Editing Freikorps

{{Short description|1760s–1940s German volunteer military units}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{For|Freikorps units that were involved in Nazi Germany's annexation of  Czechoslovakia|Sudetendeutsches Freikorps}}
{{Split|Freikorps|Free corps|date=October 2022}}
[[File:David Morier (1705^-70) - Bannalist and Pandour, 'Freikorps Trenck'. - RCIN 403392 - Royal Collection.jpg|thumb|Two soldiers of an [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian]] ''freikorps'' ([[David Morier]], 1748)]]
'''{{lang|de|Freikorps}}''' ({{IPA|de|ˈfʁaɪˌkoːɐ̯|lang}}, "Free [[Corps]]" or "Volunteer Corps"<ref> ''Wichmann's German Dictionary,''  or Pocket Dictionary of the German And English Languages, by K Wichmann, p. 109. Published by George Routledge & Sons, Ltd, London, E P Dutton & Co, New York, and The Mission Book Co., Ltd., Toronto. 1935. </ref>) were [[Irregular military|irregular]] German and other European [[paramilitary]] [[military volunteer|volunteer]] units that existed from the 18th to the early 20th centuries. They effectively fought as [[mercenary|mercenaries]] or [[private military company|private military companies]], regardless of their own nationality. In [[German-speaking countries]], the first so-called {{lang|de|Freikorps}} ("free regiments", ''Freie Regimenter'') were formed in the 18th century from native volunteers, enemy renegades, and [[deserters]]. These sometimes exotically equipped units served as infantry and cavalry (or, more rarely, as artillery); sometimes in just [[Company (military unit)|company]] strength and sometimes in formations of up to several thousand strong. There were also various mixed formations or legions. The [[Prussia]]n {{lang|de|von Kleist Freikorps}} included infantry, [[Jäger (infantry)|jäger]], [[dragoon]]s and [[hussars]]. The French ''[[Volontaires de Saxe]]'' combined [[uhlan]]s and dragoons.

In the aftermath of [[World War I]] and during the [[German Revolution of 1918–19]], {{lang|de|Freikorps}}, consisting partially of World War I veterans, were raised as [[paramilitary]] militias. They were ostensibly mustered to fight on behalf of the government<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haffner|first1=Sebastian|title=Defying Hitler|date=2000|publisher=Picador|isbn=0-312-42113-3|pages=30–31, 33}}</ref> against the [[Communist Party of Germany|German communists]] attempting to overthrow the [[Weimar Republic]].<ref>William L. Shirer, ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany'', New York, Simon & Schuster, 2011, p. 55</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Heiden|first1=Konrad|title=Der Fuehrer: Hitler's Rise to Power|url=https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid|url-access=registration|date=1944|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid/page/21 21–22]}}</ref> However, many {{lang|de|Freikorps}} also largely despised the Republic and were involved in assassinations of its supporters, later aiding the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] in their rise to power.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Heiden|first1=Konrad|title=Der Fuehrer: Hitler's Rise to Power|url=https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid|url-access=registration|date=1944|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid/page/23 23–24]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Heiden|first1=Konrad|title=Der Fuehrer: Hitler's Rise to Power|url=https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid|url-access=registration|date=1944|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derfuehrerhitler00heid/page/88 88–89]}}</ref>

== Origins ==
[[File:Serbian, Wurmser, Odonel and Mahony Free Corps in 1798.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Serbian, Wurmser, Odonel and Mahony Free Corps in 1798]]

The first {{lang|de|Freikorps}} appeared during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] and especially during the Seven Years' War, when France, Prussia, and the [[Habsburg monarchy]] embarked on an escalation of [[petty warfare]] while conserving their regular regiments. Even during the last [[Kabinettskriege|Kabinettskrieg]], the [[War of the Bavarian Succession]], {{lang|de|Freikorp}} formations were formed in 1778. Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians, and [[South Slavs]], as well as Turks, [[Tatars]] and [[Cossacks]], were believed by all warring parties to be inherently good fighters. The nationality of many soldiers can no longer be ascertained as the ethnic origin was often described imprecisely in the regimental lists. Slavs (Croats, Serbs) were often referred to as "Hungarians" or just "Croats", and Muslim recruits (Albanians, Bosnians, Tatars) as "Turks".

Inspired by the Slavic troops in Austrian service, France, the Dutch Republic and other nations began employing "Free Troops", usually consisting of infantry and cavalry units. The Dutch Republic employed a number of "Vrij compagnieën"(Free Companies), raised between 1745 and 1747 and made up of volunteers and French deserters, such as the Walloon Grenadier Company. Although mostly used for reconnaissance and harassing enemy columns, the companies were organised into a battalion and engaged at the engagement at Wouw and the [[Battle of Lauffelt]].<ref>Marc Geerdink-Schaftenaar, "For Orange and the States, part 1: Infantry", Helion & Company Ltd 2018, ISBN 978-1-911512-15-8</ref> Some companies were accompanied by a company of Dragons or Hussars, such as Roodt's Company and Cornabé's Legion. And in late 1747, a French company of Miners was captured and taken into service of the Republic.<ref>Marc Geerdink-Schaftenaar, "For Orange and the States, part 2: Cavalry and Specialist Troops", Helion & Company Ltd 2019, ISBN 978-1-911628-13-2</ref> 

France also made extensive use of Free Companies and Legions. At the [[Battle of Fontenoy]], deployment of the British attack column was hampered by the French 'Harquebusiers de Grassins'. After the Battle of Lauffelt, French light troops pursued the retreating allies, but were engaged in a bloody guerilla war with Austrian and Dutch light troops and Free Companies for the remainder of the campaign.<ref>Marc Geerdink-Schaftenaar, "For Orange and the States, part 2: Cavalry and Specialist Troops", Helion & Company Ltd 2019, ISBN 978-1-911628-13-2</ref><ref>Dr. Olaf van Nimwegen, "De Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden als Grote Mogendheid –
Buitenlandse politiek en oorlogvoering in de eerste helft van de achttiende eeuw en in het bijzonder tijdens de Oostenrijkse Successieoorlog (1740 – 1748) (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 2002)</ref> 

