (after 1589)|[[Antoine of Navarre]]{{DOW}}|[[Jacques d'Albon, Seigneur de Saint André]]{{KIA}}|[[Francis, Duke of Guise]]{{assassinated}}|[[Henry I, Duke of Guise]] (until 1584){{assassinated}}|[[François de Montmorency]]|[[Anne de Montmorency]]{{KIA}}|[[Claude, Duke of Aumale]]{{KIA}}}}
| commander3        = {{ubl|[[House of Guise]]|[[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]|[[Pope Sixtus V]]|[[Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy|Charles Emmanuel I]]}}<hr>'''1595–1598:'''<br>[[Pedro Henriquez de Acevedo, Count of Fuentes]]<br>[[Carlos Coloma]]<br> [[Albert VII, Archduke of Austria]]<br> [[Girolamo Caraffa]]<br>[[Luis de Velasco y Velasco, 2nd Count of Salazar]]<br>[[Juan Fernández de Velasco y Tovar, 5th Duke of Frías]]<br>[[Hernando Tello Portocarrero|Hernando Portocarrero]]{{KIA}}<br>[[Charles, Duke of Mayenne]]
| casualties4       = Between 2 million and 4 million deaths from all causes{{Sfn|Knecht|2002|p=91}}
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox French Wars of Religion}}{{Campaignbox Franco-Spanish wars}}
}}

The '''French Wars of Religion''' were a series of [[civil war]]s between French [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (called [[Huguenots]]) from 1562 to 1598. Between two and four million people died from violence, famine or disease directly caused by the conflict, and it severely damaged the power of the French monarchy.{{Sfn|Knecht|2002|p=91}} One of its most notorious episodes was the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] in 1572. The fighting ended with a compromise in 1598, when Henry of Navarre, who had converted to Catholicism in 1593, was proclaimed [[Henry IV of France|King Henry IV of France]] and issued the [[Edict of Nantes]], which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round of [[Huguenot rebellions]] in the 1620s.

Tensions between the two religions had been building since the 1530s, exacerbating existing regional divisions. The death of [[Henry II of France]] in July 1559 initiated a prolonged struggle for power between his widow [[Catherine de' Medici]] and powerful nobles. These included a fervently Catholic faction led by the [[House of Guise|Guise]] and [[House of Montmorency|Montmorency]] families, and Protestants headed by the [[House of Condé]] and [[Jeanne d'Albret]]. Both sides received assistance from external powers, with [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]] and [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] supporting the Catholics, and [[Kingdom of England|England]] and the [[Dutch Republic]] backing the Protestants.

Moderates, also known as [[Politiques]], hoped to maintain order by centralising power and making concessions to Huguenots, rather than the policies of repression pursued by Henry II and his father [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]]. They were initially supported by Catherine de' Medici, whose January 1562 [[Edict of Saint-Germain]] was strongly opposed by the Guise faction and led to an outbreak of widespread fighting in March. She later hardened her stance and backed the 1572 [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] in [[Paris]], which resulted in Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France.

The wars threatened the authority of the [[Monarchy of France|monarchy]] and the last [[House of Valois|Valois]] kings, Catherine's three sons [[Francis II of France|Francis&nbsp;II]], [[Charles IX of France|Charles&nbsp;IX]], and [[Henry III of France|Henry&nbsp;III]]. Their [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] successor Henry IV responded by creating a strong central state and extending toleration to Huguenots; the latter policy would last until 1685, when Henry's grandson [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] [[Edict of Fontainebleau|revoked the Edict of Nantes]].

[[File:French Religious Wars Timeline.png|thumb|Timeline for the French religious wars]]

== Name and periodisation ==
Along with "French Wars of Religion"{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} and "Huguenot Wars",{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=537}} the wars have also been variously described as the "Eight Wars of Religion", or simply the "Wars of Religion" (only within France).{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=318}}

The exact number of wars and their respective dates are subject to continued debate by historians: some assert that the [[Edict of Nantes]] (13 April 1598) and the [[Peace of Vervins]] (2 May 1598) concluded the wars,{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} while the ensuing 1620s [[Huguenot rebellions]] lead others to believe the [[Peace of Alès]] in 1629 is the actual conclusion.{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=xiii}} However, the agreed upon beginning of the wars is the [[Massacre of Wassy]] in 1562, and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=35}}{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=84}}

American military historians Kiser, Drass & [[William I. Brustein|Brustein]] (1994) maintained the following divisions, periodisations and locations:{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}
* Massacre of Vassy (1562) – Western France
* First War of Religion (1562–63) – Western and Southwestern France
* Second War of Religion (1567–68) – Western and Southwestern France
* Third War of Religion (1568–70) – Western and Southwestern France
* St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) – Northeastern France
* Fourth War of Religion (1572–73) – Western and Southwestern France
* Fifth War of Religion (1575–76) – Western and Southwestern France
* Sixth War of Religion (1576–77) – Western and Southwestern France
* Seventh War of Religion (1580) – Western and Southwestern France
* Eighth War of Religion (1585–89) – Western and Southwestern France
* Ninth War of Religion (1589–98) – Western and Southwestern France

Both Kohn (2013) and Clodfelter (2017) followed the same counting and periodisation and noted that "[[War of the Three Henrys]]" was another name for the Eighth War of Religion, with Kohn adding "Lovers' War" as another name for the Seventh War.{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} In her [[Michel de Montaigne]] biography (2014), Elizabeth Guild concurred with this chronology as well, except for dating the Seventh War of Religion to 1579–1580 rather than just 1580.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Guild |first1=Elizabeth |date=2014 |title=Unsettling Montaigne: Poetics, Ethics and Affect in the Essais and Other Writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_M_CAwAAQBAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |pages=x–xii |isbn=978-1843843719 |access-date=3 September 2022}}</ref> Holt (2005) asserted a rather different periodisation from 1562 to 1629, writing of 'civil wars' rather than wars of religion, dating the Sixth War to March–September 1577, and dating the Eight War from June 1584 (death of Anjou) to April 1598 (Edict of Nantes); finally, although he didn't put a number on it, Holt regarded the 1610–1629 period as 'the last war of religion'.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=xi–xiii, 178}}

== Background ==
[[File:John Calvin - Young.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|[[John Calvin]], whose ideas became central to French Protestantism]]

=== Introduction of Reformation ideas ===
[[Renaissance humanism]] began during the 14th century in Italy and arrived in France in the early 16th, coinciding with the rise of [[Protestantism in France]]. The movement emphasised the importance of ''[[ad fontes]]'', or study of original sources, and initially focused on the reconstruction of secular [[Koine Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] texts. It later expanded into the reading, study and translation of works by the [[Church Fathers]] and the [[New Testament]], with a view to religious renewal and reform.{{Sfn|McGrath|1995|pp=39–43}} Humanist scholars argued [[exegesis|interpretation]] of the [[Bible]] required an ability to read the New Testament and [[Old Testament]]s in the original Greek and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], rather than relying on the 4th century Latin translation known as the "[[Vulgate]] Bible".{{Sfn|McGrath|1995|pp=122–124}}

In 1495, the Venetian [[Aldus Manutius]] began using the newly invented printing press to produce small, inexpensive, pocket editions of Greek, Latin, and vernacular literature, making knowledge in all disciplines available for the first time to a wide audience.{{Sfn|Spickard|Cragg|2005|pp= 158–160}} Cheap pamphlets and broadsides allowed theological and religious ideas to be disseminated at an unprecedented pace. In 1519, John Froben published a collection of works by [[Martin Luther]] and noted in his correspondence that 600 copies were being shipped to France and Spain and sold in [[Paris]].{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=275}}

[[File:Protestant France.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.0|16th-century religious geopolitics on a map of modern France
{{legend|#800080|Huguenot controlled}}
{{legend|#AA87DE|Contested}}
{{legend|#B3B3B3|Catholic controlled}}]]

In 1521, a group of reformers including [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples|Jacques Lefèvre]] and [[Guillaume Briçonnet (Bishop of Meaux)|Guillaume Briçonnet]], recently appointed [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Meaux|bishop of Meaux]], formed the Circle of [[Meaux]], aiming to improve the quality of preaching and religious life in general. They were joined by [[François Vatable]], an [[Hebraist|expert in Hebrew]],{{Sfn|Cairns|1996|p=308}} along with [[Guillaume Budé]], a [[Classicism|classicist]] and Royal librarian.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|p=54}} Lefèvre's ''Fivefold Psalter'' and his commentary on the [[Epistle to the Romans]] emphasised the literal interpretation of the Bible and the centrality of [[Jesus Christ]].{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=275}} Many of the tenets behind [[Lutheranism]] first appeared in Luther's lectures, which in turn contained many of the ideas expressed in the works of Lefèvre.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|p=55}}

