Editing Frederick Reines

{{Short description|American physicist (1918–1998)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Frederick Reines
| image             = Frederick Reines, early 1950s.jpg
| image_size        = 
| birth_date        = {{Birth date|1918|03|16|mf=yes}}
| birth_place       = [[Paterson, New Jersey]], U.S.
| death_date        = {{Death date and age|1998|08|26|1918|03|16|mf=yes}}
| death_place       = [[Orange, California]], U.S.
| alma_mater        = [[New York University]]<br/>[[Stevens Institute of Technology]]
| work_institutions = {{plainlist|
* [[Los Alamos Laboratory]]
* [[Case Western Reserve University]]
* [[University of California, Irvine]]}}
| residence         = 
| citizenship       = American
| field             = [[Physics]]
| known_for         = [[Neutrino]]s
| signature         = File:Frederick Reines Signature.svg
| doctoral_advisor  = Richard D. Present
| thesis_title      = Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus
| thesis_url        = https://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.70.557.2
| thesis_year       = 1944
| doctoral_students = [[Michael K. Moe]] (1965)
| prizes            = {{plainlist|
* [[J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize]] (1981)
* [[National Medal of Science]] (1983)
* [[Bruno Rossi Prize]] (1989)
* [[Michelson-Morley Award]] (1990)
* [[Panofsky Prize]] (1992)
* [[Franklin Medal]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1995)}}
| spouse            = Sylvia Samuels (m. 1940; 2 children)
}}
'''Frederick Reines''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|aɪ|n|ə|s}} {{respell|RY|nəs}};<ref name="Obituary"/> March 16, 1918 – August 26, 1998) was an American [[physicist]]. He was awarded the 1995 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his co-detection of the [[neutrino]] with [[Clyde Cowan]] in the [[neutrino experiment]]. He may be the only scientist in history "so intimately associated with the discovery of an [[elementary particle]] and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties."<ref name="neutrino astronomy">{{cite web |first1=Jonas |last1=Schultz |first2=Hank |last2=Sobel |title=Frederick Reines and the Neutrino |publisher=[[University of California, Irvine School of Physical Sciences]] |url=http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/reinestrib.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220095655/http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/reinestrib.html |archive-date=February 20, 2014 }}</ref>

A graduate of [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] and [[New York University]], Reines joined the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] in 1944, working in the Theoretical Division in [[Richard Feynman]]'s group. He became a group leader there in 1946. He participated in a number of [[nuclear tests]], culminating in his becoming the director of the [[Operation Greenhouse]] test series in the Pacific in 1951.

In the early 1950s, working in [[Hanford Site|Hanford]] and [[Savannah River Site]]s, Reines and Cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in June 1956. Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino's properties and interactions, which work would influence study of the neutrino for many researchers to come. This included the detection of neutrinos created in the atmosphere by [[cosmic ray]]s, and the 1987 detection of neutrinos emitted from [[SN 1987A|Supernova SN1987A]], which inaugurated the field of [[neutrino astronomy]].

== Early life ==
Frederick Reines was born in [[Paterson, New Jersey]], one of four children of Gussie (Cohen) and Israel Reines. His parents were Jewish emigrants from the same town in Russia, but only met in [[New York City]], where they were later married. He had an older sister, Paula, who became a doctor, and two older brothers, David and William, who became lawyers. He said that his "early education was strongly influenced" by his studious siblings. He was the great-nephew of the [[Rabbi]] [[Yitzchak Yaacov Reines]], the founder of [[Mizrachi (religious Zionism)|Mizrachi]], a [[religious Zionist movement]].<ref name="NAS">{{cite book |last1=Kropp |first1=William |last2=Schultz |first2=Jonas |last3=Sobel |first3=Henry |title=Frederick Reines 1918-1998 A Biographical Memoir |place=Washington D.C. |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |year=2009 |url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/reines-frederick.pdf |access-date=March 17, 2010}}</ref>

The family moved to [[Hillburn, New York]], where his father ran the [[general store]], and he spent much of his childhood. He was an [[Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]]. Looking back, Reines said: "My early childhood memories center around this typical American country store and life in a small American town, including [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day July]] celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion bandstand."<ref name=Autobiography>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1995/reines-bio.html |access-date=March 23, 2012}}</ref>