For Prussia, the [[Pandur]]s, who were made up of [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]], were a clear model for the organization of such "free" troops. On 15 July 1759,  [[Frederick the Great]] ordered the creation of a squadron of volunteer [[hussar]]s to be attached to the 1st Hussar Regiment (von Kleist's Own). He entrusted the creation and command of this new unit to Colonel Friedrich Wilhelm von Kleist. This first squadron (80 men) was raised in [[Dresden]] and consisted mainly of [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] deserters. This squadron was placed under the command of Lieutenant Johann Michael von Kovacs. At the end of 1759, the first four squadrons of [[dragoon]]s (also called horse grenadiers) of the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were organised. They initially consisted of Prussian volunteers from Berlin, Magdeburg, Mecklenburg and Leipzig, but later recruited deserters. The {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so they were used mainly as sentries and for minor duties.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} During the war, 14 "[[free infantry]]" ({{lang|de|Frei-Infanterie}}) units were created, mainly between 1756 and 1758, which were intended to be attractive to those soldiers who wanted military "adventure", but did not want to have to do military drill. A distinction should be made between the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} formed up to 1759 for the final years of the war, which operated independently and disrupted the enemy with surprise attacks, and the free infantry which consisted of various military branches (such as infantry, hussars, dragoons, ''jäger'') and were used in combination. They were often used to ward off [[Maria Theresa]]'s Pandurs. In the era of [[linear tactics]], light troops had been seen necessary for outpost, reinforcement and [[Reconnaissance|reconnaissance duties]]. During the war, eight such volunteer corps were set up:
* [[Friedrich Adolf Rudolf von Trümbach|Trümbach]]'s {{lang|de|Freikorps}} (Voluntaires de Prusse) (FI)
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Gottfried Arnd von Kleist|Kleist]]'s {{lang|de|Freikorps}} (FII)
* [[Joachim Reinhold von Glasenapp|Glasenapp]]'s Free Dragoons (F III)
* Schony's {{lang|de|Freikorps}} (F IV)
* Gschray's {{lang|de|Freikorps}} (F V)
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bauer|Bauer]]'s Free Hussars (F VI)
* [[Légion Britannique]] (FV – of the [[Electorate of Hanover]])
* Volontaires Auxiliaires (F VI).<ref>Background, formation and numbering according to Bleckwenn (1986) Vol. IV, pp. 82ff</ref>

Because, some exceptions, they were seen as undisciplined and less battleworthy, they were used for less onerous guard and [[garrison]] duties. In the so-called "petty wars", the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} interdicted enemy supply lines with [[guerrilla warfare]]. In the case of capture, their members were at risk of being executed as irregular fighters. In Prussia the {{lang|de|Freikorps}}, which Frederick the Great had despised as "vermin", were disbanded. Their soldiers were given no entitlement to pensions or invalidity payments.

In France, many corps continued to exist until 1776. They were attached to regular dragoon regiments as ''jäger'' [[squadron (army)|squadron]]s. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Austria recruited various {{lang|de|Freikorps}} of Slavic origin. The [[Slavonia|Slavonic]] Wurmser {{lang|de|Freikorps}} fought in [[Alsace]]. The combat effectiveness of the six [[Vienna|Viennese]] {{lang|de|Freikorps}} (37,000 infantrymen and cavalrymen), however, was low. An exception were the border regiments of Croats and Serbs who served permanently on the Austro-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] border.

== Napoleonic era ==
 [[File:Kersting - Vorposten.jpg|thumb|upright|Painting of three famous Free Corps members in 1815: [[Heinrich Hartmann]], [[Theodor Körner (author)|Theodor Körner]], and [[Friedrich Friesen]]]]{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2024}}
During Napoleon's 1812 [[French invasion of Russia|invasion of Russia]], the hussar [[Denis Davydov]], a [[war poet|warrior-poet]], formed volunteer partisan detachments functioning as ''Freikorps'' during the French [[retreat from Moscow]]. These irregular units operated in conjunction with Field Marshal [[Mikhail Kutuzov]]'s regular [[Russian Imperial Army]] and Ataman [[Matvei Platov]]'s [[Cossacks|Cossack]] detachments, harassing the French supply lines and inflicting defeats on the retreating [[Grande Armée]] in the battles of [[Battle of Krasnoi|Krasnoi]] and the [[Battle of Berezina|Berezina]].

{{lang|de|Freikorps}} in the modern sense emerged in Germany during the course of the Napoleonic Wars. They fought not so much for money but for patriotic reasons, seeking to shake off the French [[Confederation of the Rhine]]. After the French under Emperor [[Napoleon]] had either conquered the German states or forced them to collaborate, remnants of the defeated armies continued to fight on in this fashion. Famous formations included the [[King's German Legion]], who had fought for Britain in [[Kingdom of Spain under Joseph Bonaparte|French-occupied Spain]] and mainly were recruited from Hanoverians, the [[Lützow Free Corps]] and the [[Black Brunswickers]].

The {{lang|de|Freikorps}} attracted many nationally disposed citizens and students. {{lang|de|Freikorps}} commanders such as [[Ferdinand von Schill]], [[Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow]] or [[Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]], known as the "Black Duke", led their own attacks on Napoleonic occupation forces in Germany. Those led by Schill were decimated in the [[Battle of Stralsund (1809)]]; many were killed in battle or executed at Napoleon's command in the aftermath. The {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were very popular during the period of the [[German War of Liberation]] (1813–15), during which von Lützow, a survivor of Schill's {{lang|de|Freikorps}}, formed his Lützow Free Corps. The anti-Napoleonic Freikorps frequently conducted operations behind French lines, functioning as a form of commando or guerrilla force.