Other members of the Circle included [[Marguerite de Navarre]], sister of Francis I and mother of [[Jeanne d'Albret]], as well as [[William Farel|Guillaume Farel]], who was exiled to [[Geneva]] in 1530 due to his reformist views and persuaded [[John Calvin]] to join him there.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|pp=263–264}} Both men were banished from Geneva in 1538 for opposing what they viewed as government interference with religious affairs; although the two fell out over the nature of the [[Eucharist]], Calvin's return to Geneva in 1541 allowed him to forge the doctrine of [[Calvinism]].{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=8}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=21}}

A key driver behind the Reform movement was corruption among the [[clergy]] which Luther and others attacked and sought to change.{{Sfn|Cairns|1996|p=309}} Such criticisms were not new but the printing press allowed them to be widely shared, such as the ''[[Heptaméron]]'' by Marguerite, a collection of stories about clerical immorality.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=279}} Another complaint was the reduction of [[Salvation]] to a business scheme based on the sale of [[Indulgences]], which added to general unrest and increased the popularity of works such as Farel's translation of the Lord's Prayer, ''The True and Perfect Prayer''. This focused on ''[[Sola fide]]'', or the idea salvation was a free gift from God, emphasised the importance of understanding in prayer and criticised the clergy for hampering the growth of true faith.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=279}}

=== Growth of Calvinism ===
{{Main|Huguenot}}
[[File:François Ier Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|After an initial period of tolerance, [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]] repressed Reformist ideas]]

The Italian revival of classical learning appealed to [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]] (1494-1547), who set up royal professorships in [[Paris]] to better understand ancient literature. However, this did not extend to religion, especially after the 1516 [[Concordat of Bologna]] when [[Pope Leo X|Pope Leo&nbsp;X]] increased royal control of the [[Catholic Church in France|Gallican church]], allowing Francis to nominate French clergy and levy taxes on church property. Unlike Germany, the French nobility also generally supported the status quo and existing policies.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=292}}

Despite his personal opposition, Francis tolerated [[Martin Luther]]'s ideas when they entered France in the late 1520s, largely because the definition of Catholic [[orthodoxy]] was unclear, making it hard to determine precisely what was or was not [[heresy]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996| p=2}} He tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism,{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} but in January&nbsp;1535, Catholic authorities made a definitive ruling by classifying "Lutherans" as heretical [[Theology of Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglians]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}} Calvin, originally from [[Noyon]] in [[Picardy]],{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}} went into exile in 1535 to escape persecution and settled in [[Basel]], where he published the ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' in 1538. This work contained the key principles of [[Calvinism]], which became immensely popular in France and other European countries.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}}

Lutheranism was widespread within the French commercial class; it flourished in the cities but was not adopted among the peasantry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=10 |language=English}}</ref> However, it cut across social class and strata and encompassed the entire country. Its rapid growth was driven by the nobility, where being a Huguenot became fashionable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=13 |language=English}}</ref> It is believed to have started when [[Louis, Prince of Condé (1530–1569)|Condé]] passed through Geneva while returning home from a military campaign and heard a Calvinist sermon.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=16–17}} Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, converted to Calvinism in 1560, possibly due to the influence of [[Theodore de Beze]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=16–17}} Along with Condé and her husband [[Antoine of Navarre]], she and their son Henry of Navarre became Huguenot leaders.{{Sfn|Bernstein|Green|1988|p=328}}

===Rise in factionalism===
{{main|1559-1562 French political crisis}}
The crown continued efforts to remain neutral in the religious debate until the [[Affair of the Placards]] in October 1534,{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} when Protestant radicals put up posters in Paris and other provincial towns that rejected the Catholic doctrine of the "[[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]]".{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} This allowed Protestantism to be clearly defined as heresy, while Francis was furious at the breach of security which had allowed one of the posters to be placed on the door of his bedchamber.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}}{{Sfn|Holt|2005|p=20}} Having been severely criticised for his initial tolerance, he was now encouraged to punish those responsible.{{Sfn|Garnier|2008|p=90}} On 21 February 1535, a number of those implicated in the Affair were [[burning at the stake|executed]] in front of [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], an event attended by Francis and members of the [[Ottoman embassy to France (1534)|Ottoman embassy to France]].{{Sfn|Garnier|2008|p=90}}

[[File:Massacre of the Vaudois of Merindol.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Massacre of Mérindol]], as imagined by [[Gustave Doré]] (1832–1883)]]

The fight against heresy intensified in the 1540s, forcing Protestants to worship in secret.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=6–7, 86–87}} In October 1545, Francis ordered the punishment of [[Waldensians]] based in the south-eastern village of [[Mérindol]].{{Sfn|Knecht|2002|p=402}} A long-standing [[Proto-Protestantism]] tradition dating back to the 13th century, the Waldensians had recently affiliated with the Reformed church and became increasingly militant in their activities. In what became known as the [[Massacre of Mérindol]], Provençal troops killed numerous residents and destroyed another 22 to 28 nearby villages, while hundreds of men were forced to become [[Galley slave]]s.{{Sfn|Audisio|1998|pp=270–271}}

Francis I died on 31&nbsp;March 1547 and was succeeded by his son [[Henry II of France|Henry&nbsp;II]], who continued the religious repression pursued by his father in the last years of his reign. His policies were even more severe since he sincerely believed all Protestants were heretics; on 27&nbsp;June 1551, the [[Edict of Châteaubriant]] sharply curtailed their right to worship. Prohibitions were placed upon the distribution of 'heretical' literature, with the property of 'heretics' seizable by the crown.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=22}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=41}}{{sfn|Sutherland|1980|pp=46-47}}{{sfn|Baumgartner|1988|p=130}}

From his base in Geneva, Calvin provided leadership and organisational structures for the [[Reformed Church of France]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=6}} [[Calvinism in France|Calvinism]] proved attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides and was highly regionalised, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread. Despite persecution, their numbers and power increased markedly, driven by the conversion to Calvinism of large sections of the nobility. Historians estimate that by the outbreak of war in 1562, there were around two million French Calvinists, including more than half of the nobility, backed by 1,200–1,250 churches. This constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=10}}

===Amboise conspiracy===
{{Main|Amboise conspiracy}}
[[File:Conjuration amboise.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Contemporary woodcut of executions following the [[Amboise conspiracy]]]]

In 1559, the Italian wars between France and Spain ended with the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. These wars had nearly bankrupted both countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=3 |language=English}}</ref> Additionally, the death of Henry II in July 1559 created a political vacuum and an internal struggle for power between rival factions, which the 15-year-old Francis II lacked the ability to control. [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], whose niece Mary, Queen of Scots, was married to the king, exploited the situation to establish dominance over their rivals, the [[House of Montmorency]].{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|p=118}}{{Sfn|Rady|1991|pp=52–53}} Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador reported "the [[house of Guise]] ruleth and doth all about the French King".{{Sfn|Knecht|2007|p=195}}

On 10 March 1560, a group of disaffected nobles led by Jean du Barry, attempted to break the power of the Guise by abducting the young king.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=25}} Their plans were discovered before being carried out and hundreds of suspected plotters executed, including du Barry.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=124–125}}{{Sfn|Sutherland|1962|pp=111–138)}} The Guise suspected Condé of involvement in the plot, and he was arrested and sentenced to death before being freed in the political chaos that followed the sudden death of Francis II, adding to the tensions of the period.{{Sfn|Sutherland|1984|pp=63–64}}

In the aftermath of the plot, the term "[[Huguenot]]" for France's Protestants came into widespread usage.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|p=125}} Shortly afterwards, the first instances of Protestant [[iconoclasm]] or the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in [[Rouen]] and [[La Rochelle]]. This continued throughout 1561 in more than 20 cities and towns, sparking attacks on Protestants by Catholic mobs in [[Sens]], [[Cahors]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Tours]] and elsewhere.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=136–137}}

===Regency of Catherine de' Medici===
[[File:Catherine de Médicis - entourage de François Clouet.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Queen regent [[Catherine de' Medici]], {{circa|1560}}]]