Reines sang in a chorus, and as a soloist. For a time he considered the possibility of a singing career, and was instructed by a vocal coach from the [[Metropolitan Opera]] who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them.<ref name=Autobiography/> The family later moved to [[North Bergen, New Jersey]], residing on [[County Route 501 (New Jersey)|Kennedy Boulevard]] and 57th Street. Because North Bergen did not have a high school,<ref name=UCReporter>{{cite news |last=Pope |first=Gennarose |title=Bridge of troubled Kennedy Boulevard |newspaper=[[The Union City Reporter]] |page=12 |date=March 25, 2012}}</ref> he attended [[Union Hill High School]] in [[Union Hill, New Jersey]] (today [[Union City, New Jersey]]),<ref name=Autobiography/><ref name=UCReporter/> from which he graduated in 1935.<ref name=UCReporter/>

From an early age, Reines exhibited an interest in science, and liked creating and building things. He later recalled that:

<blockquote>The first stirrings of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school, when, looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to [[simulate]] a [[telescope]], I noticed something peculiar about the light; it was the phenomenon of [[diffraction]]. That began for me a fascination with light.<ref name=Autobiography/></blockquote>

Ironically, Reines excelled in literary and history courses, but received average or low marks in science and math in his [[freshman]] year of high school, though he improved in those areas by his [[Junior (education year)|junior]] and [[senior (education)|senior]] years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory. This cultivated a love of science by his senior year. In response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a yearbook quote, he responded: "To be a physicist extraordinaire."<ref name=Autobiography/>

Reines was accepted into the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], but chose instead to attend [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], where he earned his [[Bachelor of Science]] (B.S.) degree in [[mechanical engineering]] in 1939, and his [[Master of Science]] (M.S.) degree in mathematical physics in 1941, writing a thesis on "A Critical Review of Optical Diffraction Theory".<ref name = "NAS"/> He married Sylvia Samuels on August 30, 1940.<ref name = "NAS"/> They had two children, Robert and Alisa.<ref name=Autobiography/> He then entered [[New York University]], where he earned his [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (Ph.D.) in 1944. He studied [[cosmic rays]] there under [[Serge A. Korff]],<ref name=Autobiography/> but wrote his [[thesis]] under the supervision of Richard D. Present<ref name = "NAS"/> on "Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus".<ref>{{cite web |title=Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus |publisher=[[New York University]] |url=http://bobcat.library.nyu.edu/primo_library/libweb/action/display.do?ct=display&fn=search&doc=nyu_aleph001271114&indx=2&recIds=nyu_aleph001271114&recIdxs=1&elementId=1&displayMode=full&frbrVersion=&tabs=detailsTab&dscnt=0&vl%28462370296UI1%29=all_items&vl%28210150594UI0%29=any&onCampus=false&scp.scps=scope%3A%28NS%29%2Cscope%3A%28CU%29%2Cscope%3A%28BHS%29%2Cscope%3A%28NYU%29%2Cscope%3A%28NYSID%29%2Cscope%3A%28%22NYHS%22%29%2Cscope%3A%28GEN%29%2Cscope%3A%28NYUAD%29%2Cscope%3A%28NYUSH%29&tab=all&dstmp=1424204858961&dym=true&lang=eng&indx=1&vl%281UIStartWith0%29=contains&vl%28freeText0%29=Reines%201944&fn=search&vid=NYU&institution=NYU |access-date=February 18, 2015 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of [[World War II]]; it appeared in [[Physical Review]] in 1946.<ref name = "NAS"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Present |first1=R. D. |last2=Reines |first2=F. |last3=Knipp |first3=J. K.|title=The Liquid Drop Model for Nuclear Fission |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=70 |issue=7–8 |pages=557–558 |date=October 1946 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.70.557.2|pmid=18880816 |bibcode = 1946PhRv...70..557P |hdl=2027/mdp.39015086430553 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Los Alamos Laboratory ==
[[File:Reines-frederick.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Frederick Reines Los Alamos badge]]
[[File:Greenhouse Dog 001.jpg|thumb|right|[[Operation Greenhouse]] &ndash; [[Operation Greenhouse#Dog|Dog shot]]]]
In 1944 [[Richard Feynman]] recruited Reines to work in the Theoretical Division at the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], where he would remain for the next fifteen years.<ref name=Autobiography/> He joined Feynman's T-4 (Diffusion Problems) Group, which was part of [[Hans Bethe]]'s T (Theoretical) Division. [[Diffusion]] was an important aspect of [[critical mass]] calculations.<ref name = "NAS"/> In June 1946, he became a group leader, heading the T-1 (Theory of Dragon) Group. An outgrowth of the "[[Demon core#Second incident|tickling the Dragon's tail]]" experiment, the Dragon was a machine that could attain a critical state for short bursts of time, which could be used as a research tool or power source.{{sfn|Truslow|Smith|1961|pp=56-59}}