Throughout the 19th century, these anti-Napoleonic {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were greatly praised and glorified by German nationalists, and a heroic myth built up around their exploits. This myth was invoked, in considerably different circumstances, in the aftermath of Germany's defeat in [[World War I]], then misused by the [[Nazi Germany|The Third Reich]].

France later raised its own free corps. On 5 January 1814, at the start of the invasion of France, Napoleon decreed the formation of ''corps francs'' for territorial defense in the border departments.<ref name=CorpsFrancs>{{cite book|lang=fr|first1=Jean-Marie|last1=Thiébaud|first2=Gérard|last2=Tissot-Robbe|title=Les Corps francs de 1814 et 1815 - La double agonie de l'Empire - Les combattants de l'impossible|date=July 2011 |publisher=SPM|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-901952-82-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-Iv12eS-WUC}}</ref> They were dissolved by an ordinance of [[Louis XVIII]] on 15 April 1814.<ref name=CorpsFrancs/> The ''corps francs'' were restored on 22 April 1815, following Napoleon's return to power, and participated in the defense of France during the [[Hundred Days]].<ref name=CorpsFrancs/> They were again dissolved by Louis XVIII on 20 July 1815.<ref name=CorpsFrancs/>

=== Freikorps poetry ===
The anti-Napoleonic guerrilla movements in Germany, Russia and Spain in the early 1810s also produced their own style of poetry, ''hussar poetry'' or ''Freikorps poetry'', written by soldier-poets. In Germany, [[Theodor Körner (author)|Theodor Körner]], [[Max von Schenkendorff]] and [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]] were the most famous soldier-poets from the Freikorps. Their lyrics were for the most part patriotic, republican, anti-monarchical and anti-French. In Russia, the leader of the guerrilla army, Davydov, invented the genre of hussar poetry, characterised by hedonism and bravado. He used events from his own life to illustrate such poetry. Later, when [[Mikhail Lermontov]] was a ''junker'' ([[cadet]]) in the Russian Imperial Army, he also wrote such poetry.

== 1815–71 ==
{{Verification|section|date=January 2025}}
Even in the aftermath of the [[Napoleonic era]], {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were set up with varying degrees of success.<ref name="Jones_2004_p268" />{{Verify source|date=January 2025|reason=Source was insert by vandalic IP through the reuse function}} During the March 1848 riots, student {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were set up in Munich.

In [[First Schleswig War]] of 1848 the {{lang|de|Freikorps}} of [[Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen|''von der Tann'']], [[Heinrich von Zastrow|''Zastrow'']] and others distinguished themselves.

In 1864 in Mexico, the French formed the so-called ''Contreguerrillas'' under former Prussian [[hussar]] officer, Milson. In [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] formed his famous ''[[Freischar]]s'', notably the "Thousand of Marsala", which landed in [[Sicily]] in 1860.

Even before the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870/71, {{lang|de|Freikorps}} were developed in France that were known as [[franc-tireur]]s.

== Post–World War I ==
{{Anti-communism|Organisations}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R27092, Berlin, Gustav Noske beim Freikorps Hülsen.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ministry of the Reichswehr|Minister of the Reichswehr]], [[Gustav Noske]], visits the [[Freikorps Hülsen]] in Berlin in January 1919.]]

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-033-17, Kapp-Putsch, Panzerfahrzeug, Berlin.jpg|thumb|Provisional Freikorps armored vehicle in Berlin during the [[Kapp Putsch]] of March 1920]]

After [[World War I]], the meaning of the word Freikorps changed compared to its past iterations. After 1918, the term referred to various—yet, still, loosely affiliated—[[paramilitary]] organizations that were established in Germany following the defeat in World War I. Of the numerous [[Weimar paramilitary groups]] active during that time, the Freikorps were, and remain, the most notable. While numbers are difficult to determine, historians agree that some 500,000 men were formal Freikorps members with another 1.5 million men participating informally.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Freikorps {{!}} International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1) |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/freikorps |access-date=2021-12-06 |website=encyclopedia.1914–1918-online.net}}</ref>

Amongst the social, political, and economic upheavals that marked the early years of the [[Weimar Republic]], the tenuous German government under [[Friedrich Ebert]], leader of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] ({{lang|de|Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands}}, SPD), used the Freikorps to quell socialist and communist uprisings.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270">{{Cite book|last=Jones |first=Nigel |title=A brief history of the birth of the Nazis |date=2004 |publisher=Robinson |isbn=1-84119-925-7 |edition=Rev. & updated |location=London |page=270 |oclc=224053608}}</ref> Minister of Defence and SPD member [[Gustav Noske]] also relied on the Freikorps to suppress the [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Spartacist uprising]], culminating in the [[summary execution]]s of revolutionary communist leaders [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] on 15 January 1919.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151">{{Cite book|last=Jones |first=Nigel |title=A brief history of the birth of the Nazis |date=2004 |publisher=Robinson |isbn=1-84119-925-7 |edition=Rev. & updated |location=London |page=151 |oclc=224053608}}</ref>

=== Freikorps involvement in Germany and Eastern Europe ===
[[File:FreikorpsBerlinStahlhelmM18TuerkischeForm.jpg|thumb|{{lang|de|Freikorps}} paramilitaries in [[Berlin]], 1919]]