When [[Francis II of France|Francis II]] died on 5 December 1560, his mother [[Catherine de' Medici]] became regent for her second son, the nine year old [[Charles IX of France|Charles&nbsp;IX]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=27}} With the state financially exhausted by the Italian Wars, Catherine had to preserve the independence of the monarchy from a range of competing factions led by powerful nobles, each of whom controlled what were essentially private armies.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=29}} To offset the Guise or "Guisard", she agreed a deal in which Antoine of Navarre renounced any claim to the regency in return for Condé's release and the position of [[Lieutenant-General (France)|Lieutenant-General]] of France.{{Sfn|Bryson|1999|pages=111}}

Catherine had several options for dealing with "heresy", including continuing Henry's II's failed policy of eradication, an approach backed by Catholic [[Ultramontanism|ultras]] such as [[François de Tournon]], or converting the monarchy to Calvinism, as preferred by de Bèze.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=41–42}} A middle path between these two extremes was allowing both religions to be openly practised in France at least temporarily, or the Guisard compromise of scaling back persecution but not permitting [[Religious tolerance|toleration]].{{Sfn|Thompson|1909|p=44}} For the moment she held to the Guisard line.{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=252–256}}

Before his death, Francis II had called the first [[Estates General of 1560-1|Estates General]] held since 1484, which in December 1560 assembled in [[Orléans]] to discuss topics which included taxation and religion. It made little progress on the latter, other than agreeing to pardon those convicted of religious offences in the prior year.{{Sfn|Thompson|1909|p=79}} Since this was clearly unacceptable to Condé and his followers, Catherine bypassed the Estates and enacted conciliatory measures such as the [[Edict of 19 April]] 1561 and the [[Edict of July]].{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=252–256}} This recognised Catholicism as the state religion but confirmed [[Edict of Romorantin|previous measures]] reducing penalties for "heresy".{{Sfn|Castelnau|1724|p=112}}

The Estates then approved the [[Colloquy of Poissy]], which began its session on 8 September 1561, with the Protestants led by de Bèze and the Catholics by [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]], brother of the Duke of Guise. The two sides initially sought to accommodate Protestant forms of worship within the existing church but this proved impossible.{{Sfn|Castelnau|1724|p=110}}{{Efn|Catholic opponents of toleration were split between [[Ultramontanism]], those who backed the supreme authority of the [[Pope]] such as [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]], and [[Gallicanism]]. The latter viewed an independent but Catholic monarchy as an important guarantee of political freedom and distinguishes them from the "Politiques".{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=59–67}}}} By the time the Colloquy ended on 8 October, it was clear the divide between Catholic and Protestant theology was too wide to be bridged.{{Sfn|Knecht|2000|pp=78–79}} With their options narrowing, the government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces by passing the [[Edict of Saint-Germain]], which allowed Protestants to worship in public outside towns and in private inside them. On 1&nbsp;March, Guise family retainers attacked a Calvinist service in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], leading to what became known as the [[massacre of Vassy]]. This seemed to confirm Huguenot fears that the Guisards had no intention of compromising and is generally seen as the spark which led to open hostilities between the two religions.{{Sfn|Guérard|1959|p=152}}

===Turn to violence===
[[Guyenne]] was the epicentre of the turn to religious violence in late 16th-century France. Many explanations have been proffered for the rise of violence. Traditional explanations focus on the influence of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre. Other explanations focus on the rise of seigneurialism in the 1550s and see the turn to violence as a response of the peasant class. The murder of the baron of {{ill|Château de Fumel|fr}} by a Protestant mob in 1561 is often cited as an example. Recent analyses, on the other hand, have turned the focus on religious explanations. [[Denis Crouzet]] fingers the fiery eschatological preaching of the Franciscan [[Thomas Illyricus]], who toured the region in the 1510s and 1520s. Stuart Carroll, however, argues for politicisation: "the violence was directly caused by politicized factions and was not the result of a spontaneous intercommunal eruption."{{sfn|Carroll|2019|pp=179–181}}

== 1562–1570 ==

=== {{anchor|1562–1563|first}} "First" war (1562–1563) ===
{{main|First French War of Religion (1562-1563)}}
[[File:Massacre de Vassy 1562 print by Hogenberg end of 16th century.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''Massacre de Vassy'' by Hogenberg, end of the 16th century]]

Although the Huguenots had begun mobilising for war before the [[Massacre of Vassy|Vassy massacre]],{{Sfn|Knecht|2000|p=86}} many claimed that the massacre confirmed claims that they could not rely on the [[Edict of Saint-Germain|Edict of Saint Germain]]. In response, a group of nobles led by Condé proclaimed their intention of "liberating" the king from "evil" councillors and seized Orléans on 2 April 1562.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=35}} This example was quickly followed by Protestant groups around France, who seized and garrisoned [[Angers]], [[Blois]] and [[Tours]] along the [[Loire]] and assaulted [[Valence, Drôme|Valence]] in the [[Rhône River]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=35}} After capturing [[Lyon]] on 30 April, the attackers first sacked, then demolished all Catholic institutions in the city.{{Sfn|Hamilton|Spicer|2005|p=?}}

Hoping to turn [[Toulouse]] over to Condé, local Huguenots seized the ''Hôtel de ville'' but met resistance from angry Catholic mobs which resulted in [[1562 Riots of Toulouse|street battles]] and over 3,000 deaths, mostly Huguenots. On 12&nbsp;April 1562, there were massacres of Huguenots at Sens, as well as at [[Tours]] in July.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=35}} As the conflict escalated, the Crown revoked the Edict under pressure from the Guise faction.{{sfn|Baird|1880|p=37}}{{sfn|Durot|2012|p=702}}

[[File:Le Sac de Lyon par les Réformés - Vers1565.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Looting of the churches of [[Lyon]] by the Calvinists in 1562, by Antoine Carot]]

The major engagements of the war occurred at [[Rouen]], [[Dreux]], and [[Orléans]]. At the Siege of Rouen (May–October&nbsp;1562), the crown regained the city, but [[Antoine of Navarre]] died of his wounds.<ref>Trevor Dupuy, Curt Johnson and David L. Bongard, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, (Castle Books: Edison, 1992), p.&nbsp;98.</ref> In the [[Battle of Dreux]] (December&nbsp;1562), [[Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé|Condé]] was captured by the crown, and the constable [[Anne de Montmorency|Montmorency]] was captured by those opposing the crown. In February&nbsp;1563, at the Siege of Orléans, [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], was [[Assassination of the Duke of Guise (1563)|shot and killed]] by the Huguenot [[Jean de Poltrot de Méré]]. As he was killed outside of direct combat, the Guise considered this an [[assassination]] on the orders of the duke's enemy, [[Gaspard II de Coligny|Admiral Coligny]]. The popular unrest caused by the assassination, coupled with the resistance by the city of [[Orléans]] to the siege, led [[Catherine de' Medici]] to mediate a truce, resulting in the [[Edict of Amboise]] on 19&nbsp;March 1563.{{sfn|Knecht|1996|p=37}}

=== {{anchor|1563–1567|1567–1568|second}} "Armed Peace" (1563–1567) and the "second" war (1567–1568) ===

[[File:Print entitled Horribles cruautes des Huguenot en France 16th century.jpg|thumb|Print depicting Huguenot aggression against Catholics at sea, ''Horribles cruautés des Huguenots'', 16th century]]
[[File:Theatre des cruautez des Hereticques de nostre temps.jpg|thumb|Plate from [[Richard Rowlands]], ''Theatrum Crudelitatum haereticorum nostri temporis'' (1587), depicting supposed Huguenot atrocities]]
The [[Edict of Amboise]] was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by all concerned, and the Guise faction was particularly opposed to what they saw as dangerous concessions to [[Heresy|heretics]]. The crown tried to re-unite the two factions in its efforts to re-capture [[Le Havre]], which had been occupied by the English in 1562 as part of the [[Treaty of Hampton Court (1562)|Treaty of Hampton Court]] between its Huguenot leaders and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth&nbsp;I of England]]. That July, the French expelled the English. On 17&nbsp;August 1563, [[Charles IX of France|Charles&nbsp;IX]] was declared of age at the Parlement of Rouen ending the regency of Catherine de Medici.<ref>Frieda, 268; Sutherland, ''Ancien Régime'', p.&nbsp;20.</ref> His mother continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a [[Royal Entry|Grand Tour]] of the kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority. During this time, [[Jeanne d'Albret]] met and held talks with Catherine at Mâcon and Nérac.{{sfn|Knecht|2014|pp=102–104}}{{sfn|Cloulas|1979|p=211}}