Reines participated in a number of [[nuclear test]]s, and writing reports on their results. These included [[Operation Crossroads]] at [[Bikini Atoll]] in 1946, [[Operation Sandstone]] at [[Eniwetok Atoll]] in 1948, and [[Operation Ranger]] and [[Operation Buster–Jangle]] at the [[Nevada Test Site]]. In 1951 he was the director of [[Operation Greenhouse]] series of [[nuclear tests]] in the Pacific. This saw the first American tests of [[boosted fission weapon]]s, an important step towards [[thermonuclear weapon]]s. He studied the effects of nuclear blasts, and co-authored a paper with [[John von Neumann]] on Mach stem formation, an important aspect of an air [[blast wave]].<ref name = "NAS"/><ref name=Autobiography/>

In spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests, Reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests, and became an advocate of [[underground nuclear testing]]. In the wake of the [[Sputnik crisis]], he participated in [[John Archibald Wheeler]]'s Project 137, which evolved into [[JASON (advisory group)|JASON]]. He was also a delegate at the [[Atoms for Peace]] Conference in Geneva in 1958.<ref name = "NAS"/><ref name=Autobiography/>

== Discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars ==
[[File:Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines.jpg|alt=Photo of Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines|thumb|Reines and [[Clyde Cowan]]]]
The [[neutrino]] is a [[subatomic particle]] first proposed by [[Wolfgang Pauli]] on December 4, 1930. The particle was required to resolve the problem of missing energy in observations of [[beta decay]], when a [[neutron]] decays into a [[proton]] and an [[electron]]. The new hypothetical particle was required to preserve the fundamental law of [[conservation of energy]]. [[Enrico Fermi]] renamed it the [[neutrino]], Italian for "little neutral one",{{sfn|Close|2012|pp=15–18}} and in 1934, proposed his [[Fermi's interaction|theory of beta decay]] by which the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fermi |first=E. |title=Fermi's Theory of Beta Decay |others=Wilson, Fred L. (trans.) |journal=[[American Journal of Physics]] |year=1968 |url=http://microboone-docdb.fnal.gov/cgi-bin/RetrieveFile?docid=953;filename=FermiBetaDecay1934.pdf;version=1 |access-date=January 20, 2013 |doi=10.1119/1.1974382 |volume=36|issue=12 |bibcode = 1968AmJPh..36.1150W |pages=1150–1160}}</ref>{{sfn|Close|2012|pp=22–25}}
:{{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}} → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron-}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron antineutrino}}

The neutrino accounted for the missing energy, but Fermi's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that appeared to be impossible to observe directly. In a 1934 paper, [[Rudolf Peierls]] and [[Hans Bethe]] calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, and concluded "there is no practically possible way of observing the neutrino."<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Neutrino |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |issn=0028-0836 |issue=3362 |pages=532 |date=April 7, 1934 |doi=10.1038/133532a0 |bibcode = 1934Natur.133..532B |volume=133|last1=Bethe |first1=H. |last2=Peierls |first2=R. |s2cid=4001646 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Poltergeist Team 1953.jpg|thumb|Frederick Reines (far right) with Clyde Cowan (far left) and other members of Project Poltergeist]]

In 1951, Reines and his colleague [[Clyde Cowan]] decided to see if they could detect neutrinos and so prove their existence. At the conclusion of the Greenhouse test series, Reines had received permission from the head of T Division, [[J. Carson Mark]], for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics. "So why did we want to detect the free neutrino?" he later explained, "Because everybody said, you couldn't do it."<ref name="Nobel lecture">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/reines-lecture.pdf |title=The Neutrino: From Poltergeist to Particle |quote=Nobel Prize lecture |first=Frederick |last=Reines |date=December 8, 1995 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |access-date= 12 August 2024}}</ref>

According to Fermi's theory, there was also a corresponding reverse reaction, in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a [[positron]]:<ref name="Nobel lecture"/>
:{{SubatomicParticle|Electron antineutrino}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} → {{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron+}}

The positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0.51 MeV [[gamma rays]], while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2.2 MeV gamma ray. This would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected. They then realised that by adding [[cadmium]] salt to their [[Liquid scintillation counting|liquid scintillator]] they would enhance the neutron capture reaction, resulting in a burst of gamma rays with a total energy of 9 MeV.<ref name="PhyToday"/> For a neutrino source, they proposed using an atomic bomb. Permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director, [[Norris Bradbury]]. The plan was to detonate a "20-kiloton nuclear bomb, comparable to that dropped on Hiroshima, Japan". The detector was proposed to be dropped at the moment of explosion into a hole 40 meters from the detonation site "to catch the flux at its maximum"; it was named "El Monstro".<ref name="Abbott">{{cite journal |last1=Abbott |first1=Alison |title=The singing neutrino Nobel laureate who nearly bombed Nevada |journal=Nature |date=17 May 2021 |volume=593 |issue=7859 |pages=334–335 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01318-y |language=en|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Natur.593..334A }}</ref> Work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when [[J. M. B. Kellogg]] convinced them to use a [[nuclear reactor]] instead of a bomb. Although a less intense source of neutrinos, it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time.<ref name="NAS"/><ref name="PhyToday"/><ref name="Abbott"/>

In 1953, they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the [[Hanford nuclear site]] in what is now known as the [[Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment]]; they named the experiment "Project Poltergeist".<ref name="Abbott"/> Their detector included {{convert|300|L}} of scintillating fluid and 90 [[photomultiplier]] tubes, but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays. With encouragement from [[John A. Wheeler]], they tried again in 1955, this time using one of the newer, larger 700 MW reactors at the [[Savannah River Site]] that emitted a high neutrino flux of 1.2 x 10<sup>12</sup> / cm<sup>2</sup> sec. They also had a convenient, well-shielded location {{convert|11|m}} from the reactor and {{convert|12|m}} underground.<ref name="Nobel lecture"/> On June 14, 1956, they were able to send Pauli a telegram announcing that the neutrino had been found.{{sfn|Close|2012|pp=37–41}} When Bethe was informed that he had been proven wrong, he said, "Well, you shouldn't believe everything you read in the papers."<ref name="Nobel lecture"/>

[[File:Supernova SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud - GPN-2000-000948.jpg|left|thumb|[[SN 1987A|Supernova SN1987A]] (the bright object in the center), as seen through the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]]]
From then on Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino's properties and interactions, which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come.{{sfn|Close|2012|p=42}} Cowan left Los Alamos in 1957 to teach at [[George Washington University]], ending their collaboration.<ref name="NAS"/> On the basis of his work in first detecting the [[neutrino]], Reines became the head of the physics department of [[Case Western Reserve University]] from 1959 to 1966. At Case, he led a group that was the first to detect neutrinos created in the atmosphere by [[cosmic ray]]s.<ref name="PhyToday">{{cite journal |first=Gloria B. |last=Lubkin |title=Nobel Prize in Physics goes to Frederick Reines for the Detection of the Neutrino |journal=[[Physics Today]] |issn=0031-9228 |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=17–19 | doi = 10.1063/1.2808286 |url=http://www.aip.org/pt/vol-54/iss-2/pdf/vol48no12p17-19.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217091336/http://www.aip.org/pt/vol-54/iss-2/pdf/vol48no12p17-19.pdf |archive-date=December 17, 2008 |bibcode=1995PhT....48l..17L |year=1995 }}</ref> Reines had a booming voice, and had been a singer since childhood. During this time, besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department, Reines sang in the Cleveland Orchestra Chorus under the direction of [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]] in performances with [[George Szell]] and the [[Cleveland Orchestra]].<ref name="mem"/>

In the early 1960s, Reines built a detector in the [[East Rand gold mine]] near [[Johannesburg]], South Africa. The site was chosen because of its depth, 3.5&nbsp;km;<ref name="Abbott"/> on February 23, 1965, the new detector captured its first atmospheric neutrinos. Reines brought his friends, an engineer August "Gus" Hruschka from the US,<ref name=Cole>{{cite book |last1=Cole |first1=Leonard A |title=Chasing the Ghost: Nobelist Fred Reines and the Neutrino |date=March 2021 |isbn=978-981-12-3105-6 |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9789811231063_0001 |language=en |pages=3–13|doi=10.1142/9789811231063_0001 }}</ref> they worked together with South African physicist [[Friedel Sellschop]] of the [[University of Witwatersrand]].<ref name="NAS"/> Equipment was made in the [[Case Institute]], and 20 tonnes of scintillation fluid in 50 containment tanks were transported from the US. The decision to work in an [[apartheid]] racist country was challenged by many colleagues of Reines, he himself said that "science transcended politics".<ref name="Abbott"/> The laboratory team in the mine was led by Reines' graduate students, first by William Kropp, and then by Henry Sobel.<ref name=Cole/> Experiment ran from 1963 and was closed in 1971, and captured 167 neutrino events.<ref name="NAS"/>