==== Bavarian Soviet Republic ====
The [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] was a short-lived and unrecognized socialist-communist state from 12 April – 3 May 1919 in Bavaria during the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|German Revolution of 1918–19]]. Following a series of political revolts and takeovers from German socialists and then Russian-backed Bolsheviks, [[Gustav Noske|Noske]] responded from Berlin by sending various Freikorps brigades to Bavaria in late April totalling some 30,000 men.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" /> The brigades included [[Hermann Ehrhardt|Hermann Ehrhardt's]] second Marine Brigade Freikorps, the [[Görlitz|Gorlitz]] Freikorps under Lieutenant Colonel Faupel, and two [[Swabia]]n divisions from [[Württemberg]] under General Haas and Major Hirl as well as the largest Freikorps in Bavaria commanded by Colonel [[Franz Ritter von Epp]].<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" />

While they were met with little Communist resistance, the Freikorps acted with particular brutality and violence under Noske's blessing and at the behest of Major Schulz, adjutant of the [[Lützow Free Corps|Lützow Freikorps]], who reminded his men that it "[was] a lot better to kill a few innocent people than to let one guilty person escape" and that there was no place in his ranks for those whose conscience bothered them.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" /> On 5 May 1919, Lieutenant Georg Pölzing, one of Schulz's officers, travelled to the town of [[Ramersdorf-Perlach|Perlach]] outside of [[Munich]]. There, Pölzing chose a dozen alleged communist workers—none of whom were actually communists, but members of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]]—and shot them on the spot.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2018-05-01|title=Freikorps "Free Corps" in Germany.|url=https://ww2gravestone.com/freikorps-free-corps-in-germany/|access-date=2021-12-08|website=WW2 Gravestone|language=en-US}}</ref> The following day, a Freikorps patrol led by Captain Alt-Sutterheim interrupted the meeting of a local Catholic club, the St Joseph Society, and chose twenty of the thirty members present to be shot, beaten, and bayoneted to death.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" /> A memorial on Pfanzeltplatz in [[Munich]] commemorates the incident.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2018-05-01 |title=Freikorps "Free Corps" in Germany. |url=https://ww2gravestone.com/freikorps-free-corps-in-germany/ |access-date=2021-12-08 |website=WW2 Gravestone |language=en-US}}</ref> Historian [[Nigel Jones (historian)|Nigel Jones]] notes that as a result of the Freikorps' violence, Munich's undertakers were overwhelmed, resulting in bodies lying in the streets and decaying until mass graves were completed.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" />

==== Eastern Europe ====
The Freikorps also fought against communists and [[Bolsheviks]] in Eastern Europe, most notably [[East Prussia]], [[Latvia]], [[Silesia]], and [[Poland]]. The Freikorps demonstrated fervent anti-Slavic racism and viewed [[Slavs]] and [[Bolsheviks]] as "sub-human" hordes of "ravening wolves".<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> To justify their campaign in the East, the Freikorps launched a campaign of propaganda that falsely positioned themselves as protectors of Germany's territorial hegemony over [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], and [[Estonia]] as a result of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] and as defenders against Slavic and Bolshevik hordes that "raped women and butchered children" in their wake.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Historian [[Nigel H. Jones|Nigel Jones]] highlights the Freikorps's "usual excesses" of violence and murder in Latvia which were all the more unrestrained since they were fighting in a foreign land versus their own country.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Hundreds were murdered in the Freikorps' Eastern campaigns, such as the massacre of 500 [[Latvians|Latvian]] civilians suspected of harbouring [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] sympathies or the capture of [[Riga]] which saw the Freikorps slaughter some 3,000 people.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> [[Summary execution]]s via firing squads were most common, but several Freikorps members recorded the brutal and deadly beatings of suspected communists and particularly communist women.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Theweleit |first=Klaus |title=Male fantasies |date=1987–1989 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=0-8166-1448-2 |location=Minneapolis |pages=184–191 |oclc=14818459}}</ref>

=== Freikorps identity and ideals ===
Freikorps ranks were composed primarily of former [[World War I]] soldiers who, upon [[demobilization]], were unable to reintegrate into civilian society having been brutalized by the violence of the war physically and mentally. Combined with the government's poor support of veterans, who were dismissed as [[Hysteria|hysterical]] when suffering from [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], many German veterans found comfort and a sense of belonging in the Freikorps.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Blakemore |first=Erin |date=2019-06-24 |title=When Germany Called its Soldiers Hysterical |url=https://daily.jstor.org/when-germany-called-its-soldiers-hysterical/ |access-date=2021-12-08 |website=JSTOR Daily |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Bartov |first=Omer |title=Mirrors of destruction: war, genocide, and modern identity |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-507723-7 |location=Oxford |page=20 |oclc=42022246}}</ref> Jason Crouthamel notes how the Freikorps' military structure was a familiar continuation of the frontlines, emulating the ''Kampfgemeinschaft'' (battle community) and ''Kameradschaft'' (camaraderie), thus preserving "the heroic spirit of comradeship in the trenches".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crouthamel |first=Jason |date=September 2018 |title=Homosexuality and Comradeship: Destabilizing the Hegemonic Masculine Ideal in Nazi Germany |journal=[[Central European History]] |language=en |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=424 |doi=10.1017/S0008938918000602 |doi-access=free |issn=0008-9389}}</ref> Others, angry at [[Stab-in-the-back myth|Germany's sudden, seemingly inexplicable defeat]], joined the Freikorps to fight against communism and socialism in Germany or to exact some form of revenge on those they considered responsible. To a lesser extent, German youth who were not old enough to have served in World War I enlisted in the Freikorps in hopes of proving themselves as patriots and as men.<ref name=":4" />