Reports of iconoclasm in [[Flanders]] led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French Huguenots feared a Catholic re-mobilisation against them. [[Philip II of Spain|Philip&nbsp;II of Spain]]'s reinforcement of the strategic corridor from Italy north along the [[Rhine]] added to these fears, and political discontent grew. After Protestant troops unsuccessfully tried to capture and take control of King Charles&nbsp;IX in the [[Surprise of Meaux]], a number of cities, such as [[La Rochelle]], declared themselves for the Huguenot cause. Protestants attacked and massacred Catholic laymen and clergy the following day in [[Nîmes]], in what became known as the ''[[Michelade]]''.{{sfn|Baird|1880|p=207}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=64}}{{sfn|Tulchin|2006|p=22}}{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=39}}{{sfn|Thompson|1909|p=318}}

This provoked the second war and its main military engagement, the [[Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)|Battle of Saint-Denis]], where the crown's commander-in-chief and lieutenant general, the 74-year-old Anne de Montmorency, died. The war was brief, ending in another truce, the [[Peace of Longjumeau]] (March&nbsp;1568),<ref name="J. Knecht, p. 40">Knecht 1996, p.&nbsp;40.</ref> which was a reiteration of the Peace of Amboise of 1563 and once again granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to Protestants.<ref name="J. Knecht, p. 40"/> News of the truce reached Toulouse in April, but such was the antagonism between the two sides that 6,000 Catholics continued their siege of [[Puylaurens]], a notorious Protestant stronghold in the [[Lauragais]], for another week.<ref>{{cite book|first=Colin Duncan|last=Taylor|title=Lauragais: Steeped in History, Soaked in Blood|year=2018|publisher=Troubador Publishing |language=English| isbn=978-1789015836}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|1568–1570|third}} "Third" war (1568–1570) ===
In reaction to the Peace, Catholic [[confraternities]] and leagues sprang up across the country in defiance of the law throughout the summer of 1568. Huguenot leaders such as Condé and Coligny fled court in fear for their lives, many of their followers were murdered, and in September, the [[Edict of Saint-Maur]] revoked the freedom of Huguenots to worship. In November, [[William the Silent|William of Orange]] led an army into France to support his fellow Protestants, but, the army being poorly paid, he accepted the crown's offer of money and free passage to leave the country.{{sfn|Wood|2002|p=22}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=173}}{{sfn|Sutherland|1973|p=92}}{{sfn|Baird|1880|p=290}}

[[File:Battle of Moncontour 1569.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|The [[Battle of Moncontour]], 1569]]

The Huguenots gathered a formidable army under the command of Condé, aided by forces from south-east France, led by Paul de Mouvans, and a contingent of fellow Protestant militias from Germany{{snd}}including 14,000 mercenary ''[[reiter]]s'' led by the Calvinist [[Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken|Duke of Zweibrücken]].{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=181}} After the Duke was killed in action, his troops remained under the employ of the Huguenots who had raised a loan from England against the security of [[Jeanne d'Albret]]'s crown jewels.<ref>Knecht 2000, 151.</ref> Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen Elizabeth of England, who was likely influenced in the matter by [[Sir Francis Walsingham]].{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=181}} The Catholics were commanded by the [[Henry III of France|Duke d'Anjou]]{{snd}}later King Henry&nbsp;III{{snd}}and assisted by troops from Spain, the [[Papal States]], and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]].{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=182}}

The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the [[Poitou]] and [[County of Saintonge|Saintonge]] regions (to protect [[La Rochelle]]), and then [[Angoulême]] and [[Cognac, France|Cognac]]. At the [[Battle of Jarnac]] (16&nbsp;March 1569), the prince of Condé was killed, forcing [[Gaspard II de Coligny|Admiral de Coligny]] to take command of the Protestant forces, nominally on behalf of Condé's 16-year-old son, [[Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé|Henry]], and the 15-year-old [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]], who were presented by Jeanne d'Albret as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause against royal authority. The [[Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille]] was a nominal victory for the Huguenots, but they were unable to seize control of [[Poitiers]] and were soundly defeated at the [[Battle of Moncontour]] (30&nbsp;October 1569). Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with [[Gabriel, comte de Montgomery]], and in spring of 1570, they pillaged [[Toulouse]], cut a path through the south of France, and went up the [[Rhone]] valley up to [[La Charité-sur-Loire]].{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=184}} The staggering royal debt and Charles&nbsp;IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|pp=184–185}} led to the [[Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] (8&nbsp;August 1570), negotiated by Jeanne d'Albret, which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots.{{sfn|Roelker|1968|pp=332–341}}

== {{anchor|1572–1573}} St. Bartholomew's Day massacre and "fourth" war (1572–1573) ==
{{Main|St. Bartholomew's Day massacre}}
[[File:Debat-Ponsan-matin-Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.33|''One morning at the gates of the Louvre'', 19th-century painting by [[Édouard Debat-Ponsan]]. ([[Catherine de' Medici]] is in black)]]
With the kingdom once more at peace, the crown began seeking a policy of reconciliation to bring the fractured polity back together. One key part of this was to be a marriage between [[Henri IV of France|Navarre]], the son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre, and [[Margaret of Valois]], the king's sister. Albret was hesitant, worried it might lead to the abjuration of her son, and it took until March 1572 for the contract to be signed.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=42}}

[[Gaspard II de Coligny|Coligny]], who had a price on his head during the third civil war, was restored to favour through the peace, and received lavishly at court in August 1571.{{sfn|Carroll|2009|p=187}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=81}} He firmly believed that France should invade the [[Spanish Netherlands]] to unify the Catholics and Huguenots behind the king. Charles, however, was unwilling to provide more than covert support to this project, not wanting open war with Spain. The council was unanimous in rejecting Coligny's policy and he left court, not finding it welcoming.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=45}}

In August, the wedding was finally held, and all the most powerful Huguenot aristocracy had entered Paris for the occasion. A few days after the wedding, [[Assassination of Admiral Coligny|Coligny was shot]] on his way home from council.{{sfn|Jouanna|2007|p=74}} The outraged Huguenot nobility demanded justice which the king promised to provide.{{sfn|Estebe|1968|p=109}} Catherine, Guise, Anjou, and Alba were all variously suspected, though the Huguenot nobility directed their anger primarily at Guise, threatening to kill him in front of the king.{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=83}}

The court, increasingly alarmed at the possibility of Protestant forces marching on the capital, or a new civil war, decided to pre-emptively strike at the Huguenot leadership.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=84–85}} On the morning of 24 August, several kill squads were formed, one going out under Guise, which killed Coligny around 4am, leaving his body on the street where it was mutilated by Parisians and thrown into the Seine.{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=88}}{{sfn|Carroll|2009|p=114}}

By dawn it was clear the assassinations had not gone according to plan, with militant factions of the population slaughtering their Huguenot neighbours under the claim that 'the king willed it'.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=88–91}} For the next five days, the violence continued as Catholics massacred Calvinist men, women, and children and looted their houses.<ref>Jouanna, p.&nbsp;201.</ref> King Charles&nbsp;IX informed ambassadors that he had ordered the assassinations to prevent a Huguenot coup and proclaimed a day of jubilee in celebration even as the killings continued.<ref>Lincoln, Bruce, ''Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual, and Classification'', Oxford University Press US, p. 98 {{ISBN?}}</ref> Over the next few weeks, the disorder [[St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces|spread to more than a dozen cities]] across France. Historians estimate that 2,000&nbsp;Huguenots were killed in Paris and thousands more in the provinces; in all, perhaps 10,000 people were killed.<ref>Jouanna, p.&nbsp;204.</ref> Henry of Navarre and his cousin, the young [[Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé|Prince of Condé]], managed to avoid death by agreeing to convert to Catholicism. Both repudiated their conversions after they escaped Paris.{{sfn|Jouanna|2007|p=112}}{{sfn|Knecht|2016|p=108}}{{sfn|Sutherland|1980|pp=222–223}}

The massacre provoked horror and outrage among Protestants throughout Europe, but both [[Philip II of Spain|Philip&nbsp;II of Spain]] and [[Pope Gregory XIII|Pope Gregory&nbsp;XIII]], following the official version that a Huguenot coup had been thwarted, celebrated the outcome. In France, Huguenot opposition to the crown was seriously weakened by the deaths of many of the leaders. Many Huguenots emigrated to Protestant countries. Others reconverted to Catholicism for survival, and the remainder concentrated in a small number of cities where they formed a majority.{{sfn|Jouanna|2007|p=158}}{{sfn|Jouanna|2007|pp=160–169}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=95–96}}{{sfn|Benedict|1978|p=224}}

=== {{anchor|1572–1573|fourth}} "Fourth" war (1572–1573) ===
The massacres provoked further military action, which included Catholic [[siege]]s of the cities of [[Sommières]] (by troops led by [[Henri I de Montmorency|Henri&nbsp;I de Montmorency]]), [[siege of Sancerre|Sancerre]], and [[Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573)|La Rochelle]] (by troops led by the [[Henry III of France|duke of Anjou]]). The end of hostilities was brought on by the election (11–15&nbsp;May 1573) of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Poland and by the [[Edict of Boulogne]] (signed in July&nbsp;1573), which severely curtailed many of the rights previously granted to French Protestants. Based on the terms of the treaty, all Huguenots were granted amnesty for their past actions and the freedom of belief. However, they were permitted the freedom to worship only within the three towns of La Rochelle, [[Montauban]], and [[Nîmes]], and even then only within their own residences. Protestant aristocrats with the right of high-justice were permitted to celebrate marriages and baptisms, but only before an assembly limited to ten persons outside of their family.<ref>Jouanna, p.&nbsp;213.</ref>

== 1574–1580 ==

=== {{anchor|1574–1576|fifth}} Death of Charles IX and the "fifth" war (1574–1576) ===
In the absence of the [[Henry III of France|duke of Anjou]], disputes between [[Charles IX of France|Charles]] and his youngest brother, the [[François, Duke of Anjou|duke of Alençon]], led to many Huguenots congregating around Alençon for patronage and support. A failed coup at [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye|Saint-Germain]] (February&nbsp;1574), allegedly aiming to release [[Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé|Condé]] and [[Henry IV of France|Navarre]] who had been held at court since [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre|St Bartholemew]]'s, coincided with rather successful Huguenot uprisings in other parts of France such as [[Lower Normandy]], [[Poitou]], and the [[Rhone|Rhône]] valley, which reinitiated hostilities.<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;181.</ref>

Three months after Henry of Anjou's coronation as [[King of Poland]], his brother Charles&nbsp;IX died (May&nbsp;1574) and his mother declared herself regent until his return. Henry secretly left Poland and returned via [[Venice]] to France, where he faced the defection of [[Henri I de Montmorency|Montmorency-Damville]], ex-commander in the [[Southern France|Midi]] (November&nbsp;1574). Despite having failed to have established his authority over the Midi, he was crowned King Henry&nbsp;III, at [[Rheims]] (February&nbsp;1575), marrying [[Louise de Lorraine-Vaudémont|Louise Vaudémont]], a kinswoman of the Guise, the following day. By April, the crown was already seeking to negotiate,<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;190.</ref> and the escape of Alençon from court in September prompted the possibility of an overwhelming coalition of forces against the crown, as [[John I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken|John Casimir of the Palatinate]] invaded [[Champagne, France|Champagne]]. The crown hastily negotiated a truce of seven months with Alençon and promised Casimir's forces 500,000&nbsp;livres to stay east of the [[Rhine]],<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;191.</ref> but neither action secured a peace. By May&nbsp;1576, the crown was forced to accept the terms of Alençon, and the Huguenots who supported him, in the [[Edict of Beaulieu]], known as the Peace of Monsieur.{{sfn|Knecht|2016|p=109}}

=== {{anchor|1576–1577|sixth}} Catholic League and the "sixth" war (1576–1577) ===
[[File:Procession de la Ligue 1590 Carnavalet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Armed procession of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] in Paris in 1590, [[Musée Carnavalet]], Paris]]
The [[Edict of Beaulieu]] granted many concessions to the Calvinists, but these were short-lived in the face of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]]&nbsp;– which the ultra-Catholic, [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]], had formed in opposition to it. The [[House of Guise]] had long been identified with the defense of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the Duke of Guise and his relations&nbsp;– the [[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne|Duke of Mayenne]], [[Charles, Duke of Aumale|Duke of Aumale]], [[Charles I, Duke of Elbeuf|Duke of Elbeuf]], [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur|Duke of Mercœur]], and the [[Charles III, Duke of Lorraine|Duke of Lorraine]]&nbsp;– controlled extensive territories that were loyal to the League. The League also had a large following among the urban middle class.{{sfn|Knecht|2016|p=110}}{{sfn|Babelon|2009|p=331}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=236-237}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=247-250}}

King Henry III at first tried to co-opt the head of the Catholic League and steer it towards a negotiated settlement.<ref name="Knecht65">Knecht 1996, p.&nbsp;65.</ref> This was anathema to the Guise leaders, who wanted to bankrupt the Huguenots and divide their considerable assets with the King. A test of King Henry&nbsp;III's leadership occurred at the meeting of the [[Estates General of 1576|Estates-General at Blois in December&nbsp;1576]].<ref name="Knecht65" /> At the meeting of the Estates-General, there was only one Huguenot delegate present among all of the three estates;<ref name="Knecht65" /> the rest of the delegates were Catholics with the Catholic League heavily represented. Accordingly, the Estates-General pressured Henry&nbsp;III into conducting a war against the Huguenots. In response Henry said he would reopen hostilities with the Huguenots but wanted the Estates-General to vote him the funds to carry out the war.<ref name="Knecht65" /> Yet, the Third Estate refused to vote for the necessary taxes to fund this war.{{sfn|Sutherland|1980|p=263}}

The [[Estates General of 1576]] failed to resolve matters, and by December, the Huguenots had already taken up arms in [[Poitou]] and Guyenne. While the Guise faction had the unwavering support of the Spanish Crown, the Huguenots had the advantage of a strong power base in the southwest; they were also discreetly supported by foreign Protestant governments, but in practice, England or the [[Holy Roman Empire|German states]] could provide few troops in the ensuing conflict. After much posturing and negotiations, Henry&nbsp;III rescinded most of the concessions that had been made to the Protestants in the Edict of Beaulieu with the [[Treaty of Bergerac]] (September&nbsp;1577), confirmed in the Edict of Poitiers passed six days later.<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;208.</ref>

=== {{anchor|1579–1580|seventh}} "Seventh" war (1579–1580) ===
Despite Henry according his youngest brother [[Francis, Duke of Anjou|Francis]] the title of [[Duke of Anjou]], the prince and his followers continued to create disorder at court through their involvement in the [[Dutch Revolt]]. Meanwhile, the regional situation disintegrated into disorder as both Catholics and Protestants armed themselves in 'self defence'. In November&nbsp;1579, [[Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé|Condé]] seized the town of [[La Fère]], leading to another round of military action, which was brought to an end by the [[Treaty of Fleix]] (November&nbsp;1580), negotiated by [[François, Duke of Anjou|Anjou]].{{sfn|Holt|2002|p=70}}{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=1248}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=204}}{{sfn|Holt|2002|p=140}}

== {{anchor|1585–1589}} War of the Three Henrys (1585–1589) ==
{{Main|War of the Three Henrys}}

=== Death of Anjou and ensuing succession crisis (1584–1585) ===
The fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the [[François, Duke of Anjou|Duke of Anjou]], the King's youngest brother and heir presumptive, died. As Henry&nbsp;III had no son, under [[Salic Law]], the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]], a descendant of [[Louis IX of France|Louis&nbsp;IX]]. When it became clear that Henry of Navarre would not renounce his Protestantism, the Duke of Guise signed the [[Treaty of Joinville]] (31&nbsp;December 1584) on behalf of the League, with [[Philip II of Spain|Philip&nbsp;II of Spain]], who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League over the following decade to maintain the civil war in France, with the hope of destroying the French Calvinists. Under pressure from the Guise, Henry&nbsp;III reluctantly issued the [[Treaty of Nemours]] (7 July 1585) and an edict suppressing Protestantism (18 July 1585) and annulling Henry of Navarre's right to the throne.{{sfn|Constant|1984|p=134}}{{sfn|Knecht|2016|pp=225-236}}{{sfn|Holt|2002|p=211}}

=== Escalation into war (1585) ===
[[File:Le duc de Guise lors de la journee des barricades by Paul Lehugeur 19th century.jpg|thumb|The [[Henry I, Duke of Guise|Duke of Guise]] during the [[Day of the Barricades]]]]
The situation degenerated into open warfare even without the King having the necessary funds. [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]] again sought foreign aid from the German princes and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth&nbsp;I of England]]. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the [[Committee of Sixteen]], were becoming dissatisfied with Henry&nbsp;III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12&nbsp;May 1588, the [[Day of the Barricades]], a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris to defend the Duke of Guise against the alleged hostility of the king, and Henry&nbsp;III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government, while the Guise protected the surrounding supply lines. The mediation of [[Catherine de'Medici]] led to the Edict of Union, in which the crown accepted almost all the League's demands: reaffirming the [[Treaty of Nemours]], recognizing [[Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)|Cardinal de Bourbon]] as heir, and making Henry of Guise [[Lieutenant-General (France)|Lieutenant-General]].{{sfn|Knecht|2016|pp=254-257}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=131}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=240}}