Regardless of reasons for joining, modern German historians agree that men of the Freikorps consistently embodied post-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] masculine ideals that are characterized by "physical, emotional, and moral 'hardness'".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mosse |first=George L. |title=The image of man: the creation of modern masculinity |date=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=1-60256-338-1 |location=New York |oclc=174114386}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Kühne |first=Thomas |date=September 2018 |title=Protean Masculinity, Hegemonic Masculinity: Soldiers in the Third Reich |journal=[[Central European History]] |language=en |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=395 |doi=10.1017/S0008938918000596 |doi-access=free |issn=0008-9389}}</ref> Described as "children of the trenches, spawned by war" and its process of brutalization, historians argue that Freikorps men idealized a militarized [[masculinity]] of aggression, physical domination, the absence of emotion (hardness).<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /><ref name=":5" /> They were to be as "swift as greyhounds, tough as leather, [and] hard as [[Krupp]] steel" so as to defend what remained of German conservatism in times of social chaos, confusion, and revolution that came to define the immediate [[Interwar period|interwar era]].<ref name="Jones_2004_p268">{{Cite book|last=Jones |first=Nigel |title=A brief history of the birth of the Nazis |date=2004 |publisher=Robinson |isbn=1-84119-925-7 |edition=Rev. & updated |location=London |page=268 |oclc=224053608}}</ref> Although [[World War I]] ended in Germany's surrender, many men in the Freikorps nonetheless viewed themselves as soldiers still engaged in active warfare with enemies of the traditional German Empire such as communists and [[Bolsheviks]], Jews, [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|socialists]], and [[Pacifism|pacifists]].<ref name="Jones_2004_p268" /> Prominent Freikorps member [[Ernst von Salomon]] described his troops as "full of wild demand for revenge and action and adventure...a band of fighter...full of lust, exultant in anger."<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" />

In 1977, German sociologist [[Klaus Theweleit]] published ''Male Fantasies,'' in which he argues that men in the Freikorps radicalized Western and German norms of male self-control into a perpetual war against feminine-coded desires for domesticity, tenderness, and compassion amongst men.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /> Historians [[Nigel H. Jones|Nigel Jones]] and [[Thomas Kühne]] note that the Freikorps' displays of violence, terror, and male aggression and solidarity established the beginnings of the fascist [[New Man (utopian concept)|New Man]] upon which the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] built.<ref name="Jones_2004_p151" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Kühne |first=Thomas |chapter=The Pleasure of Terror: Belonging through Genocide |date=2011 |title=Pleasure and Power in Nazi Germany |pages=234–255 |editor-last=Swett |editor-first=Pamela E. |editor-link=Pamela E. Swett|place=London |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK |language=en |doi=10.1057/9780230306905_11 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-0-230-30690-5 |editor2-last=Ross |editor2-first=Corey |editor3-last=d'Almeida |editor3-first=Fabrice}}</ref>

=== Demobilization ===
The extent of the Freikorps' involvement and actions in [[Eastern Europe]], where they demonstrated full autonomy and rejected orders from the [[Reichswehr]] and [[Weimar Republic|German government]], left a negative impression with the state.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Freikorps {{!}} International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1) |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/freikorps |access-date=2021-12-11 |website=encyclopedia.1914–1918-online.net}}</ref> By this time, the Freikorps had served [[Friedrich Ebert|Ebert's]] purpose of suppressing revolts and communist uprisings. After the failed [[Kapp Putsch|Kapp-Lütwitz Putsch]] in March 1920 that the Freikorps participated in, the Freikorps' autonomy and strength steadily declined as [[Hans von Seeckt]], commander of the Reichswehr, removed all Freikorps members from the army and restricted the movements' access to future funding and equipment from the government.<ref name=":7" /> Von Seeckt was successful, and by 1921 only a small yet devoted core remained, effectively drawing an end to the Freikorps until their resurgence as far-right thugs and street brawlers for the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] beginning in 1923.

=== Affiliation with the Nazi Party ===
The rise of the [[Nazi Party]] led to a resurgence of Freikorps activity, as many members or ex-members were drawn to the party's marrying of military and political life and extreme nationalism by joining the ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'' (SA) and ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' (SS).<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Unlike in the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|German Revolution of 1918–19]] or their involvement in Eastern Europe, the Freikorps now had almost no military value and were instead utilized by the Nazis as thugs to engage in street brawls with communists and to break up anarchist, communist and socialist meetings alongside the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] to gain a political edge.<ref name=":3" /> Moreover, the Nazis elevated the Freikorps as a symbol of pure German nationalism, anti-communism, and militarized masculinity to co-opt the lingering social and political support of the movement.<ref name=":3" />

Eventually, [[Adolf Hitler]] came to view the Freikorps as a nuisance and possible threat to his consolidation of power. During the [[Night of the Long Knives]] in 1934, an internal purge of Hitler's enemies within the [[Nazi Party]], numerous Freikorps members and leaders were targeted for killing or arrest, including Freikorps commander [[Hermann Ehrhardt]] and [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] leader [[Ernst Röhm]]. In Hitler's [[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]] speech following the purge, Hitler denounced the Freikorps as lawless "moral degenerates...aimed at the destruction of all existing institutions" and as "pathological enemies of the state...[and] enemies of all authority," despite his previous public adoration of the movement.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" />