=== Estates-General of Blois and assassination of Henry of Guise (1588) ===
{{main|Estates General of 1588|Assassination of the Duke of Guise (1588)}} 
[[File:Légended'Henri III.jpg|thumb|left|Assassination of the [[Henry I, Duke of Guise|Duke of Guise]], leader of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]], by King [[Henry III of France|Henry&nbsp;III]], in 1588]]
Refusing to return to Paris, Henry III called for an [[Estates General of 1588|Estates General to meet at Blois]].<ref>Knecht 1996, p.&nbsp;90.</ref> During the Estates-General, Henry&nbsp;III suspected that the members of the [[Estates General (France)|third estate]] were being manipulated by the [[Catholic League (French)|League]] and became convinced that Guise had encouraged the [[Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy|duke of Savoy]]'s invasion of [[Saluzzo]] in October&nbsp;1588. Viewing the House of Guise as a dangerous threat to the power of the Crown, Henry&nbsp;III decided to strike first. On 23&nbsp;December 1588, at the [[Chateau Blois|Château de Blois]], [[Henry I, Duke of Guise|Henry of Guise]] and his brother, the [[Louis II, Cardinal of Guise|Cardinal de Guise]], were lured into a trap by the King's guards.<ref name="J. Knecht, p. 72">Knecht 1996, p.&nbsp;72.</ref> The Duke arrived in the council chamber where his brother the Cardinal waited. The Duke was told that the King wished to see him in the private room adjoining the royal chambers. There guardsmen seized the duke and stabbed him in the heart, while others arrested the Cardinal who later died on the pikes of his escort. To make sure that no contender for the French throne was free to act against him, the King had the Duke's son imprisoned. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the Catholic League declared open war against King Henry&nbsp;III. The [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] declared Henri deposed. Henri for his part now joined forces with his cousin, the Huguenot, [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]], to war against the League.{{sfn|Le Roux|2006|p=237}}{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=121}}{{sfn|Le Roux|2006|p=158}}{{sfn|Roberts|1996|p=174}}{{sfn|Knecht|2016|p=288}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=132}}

=== Assassination of Henry III (1589) ===
[[File:Jacques Clément.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Jacques Clément]], a supporter of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]], assassinating [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] in 1589]]
It thus fell upon the younger brother of the Duke of Guise, the [[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne|Duke of Mayenne]], to lead the Catholic League. The League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] proclaimed on 7&nbsp;January 1589 that it was just and necessary to depose Henry&nbsp;III, and that any private citizen was morally free to commit [[regicide]].<ref name="J. Knecht, p. 72"/> In July&nbsp;1589, in the royal camp at [[Saint-Cloud]], a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar named [[Jacques Clément]] gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was killed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henry&nbsp;III called for [[Henry of Navarre]], and begged him, in the name of [[Public administration|statecraft]], to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused.<ref>Knecht 1996, p.&nbsp;73.</ref> In keeping with [[Salic Law]], he named Henry as his heir.{{sfn|Knecht|2016|p=304}} However, many Catholics considered Navarre's Protestantism to be unacceptable. Navarre later declared that he would uphold the Catholic faith without changes.{{sfn|Knecht|2014b|p=238}}

== {{anchor|1589–1593}} Henry IV's "conquest of the kingdom" (1589–1593) ==
{{Main|Henry IV of France's succession}}
The state of affairs in 1589 was that Henry of Navarre, now Henry&nbsp;IV of France, held the south and west, and the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September&nbsp;1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the [[Battle of Arques]]. Henry's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=79}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=279}}{{sfn|Babelon|2009|pp=465-466}}

[[File:Ivryrubens.jpg|thumb|upright=1.53|''[[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] at the Battle of Ivry'', by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]
The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This, however, was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England (see [[Forty Martyrs of England and Wales]]). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king.{{sfn|Pitts|2012|p=154}}{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=79}}{{sfn|Constant|1996|pp=248-258}}

The [[Battle of Ivry]], fought on 14&nbsp;March 1590, was another decisive victory for Henry against forces led by the [[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne|Duke of Mayenne]]. Henry's forces then went on [[Siege of Paris (1590)|to besiege Paris]], but after a long and desperately fought resistance by the Parisians, Henry's siege was lifted by a Spanish army under the command of the [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Duke of Parma]]. Then, what had happened at Paris was [[Siege of Rouen (1591)|repeated at Rouen]] (November&nbsp;1591&nbsp;– March&nbsp;1592).{{sfn|Babelon|2009|p=484}}{{sfn|Pitts|2012|p=154}}{{sfn|Constant|1996|pp=250-255}}{{sfn|Carroll|2005|p=242}}

Parma was subsequently wounded in the hand during the [[Siege of Caudebec]] whilst trapped by Henry's army. Having then made a miraculous escape from there, he withdrew into [[Flanders]], but with his health quickly declining, Farnese called his son [[Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma|Ranuccio]] to command his troops. He was, however, removed from the position of governor by the Spanish court and died in [[Arras, France|Arras]] on 3&nbsp;December. For Henry and the Protestant army at least, Parma was no longer a threat.{{sfn|Babelon|2009|pp=536-537}}{{sfn|Constant|1996|p=406}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=262}}{{sfn|Pitts|2012|p=164}}

=== War in Brittany ===
{{main|Brittany Campaign}}
Meanwhile, [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur]], whom Henry&nbsp;III had made [[governor of Brittany]] in 1582, was endeavouring to make himself independent in that province. A leader of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]], he invoked the hereditary rights of his wife, [[Marie of Luxembourg, Duchess of Penthièvre|Marie de Luxembourg]], who was a descendant of the [[dukes of Brittany]] and heiress of the Blois-Brosse claim to the duchy as well as [[Duchess of Penthièvre]] in Brittany, and organized a government at [[Nantes]]. Proclaiming his son "prince and duke of Brittany", he allied with [[Philip II of Spain|Philip&nbsp;II of Spain]], who sought to place his own daughter, [[infanta]] [[Isabella Clara Eugenia]], on the throne of Brittany. With the aid of the Spanish under [[Juan del Águila]], Mercœur defeated Henry IV's forces under the [[Henry of Bourbon-Montpensier, Duke of Montpensier|Duke of Montpensier]] at the [[Battle of Craon]] in 1592, but the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon recovered the advantage; in September 1594, [[Martin Frobisher]] and [[John Norris (soldier)|John Norris]] with eight warships and 4,000 men [[Siege of Fort Crozon|besieged Fort Crozon, also known as the "Fort of the Lion (El León)"]] near [[Brest, France|Brest]] and captured it on November 7, killing 400 Spaniards including women and children as only 13 survived.<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Fernández Duro
|first1=Cesáreo
|title=Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Aragón y Castilla.
|date=1897
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhHdh391DHcC
|volume=III
|pages=86–90
|location=Madrid
|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last1=Wernham
|first1=R. B.
|title=After the Armada: Elizabethan England and the Struggle for Western Europe, 1588–1595
|date=1984
|publisher=Clarendon Press
|pages=533–547
|isbn=978-0198227533}}</ref>

== {{anchor|1593–1598}} Toward peace (1593–1598) ==

=== Conversion ===
[[File:Entrance of Henry IV in Paris 22 March 1594.jpg|thumb|Entrance of Henry IV in Paris, 22&nbsp;March 1594, with 1,500&nbsp;[[cuirassier]]s]]
[[File:Départ des espagnols de Paris le 22 mars 1594 Musée Carnavalet.jpg|thumb|Departure of Spanish troops from Paris, 22&nbsp;March 1594]]
[[File:Henry IV en Herculeus terrassant l Hydre de Lerne cad La ligue Catholique Atelier Toussaint Dubreuil circa 1600.jpg|thumb|[[Henry IV of France|Henry&nbsp;IV]], as [[Hercules]] vanquishing the [[Lernaean Hydra]] (i.e. the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]]), by [[Toussaint Dubreuil]], circa 1600. [[Louvre Museum]].]]
Despite the campaigns between 1590 and 1592, Henry&nbsp;IV was "no closer to capturing Paris".<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;264.</ref> Realising that Henry&nbsp;III had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in resolutely Catholic Paris, Henry agreed to convert, reputedly stating "''Paris vaut bien une messe''" ("[[Paris is well worth a mass]]"). He was formally received into the Catholic Church in 1593, and was crowned at [[Chartres]] in 1594 as League members maintained control of the [[Reims Cathedral|Cathedral of Reims]], and, sceptical of Henry's sincerity, continued to oppose him. He was finally received into Paris in March&nbsp;1594, and 120&nbsp;League members in the city who refused to submit were banished from the capital.<ref name="KnechtFrenchCivilWars270">Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;270.</ref> Paris' capitulation encouraged the same of many other towns, while others returned to support the crown after [[Pope Clement VIII|Pope Clement&nbsp;VIII]] absolved Henry, revoking his [[excommunication]] in return for the publishing of the [[Council of Trent|Tridentine Decrees]], the restoration of Catholicism in [[Béarn]], and appointing only Catholics to high office.<ref name="KnechtFrenchCivilWars270" /> Evidently Henry's conversion worried Protestant nobles, many of whom had, until then, hoped to win not just concessions but a complete reformation of the French Church, and their acceptance of Henry was by no means a foregone conclusion.{{sfn|Sutherland|1980|pp=296–300}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=294}}{{sfn|Benedict|1999|p=36}}

=== {{anchor|1595–1598}} War with Spain (1595–1598) ===
By the end of 1594, certain League members still worked against Henry across the country, but all relied on Spain's support. In January&nbsp;1595, the king declared war on Spain to show Catholics that Spain was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state{{snd}}and to show Protestants that his conversion had not made him a puppet of Spain. Also, he hoped to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.<ref>Knecht 2000, p.&nbsp;272.</ref> The conflict mostly consisted of military action aimed at League members, such as the [[Battle of Fontaine-Française]], though the Spanish launched a concerted offensive in 1595, taking [[Siege of Le Catelet (1595)|Le Catelet]], [[Siege of Doullens|Doullens]] and [[Cambrai]] (the latter after a fierce bombardment), and in the spring of 1596 [[Siege of Calais (1596)|capturing Calais]] by April. Following the Spanish capture of [[Amiens]] in March&nbsp;1597 the French crown [[Siege of Amiens (1597)|laid siege]] until its surrender in September. With that victory Henry's concerns then turned to the situation in [[Brittany]] where he promulgated the [[Edict of Nantes]] and sent [[Pomponne de Bellièvre|Bellièvre]] and Brulart de Sillery to negotiate a peace with Spain. The war was drawn to an official close after the [[Edict of Nantes]], with the [[Peace of Vervins]] in May&nbsp;1598.{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=165}}{{sfn|Babelon|2009|pp=610–611}}{{sfn|Salmon|1975|p=294}}

=== {{anchor|1598–1599}} Resolution of the war in Brittany (1598–1599) ===
In early 1598, the king marched against Mercœur in person, and received his submission at [[Angers]] on 20&nbsp;March 1598. Mercœur subsequently went to exile in Hungary. Mercœur's daughter and heiress was married to the [[César de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme|Duke of Vendôme]], an illegitimate son of Henry IV.{{sfn|Pitts|2012|pp=207–208}}

== Edict of Nantes (1598) ==
{{Main|Edict of Nantes}}
[[File:Edit de Nantes Avril 1598.jpg|thumb|The [[Edict of Nantes]], April&nbsp;1598]]
[[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished kingdom and uniting it under a single authority. [[Henry IV of France|Henry]] and his advisor, the [[Maximilien de Béthune, duc de Sully|Duke of Sully]] saw that the essential first step in this was the negotiation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], which  to promote civil unity granted the Huguenots substantial rights{{snd}}but rather than being a sign of genuine [[Religious toleration|toleration]], was in fact a kind of grudging truce between the religions, with guarantees for both sides.<ref>Philip Benedict, ‘Un roi, une loi, deux fois: Parameters for the History of Catholic–Protestant Co-existence in France, 1555–1685’, in O. Grell & B. Scribner (eds), Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation (1996), pp.&nbsp;65–93.</ref> The Edict can be said to mark the end of the Wars of Religion, though its apparent success was not assured at the time of its publication. Indeed, in January&nbsp;1599, Henry had to visit the ''[[parlement]]'' in person to have the Edict passed. Religious tensions continued to affect politics for many years to come, though never to the same degree, and Henry&nbsp;IV faced many attempts on his life; the last succeeding in May&nbsp;1610.{{sfn|Pitts|2012|p=329}}{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=97}}

== Aftermath ==
{{Main|Huguenot rebellions}}
[[File:Soubise 12 15 Septembre 1625.jpg|thumb|The French royal fleet [[Capture of Ré island|captures the Île de Ré]], a Huguenot stronghold]]
Although the Edict of Nantes concluded the fighting during Henry&nbsp;IV's reign, the political freedoms it granted to the Huguenots (seen by detractors as "a state within the state") became an increasing source of trouble during the 17th century. The damage done to the [[Huguenots]] meant a decline from 10% to 8% of the French population.<ref>Hans J. Hillerbrand, ''Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set'', paragraphs "France" and "Huguenots"; Hans J. Hillerbrand, an expert on the subject, in his Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set claims the Huguenot community reached as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis&nbsp;XIV of France.</ref> The decision of King [[Louis XIII of France|Louis&nbsp;XIII]] to reintroduce Catholicism in a portion of southwestern France prompted a Huguenot revolt. By the [[Peace of Montpellier]] in 1622, the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two: [[La Rochelle]] and [[Montauban]]. Another war followed, which concluded with the [[Siege of La Rochelle]], in which royal forces led by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] blockaded the city for fourteen months. Under the 1629 Peace of La Rochelle, the ''brevets'' of the Edict (sections of the treaty that dealt with military and pastoral clauses and were renewable by [[letters patent]]) were entirely withdrawn, though Protestants retained their prewar religious freedoms.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=186–192}}

[[File:RichelieuRochelle.jpg|thumb|[[Cardinal Richelieu|Richelieu]], depicted at the 1627–1628 [[Siege of La Rochelle]], put an end to the political and military autonomy of the [[Huguenot]]s,<ref name=Britannica/> while preserving their religious rights.]]

Over the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis&nbsp;XIV]], the implementation of the Edict varied year by year. In 1661 Louis&nbsp;XIV, who was particularly hostile to the Huguenots, started assuming control of his government and began to disregard some of the provisions of the Edict.<ref name=Britannica/> In 1681, he instituted the policy of [[dragonnade]]s, to intimidate Huguenot families to convert to Roman Catholicism or emigrate. Finally, in October&nbsp;1685, Louis issued the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]], which formally revoked the Edict and made the practice of Protestantism illegal in France. The revocation of the Edict had very damaging results for France.<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402718/Edict-of-Nantes |title=Edict of Nantes |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 April 2013}}</ref> While it did not prompt renewed religious warfare, many Protestants chose to leave France rather than convert, with most moving to the [[Kingdom of England]], [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], the [[Dutch Republic]], [[Switzerland]] and the Americas.{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=193}}<ref>[[Jackson J. Spielvogel|Spielvogel]], ''Western Civilization – Volume II: Since 1500'' (5th ed., 2003) p. 410</ref>

At the dawn of the 18th century, Protestants remained in significant numbers in the remote [[Cévennes]] region of the [[Massif Central]]. This population, known as the [[Camisard]]s, revolted against the government in 1702, leading to fighting that continued intermittently until 1715, after which the Camisards were largely left in peace.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