=== Nazi legacy ===
Numerous future members and leaders of the Nazi Party served in the Freikorps. [[Martin Bormann]], eventual head of the Nazi Party Chancellery and Private Secretary to Hitler, joined [[Gerhard Roßbach#Roßbach Freikorps|Gerhard Roßbach's Freikorps]] in [[Mecklenburg]] as a section leader and quartermaster.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Reich Farmers' Leader and Minister of Food and Agriculture [[Richard Walther Darré]] was part of the Berlin Freikorps.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> [[Reinhard Heydrich]], future chief of the [[Reich Security Main Office]] (including the [[Gestapo]], [[Kriminalpolizei|Kripo]], and [[Sicherheitspolizei|SD]]) and initiator of the [[Final Solution]], was in [[Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker]]'s Freikorps as a teenager.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Leader of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] [[Heinrich Himmler]] enlisted in the Freikorps and carried a flag in the [[Beer Hall Putsch|1923 Beer Hall Putsch]].<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> [[Rudolf Höss]] joined the [[East Prussia]]n Volunteer Freikorps in 1919 and eventually became commander of the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz extermination camp]].<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> [[Ernst Röhm]], eventual leader of the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], supported various [[Bavaria]]n Freikorps groups, funnelling them arms and cash.<ref name="Jones_2004_p270" /> Although many high-ranking National Socialists were former Freikorps fighters, recent research shows that former Freikorps fighters were no more likely to be involved in National Socialist organisations than the average male population in Germany.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pomplun |first=Jan-Phliipp |title=Deutsche Freikorps. Sozialgeschichte und Kontinuitäten (para)militärischer Gewalt zwischen Weltkrieg, Revolution und Nationalsozialismus |publisher=Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-525-31146-2 |location=Göttingen |pages=217–276 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pomplun |first=Jan-Philipp |title=From World War One to the Vanguard of Nazism? A Statistical Approach to the History of German Paramilitarism. In: Christian Gerlach/Clemens Six (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions |publisher=Palgrave Mcmillan |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-54962-6 |pages=347–361 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:WWIposter9.jpg|thumb|right|A recruitment poster for the Freikorps Hülsen]]

=== Freikorps groups and divisions ===
* '''[[Eiserne Division|Iron Division]]''' ("Eiserne Division", formerly [[Eiserne Division#Eiserne Brigade|Eiserne Brigade]], related to the [[Baltische Landeswehr]])
** Fought in the [[Baltic states|Baltics]]
** Defeated by the Estonian Army and Latvian Army in the [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|Battle of Cēsis]]<ref> ''The German Freikorps 1918–23''. Elite 76. Osprey, 2001. p. 20.</ref>
** Trapped in [[Thorensberg]] by the Latvian Army. Rescued by the Rossbach Freikorps{{sfn|Waite|1969|pp=131, 132}}
* '''Volunteer Division of Horse Guards''' (Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision)
** Killed [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]], 15 January 1919{{sfn|Waite|1969|p=62}}
** Led by Captain [[Waldemar Pabst]]{{sfn|Waite|1969|p=62}}
** Disbanded on order of Defence Minister [[Gustav Noske]], 7 July 1919, after Pabst threatened to kill him{{sfn|Waite|1969|p=145}}
* '''[[Freikorps Caspari]]'''
** Fought against the [[Bremen Soviet Republic]]
** Fought under the command of [[Walter Caspari]]
* '''[[Freikorps Lichtschlag]]'''
** Fought against the [[Red Ruhr Army]]
** Fought under the command of [[Oskar von Watter]]
* '''{{ill|Freikorps Epp|de}}'''
** Under the command of [[Franz Ritter von Epp]]{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=59}}
** Members include: [[Ernst Röhm]],{{sfn|Davidson|2004|p=59}} [[Rudolf Hess]],{{sfn|Padfield|2001|p=13}} [[Eduard Dietl]],{{sfn|Hürter|2007|pp=624–625}} [[Hans Frank]],{{sfn|Geiss|Jacobmeyer|1980|p=11}} [[Gregor Strasser]] and [[Otto Strasser]]{{sfn|Childers|2017|p=71}}
* '''{{ill|Freikorps Lützow|de}}'''
** Occupied Munich following the revolution of April 1919
** Commanded by Major Schulz{{sfn|Waite|1969|p=89}}
* '''[[Marinebrigade Ehrhardt]]''' (The Second Naval Brigade)
** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920{{sfn|Waite|1969|pp=140–142}}
** Disbanded members eventually formed the [[Organisation Consul]], which performed hundreds of political assassinations{{sfn|Waite|1969|pp=203, 216}}
* '''[[Marinebrigade Loewenfeld]]''' (The Third Naval Brigade){{sfn|Waite|1969|p=38}}
** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920
* '''{{ill|Freikorps Maercker|de}}''' (Maercker's Volunteer Rifles, or {{lang|de|Freiwilliges Landesjägerkorps}}){{sfn|Waite|1969|pp=33–37}}
** Founded by [[Ludwig Maercker]]
** Members include: [[Reinhard Heydrich]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5788 |title=Axis History Factbook |access-date=3 January 2009}}</ref><ref>Mueller, p 61</ref> [[Eggert Reeder]], [[Ernst von Salomon]], [[Alfred Toepfer]] and [[Walter Warlimont]]
* '''[[Freikorps Oberland]]'''
** Kurt Benson
* [[Gerhard Roßbach#Roßbach Freikorps|'''Freikorps Roßbach''']] (Rossbach)
** Founded by [[Gerhard Roßbach]]
** Rescued the [[Iron Division]] after an extremely long march across Eastern Europe{{sfn|Waite|1969|pp=131, 132}}
** Members include: [[Kurt Daluege]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Wistrich |first=Robert |year=2001 |title=Who's Who In Nazi Germany |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-11888-0 |page=35}}</ref> [[Rudolph Hoess]], [[Martin Bormann]], and Ernst Krull (who was tried for his involvement in [[Rosa Luxemburg#Execution and aftermath|the murder of Rosa Luxemburg]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sauer |first=Bernard |url=http://www.bernhard-sauer-historiker.de/rossbach.pdf |title=Roßbach – Hitlers Vertreter für Berlin. Zur Frühgeschichte des Rechtsradikalismus in der Weimarer Republik |date=2002 |publisher=ZfG |pages=6}}</ref> 
* '''{{lang|de|[[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps]]}}'''
** Formed by Czech German nationalists with Nazi sympathies which operated from 1938 to 1939
** Part of Hitler's successful effort to absorb Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich
<!--
* Freikorps Ebbinghaus
* Freikorps Oberland
* Eiserne Brigade (Iron Brigade, later Iron Division)
* Hamburg Free Corps <ref>[[#Waite1969|Waite]], p.&nbsp;111.</ref>
* Lowenfeld Brigade (First Naval Brigade)
* Potsdam Free Corps<ref>[[#Waite1969|Waite]], p.&nbsp;145.</ref>
-->