== List of events ==
{{See also|French Wars of Religion#Name and periodisation}}
[[File:Le Dragon missionnaire.jpg|thumb|Protestant engraving representing 'les [[dragonnades]]' in France under Louis&nbsp;XIV]]
{{more citations needed|section|date=September 2022}}
* 17 January 1562: [[Edict of Saint-Germain]], often called the "Edict of January"
* 1 March 1562: [[Massacre of Vassy]] (Wassy){{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}
* March 1562 – March 1563: usually known as the "First War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Edict of Amboise]]
** 19 December 1562: [[Battle of Dreux]]
* September 1567 – March 1568: usually known as the "Second War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Peace of Longjumeau]]
** 10 November 1567: [[Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)|Battle of Saint Denis]]
** 7 April 1568: Siege of Puylaurens
* 1568–1570: usually known as the "Third War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]
** March 1569: [[Battle of Jarnac]]
** June 1569: [[Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille]]
** October 1569: [[Battle of Moncontour]]
* 1572: [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]]{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}
** June 1572: Death of [[Jeanne d'Albret]]
* 1572–1573: usually known as the "Fourth War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Edict of Boulogne]]
** November 1572 – July 1573: [[Siege of La Rochelle (1572-1573)|Siege of La Rochelle]]
** May 1573: Henry d'Anjou elected King of Poland
* 1574: Death of Charles IX
* 1574–1576: usually known as the "Fifth War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Edict of Beaulieu]]
* 1576: Formation of the first [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] in France
* 1576–1577: usually known as the "Sixth War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Treaty of Bergerac]] (also known as the "Edict of Poitiers")
* 1579–1580: usually known as the "Seventh War",{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} ended by the [[Treaty of Fleix]]. Sometimes also known as the "Lovers' War"{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}
* June 1584: Death of [[François, Duke of Anjou]], heir presumptive
* December 1584: [[Treaty of Joinville]]
* 7 July 1585: [[Treaty of Nemours]]
* 1585: [[Pope Sixtus V]] excommunicated Henry of Navarre and [[Henri, Prince of Condé (1552–1588)]]
* 1585–1598: sometimes known as the "Eighth War".{{sfn|Jouanna|Boucher|Biloghi|Thiec|1998|p=387}} It can be subdivided in three periods:
** 1585–1589: usually known as the [[War of the Three Henrys]],{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}} sometimes also known as the "Eighth War"{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}}
*** 1585: [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur]] invaded Poitou, was defeated by Condé in the battle of [[Fontenay-le-Comte]]<ref name="Browning">{{Cite book |title=A History of the Huguenots |author=William Shergold Browning |date=1840 |access-date=3 September 2022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qz4AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA131 |pages=131–133 |publisher=Whittaker and Company|isbn=9780608365909 }}</ref>
*** October 1585: Failed siege of [[Hiers-Brouage|Brouage]] by Condé<ref name="Browning"/>
*** October 1585: Castle of Angers fell in royalist hands, Condé's army scattered<ref name="Browning"/>
*** January 1586: Henry of Navarre issued pacifist proclamations while rebuilding his army<ref name="Browning"/>
*** February 1586: Condé captured La Rochelle and [[Oléron]]<ref name="Browning"/>
*** April 1586: Failed royalist attack on La Rochelle<ref name="Browning"/>
*** Late 1586: Royalist siege of Marans<ref name="Browning"/>
*** Late 1586: Henry III called on parties to cease hostilities for peace talks, which broke down<ref name="Browning"/>
*** 19 August 1587: {{ill|Battle of Jarrie|fr|Bataille de Jarrie}}
*** 20 October 1587: [[Battle of Coutras]]{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=390}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** 26 October 1587: [[Battle of Vimory]]{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=390}}
*** 1587: Battle of Auneau{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=390}}
*** 12 May 1588: [[Day of the Barricades]]. Catholic League seized control of Paris from Henry III, who fled to Chartres{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** 1588: Henry III's submission to Henry of Guise{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=390}}
*** December 1588: Assassination of the Duke Henry of Guise and his brother Cardinal Louis of Guise on the orders of Henry III{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}
*** 3 April 1589: Henry III and Henry of Navarre signed a truce and an alliance against the Catholic League, and started besieging Paris{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** 1 August 1589: Assassination of Henry III;{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=391}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}} by Salic law, Henry of Navarre formally became King Henry IV of France, but most Catholics initially refused to recognise him as such{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
** 1589–1594: sometimes known as the [[Succession of Henry IV of France]],{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} sometimes also taken together with the 1594–1598 period as the "Ninth War"{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}}
*** 21 September 1589: [[Battle of Arques]]{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=391}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** March 1590: [[Battle of Ivry]]{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=391}} 
*** 7 April – 30 August 1590: Siege of Paris by Henry IV{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** 9 May 1590: [[Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (born 1523)|Charles de Bourbon (cardinal)]], considered the rightful King Charles X of France by the Catholic League, died in Henry IV's custody{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** 19 September 1590: Spanish general [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma]] intervened and relieved Paris; this allowed the [[Dutch Republic]] [[Ten Years (Eighty Years' War)|to go on the offensive in the Habsburg Netherlands]]{{sfn|van der Lem|2019|p=143}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** March 1591: [[Pope Gregory XIV]] excommunicated Henry IV for a second time{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=327}}
*** November 1591 – April 1592: [[Siege of Rouen (1591–1592)]]{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
*** 24 April – 21 May 1592: [[Siege of Caudebec]]
*** 25 July 1593: Henry IV abjured Protestantism and reconverted to Catholicism{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
*** 27 February 1594: Henry IV crowned in Chartres{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
*** 22 March 1594: Paris surrendered to Henry IV{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
** 1595–1598: sometimes known simply as the "Franco-Spanish War of 1595–1598",{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}} sometimes also taken together with the 1589–1594 period as the "Ninth War"{{sfn|Kiser|Drass|Brustein|1994|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Kohn|2013|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|pp=14–16}}
*** 17 January 1595: Henry IV of France declared war on Philip II of Spain after discovering another Spanish plot to invade France{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=328}}
*** June 1595: [[Battle of Fontaine-Française]]
*** April–September 1597: [[Siege of Amiens (1597)|Siege of Amiens]]
*** April 1598: [[Edict of Nantes]] issued by Henry IV{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=391}}
*** 2 May 1598: [[Peace of Vervins]] between France and Spain{{sfn|Kohn|2013|p=391}}

Epilogue
* 1610: Assassination of Henry IV of France
* 1621–1629: [[Huguenot rebellions]], sometimes also known as the "Ninth War"{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} or the "Ninth and Tenth Wars"{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
* October 1685: [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] issued by Louis XIV, revoking the Edict of Nantes

== See also ==
* [[Edict of toleration]]
* [[Monarchomachs]]
* [[Religion in France]]
* [[Virtual Museum of Protestantism]]
* [[Siege of Paris (1590)]]
* [[Catholic League (French)]]
* [[Battle of Craon]]
* [[Franco-Spanish War (disambiguation)|Franco-Spanish War]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
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{{refend}}

=== Historiography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Diefendorf, Barbara B.|title=The Reformation and Wars of Religion in France: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=we7k8KxUYM0C&pg=PA3|year=2010|publisher=Oxford U.P.|isbn=978-0199809295}}
* Frisch, Andrea ''Forgetting Differences: Tragedy, Historiography, and the French Wars of Religion'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2015). x + 176 pp. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt16r0hwb full text online]' [http://www.h-france.net/forum/forumvol11/frisch1.pdf online review]
* Christian Mühling: ''Die europäische Debatte über den Religionskrieg (1679–1714). Konfessionelle Memoria und internationale Politik im Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV.'' (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte Mainz, 250) Göttingen, Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht, {{ISBN|978-3525310540}}, 2018.
{{refend}}

=== Primary sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |first=David L. |last=Potter|title=French Wars of Religion, Selected Documents |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1997|isbn= 978-0312175450 }}
* Salmon, J.H.M., ed. ''French Wars of Religion, The How Important Were Religious Factors?'' (1967) short excerpts from primary and secondary sources
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|French Wars of Religion}}
* [http://www.lepg.org/wars.htm The Wars of Religion, Part I]
* [http://www.lepg.org/wars2.htm The Wars of Religion, Part II]
* [http://histclo.com/Act/rel/faith/christ/refor/fra/rw.html French Religious Wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717075426/http://histclo.com/act/rel/faith/christ/refor/fra/rw.html |date=17 July 2012 }}
* [http://www.henri4.culture.fr/index.php?lang=en&module=uc&fichier=00#/en/uc/00_02 The Wars of Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916193231/http://www.henri4.culture.fr/index.php?lang=en&module=uc&fichier=00#/en/uc/00_02 |date=16 September 2018 }}
* [http://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-eight-wars-of-religion-1562-1598/ The eight wars of religion (1562–1598)] in The Virtual Museum of Protestantism

{{Religious persecution}}
{{Counter-Reformation footer}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:French Wars of Religion| ]]
[[Category:16th century in France]]
[[Category:16th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:European wars of religion]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in France]]
[[Category:History of Protestantism in France]]
[[Category:Huguenot history in France]]
[[Category:Counter-Reformation]]
[[Category:1560s conflicts]]
[[Category:1570s conflicts]]
[[Category:1580s conflicts]]
[[Category:1590s conflicts]]
[[Category:1560s in France]]
[[Category:1570s in France]]
[[Category:1580s in France]]
[[Category:1590s in France]]
[[Category:16th-century military history of France]]
[[Category:Civil wars in France]]
[[Category:Religion-based civil wars]]