==World War II==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-026-51, Anschluss sudetendeutscher Gebiete.jpg|thumb|Sudetendeutsches Freikorps members]]
During [[World War II]], there existed certain armed groups loyal to [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] that went under the name "Freikorps". These include:
* [[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps]], a [[German nationalism|German nationalist]] paramilitary that fought against [[First Czechoslovak Republic|Czechoslovakia]] for annexation of the [[Sudetenland]] into Germany.
* [[Free Corps Denmark]], a [[Denmark|Danish]] volunteer collaborationist group in the ''[[Waffen-SS]]'' that was founded by the [[National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark]], and participated in the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the Soviet Union]].
* [[British Free Corps]], a ''Waffen-SS unit'' made up of former [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] prisoners of war.
* [[Freikorps Sauerland]]

==Use in other countries==
===France===
In [[French Third Republic|France]], a similar group (but unrelated to the Freikorps) were the "Corps Franc". Starting in October 1939, the French Army raised a number of Corps Franc units with the mission of carrying out ambush, raid, and harassing operations forward of the [[Maginot Line]] during the period known as the [[Phoney War|Phoney War (Drôle de Guerre)]]. They were tasked with attacking German troops guarding the [[Siegfried Line]]. Future [[Vichy France|Vichy]] [[Collaborationism#France|collaborationist]], [[Anti-communism|Anti-Bolshevik]] and [[Waffen-SS|SS]] [[Sturmbannführer|Major]] [[Joseph Darnand]] was one of the more famous participants in these commando actions.

In May 1940, the experience of the Phoney War-era Corps Franc was an influence in creating the [[Groupes Franc Motorisé de Cavalerie|Groupes Francs Motorisé de Cavalerie (GFC)]] who played a storied role in the delaying operations and last stands of the [[Battle of France]], notably in the defenses of [[Battle of France#Weygand Plan|the Seine]] and [[Battle of Saumur (1940)|the Loire]]. Between April – September 1944, the [[Corps Franc de la Montagne Noire]] unit operated as part of the [[French Resistance]].

==== Corps Francs d'Afrique ====
<!-- "Corps Francs d'Afrique" redirects here -->

On 25 November 1942, in the immediate aftermath of the [[Operation Torch|Allied Invasion of Vichy French North Africa]] the '''Corps Francs d'Afrique (CFA)''' (African Corps Franc) was raised in [[French protectorate in Morocco|French Morocco]] within the [[Free French Forces]] by [[Henri Giraud|General Giraud]]. Giraud drew the members of the all-volunteer unit from residents of Northern Africa of diverse religious backgrounds (Christian, Jew, and Muslim) and gave them the title of ''Vélite'', a name inspired by the elite light infantry of [[Napoleon|Napoleon's]] [[Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)|Imperial Guard]], who were named after the [[Roman army of the mid-Republic|Roman]] [[Velites]]. Much of the Corps was drawn from [[Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie]] and [[José Aboulker]]'s [[Géo Gras Group|Géo Gras]] [[French Resistance|French Resistance Group]] which had been responsible for the [[Géo Gras Group#November 8, 1942|Algiers Insurrection]] where the Resistance seized control of Algiers on the night of 8 November 1942 in coordination with the [[Operation Torch|Allied landings]] happening that same night. In taking over Algiers, they managed to capture both [[François Darlan|Admiral Darlan]] and [[Alphonse Juin|General Juin]], which led to the [[François Darlan#Darlan's deal in North Africa|Darlan Deal]] wherein [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] forces came over to the Allied side. [[François Darlan|Darlan]] was later assassinated by [[Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle]], an early member of the Corps Francs d'Afrique. They functioned as the [[Free French Forces|Free French]] equivalent to the [[British Army|British]] [[Commandos (United Kingdom)|Commandos]]. The Corps also included many Spanish and International old combatants of the [[Spanish Republican Army]], which had sought refuge in Northern Africa in 1939.

The Corps Francs d'Afrique, under command of [[Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert]], went on to fight [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel's]] [[Afrikakorps]] in [[Tunisian Campaign|Tunisia]] with the U.S. [[United States Army North#World War II|5th Army]]. They fought alongside the [[139th (Sherwood Foresters) Brigade|British 139th Brigade]] at [[Battle of Kassarine Pass|Kassarine]] and [[Operation Ochsenkopf|Sidi Nasr]], where they famously conducted a heroic bayonet charge, facing two to one odds, against the [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italian]] [[Bersaglieri|34th Battalion of the 10th Bersaglieri]] near the mountain of [[Sejnane|Kef Zilia]] on the road to [[Bizerte]], taking 380 prisoners, killing the Italian battalion commander, and capturing the plans for [[Operation Ausladung]]. They participated in [[Tunisian Campaign#Battle|the capture of]] Bizerte in May 1943.

For its actions, the Corps Franc d'Afrique was awarded the [[Croix de Guerre]].

The CFA formally was dissolved on 9 July 1943, with its members and equipment forming the corps of the newly created [[Groupe des Commandos d'Afrique|African Commando Group (GCA)]] on 13 July 1943 in [[Damous|Dupleix]], [[French Algeria|Algeria]], today seen as a forebear to the postwar [[11e régiment parachutiste de choc|Parachutist Shock Battalions]] and the modern day [[13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment|13th RDP]]. The GCA went on to fight at [[Pianosa#History|Pianosa]], [[Invasion of Elba|Elba]], [[Operation Avalanche|Salerno]], [[Operation Dragoon|Provence]], [[1st Army (France)#1944–1945|Belfort]], [[Fort de Giromagny|Giromagny]], [[Battle of Alsace|Alsace]], [[Cernay, Haut-Rhin#Second World War|Cernay]], [[Guebwiller]], [[Buhl, Bas-Rhin|Buhl]], and the [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|Invasion of Germany]].

== See also ==
* [[Asgaard – German Security Group|Asgaard PMC]]
* [[Awards of the German Freikorps|Freikorps Awards]]
* [[Landsknecht]]
* [[List of defunct Paramilitary Organizations]]
* [[List of Free Corps]]
* [[List of Freikorps members]]
* [[List of paramilitary organizations]]
* [[Organisation Consul]]
* [[Battle of Annaberg]]
* [[Viking League]] related Freikorps activities
* [[Free company]], medieval units with some similarities
* [[Heimwehr]]

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Blanke |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80r6Mbnxf8IC |title=Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |date=1993 |isbn=0-8131-1803-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Childers | first = Thomas | year=2017 | title=The Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany | place=New York | publisher=Simon & Schuster | isbn= 978-1-45165-113-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Eugene |title=The unmaking of Adolf Hitler |publisher=University of Missouri Press |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qncE3wy3TTsC&q=Franz+Ritter+von+Epp&pg=PA59 |isbn=9780826215291 }}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Geiss|editor1-first=Immanuel|editor2-last=Jacobmeyer|editor2-first=Wolfgang|title=Deutsche Politik in Polen 1939–1945. Aus dem Diensttagebuch von Hans Frank, Generalgouverneur in Polen|language=de|year=1980|place=[[Opladen]]|publisher=Leske + Budrich|isbn=978-3810002969 }}
* {{Cite book
  |last= Eley |first= Geoff  |author-link= Geoff Eley  |editor-last=Blinkhorn |editor-first=Martin |date=1990
  |chapter= Conservatives and radical nationalists in Germany: the production of fascist potentials, 1912–28
  |title= Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe
  |pages=50–70
  |location= New York  |publisher= [[Routledge]]
  |isbn= 978-0-049-40087-0  }}
* {{Cite journal
  |last= Gerwarth |first= Robert |s2cid= 161539557 |author-link= Robert Gerwarth |year= 2008
  |title= The Central European Counter-Revolution: Paramilitary Violence in Germany, Austria and Hungary after the Great War
  |journal= [[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |number= 200 |pages= 175–209
  |doi= 10.1093/pastj/gtm046 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hoess |first1=Rudolf |last2=Fitzgibbon |first2=Constantine |last3=Levi |first3=Primo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzJeUQWu20gC |title=Commandant of Auschwitz: The Autobiography of Rudolf Hoess |publisher=Sterling Publishing |date=2000 |others=Translated by Constantine Fitzgibbon, [[Joachim Neugroschel]] |isbn=1-84212-024-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Hürter|first=Johannes |title=Hitlers Heerführer. Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42|edition=2nd|publisher=Oldenbourg, Munich|year=2007|language=de|isbn=978-3-486-58341-0 }}
* {{Cite thesis
  |last= Koepp  |first= Roy G.  |year= 2010
  |title= Conservative Radicals: The Einwohnerwehr, Bund Bayern Und Reich, and the Limits of Paramilitary Politics in Bavaria, 1918–1928 |type= PhD
  |url= http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&context=historydiss
  |location= Lincoln, NE  |publisher= [[University of Nebraska]] }}
* {{Cite book  |last= Kolko  |first= Gabriel  |author-link= Gabriel Kolko  |year= 1994  |title= Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914  |location= New York|publisher= [[The New Press]]  |isbn= 978-1-565-84192-5  |url-access= registration  |url= https://archive.org/details/centuryofwarpoli00kolk  }}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Douglas G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cs_rXw0XfqwC |title=Justice Imperiled: The Anti-Nazi Lawyer Max Hirschberg in Weimar Germany |date=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-11476-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Mueller |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WGAexVXyHwC |title=Canaris |publisher=Naval Institute Press |date=2007|isbn=9781591141013 }}
* {{cite book | last = Padfield | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Padfield | title = Hess: The Fuhrer's Disciple | year = 2001 | publisher = Cassell & Co | location = London | isbn = 0-304-35843-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Read |first=Anthony |url=https://archive.org/details/devilsdisciplesh00read |url-access=registration |title=The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |date=2004 |isbn=0-393-04800-4}}
* {{Cite book
  |last= Waite  |first= Robert G. L.  |author-link= Robert G. L. Waite  |year= 1969  |orig-date= 1952
  |title= Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Post-War Germany, 1918–1923
  |location= New York  |publisher= [[W. W. Norton & Company]] |oclc=3633548}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Freikorps}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Freikorps| ]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1759]]
[[Category:1759 establishments in Prussia]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Germany]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1918]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1939]]
[[Category:1939 disestablishments in Germany]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in Germany]]
[[Category:Anti-Masonry in Germany]]
[[Category:Anti-anarchism]]
[[Category:Anti-communism in Germany]]
[[Category:Military history of Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Nationalist terrorism in Europe]]
[[Category:Terrorism in Germany]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Germany]]
[[Category:Counter-revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Far-right politics in Germany]]
[[Category:German Revolution of 1918–1919]]
[[Category:Right-wing politics in Europe]]
[[Category:Defunct paramilitary organizations]]
[[Category:Proto-Nazism]]