In 1966, Reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new [[University of California, Irvine]] (UCI), becoming its first dean of physical sciences. At UCI, Reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of [[Nuclear medicine#Diagnostic medical imaging|medical radiation detectors]], such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in [[radiation therapy]].<ref name="mem"/>

Reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion. Supernova explosions are rare, but Reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime, and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially-designed detectors. During his wait for a supernova to explode, he put signs on some of his large neutrino detectors, calling them "Supernova Early Warning Systems".<ref name="mem">{{cite web |title=In Memoriam, 1998. Frederick Reines, Physics; Radiological Sciences: Irvine |publisher=University of California |url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=hb1p30039g&chunk.id=div00047&brand=calisphere&doc.view=entire_text |access-date=February 19, 2015}}</ref> In 1987, neutrinos emitted from [[SN 1987A|Supernova SN1987A]] were detected by the [[Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven (detector)|Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven]] (IMB) Collaboration, which used an 8,000 ton [[Cherenkov detector]] located in a salt mine near [[Cleveland]].<ref name="neutrino astronomy"/> Normally, the detectors recorded only a few background events each day. The supernova registered 19 events in just ten seconds.<ref name="Nobel lecture"/> This discovery is regarded as inaugurating the field of [[neutrino astronomy]].<ref name="neutrino astronomy"/>

In 1995 Reines was honored, along with [[Martin L. Perl]], with the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his work with Cowan in first detecting the neutrino. Unfortunately, Cowan had died in 1974 and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.{{sfn|Close|2012|p=42}} Reines also received many other awards, including the [[J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize]] in 1981,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Frederick Reines wins Oppenheimer Prize |journal=Physics Today |date=May 1981 |page=94 |doi=10.1063/1.2914589 |bibcode = 1981PhT....34R..94. |volume=34|issue=5 }}</ref> the [[National Medal of Science]] in 1985, the [[Bruno Rossi Prize]] in 1989, the [[Michelson–Morley Award]] in 1990, the [[Panofsky Prize]] in 1992, and the [[Franklin Medal]] in 1992. He was elected a member of the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in 1980 and a foreign member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in 1994.<ref name="NAS"/> He remained dean of physical sciences at UCI until 1974, and became a [[professor emeritus]] in 1988, but he continued teaching until 1991, and remained on UCI's faculty until his death.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Passing of Frederick Reines, Physics Nobel Laureate in 1995 |publisher=[[University of California, Irvine]] |url=http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/news5/cicerone5.html |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102150616/http://www.ps.uci.edu/physics/news5/cicerone5.html }}</ref>

== Death ==
[[File:UC Irvine Reines Hall.jpg|thumb|right|Frederick Reines Hall at the University of California, Irvine houses the Physics and Astronomy Department, and part of the Chemistry Department.]]
Reines died after a long illness at the [[University of California, Irvine Medical Center]] in [[Orange, California]],<ref name="Obituary">{{cite news |first=John Noble |last=Wilford |title=Frederick Reines Dies at 80; Nobelist Discovered Neutrino |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 28, 1998 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/28/us/frederick-reines-dies-at-80-nobelist-discovered-neutrino.html |access-date=February 18, 2015}}</ref> on August 26, 1998.<ref name="NAS"/> He was survived by his wife and children.<ref name="Obituary"/> His papers are compiled in the UCI Libraries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guide to the Frederick Reines Papers |via=[[California Digital Library]] |url=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7779p0zf|access-date=February 18, 2015}}</ref> Frederick Reines Hall, which houses the Physics and Astronomy Department at the University of California, Irvine, was named in his honor.<ref>{{cite web |first=Marisa |last=Benjamin |title=Frederick Reines Hall at UC Irvine |publisher=About.com |url=http://collegeapps.about.com/od/phototours/ss/uc-irvine-photo-tour_15.htm |access-date=February 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219134453/http://collegeapps.about.com/od/phototours/ss/uc-irvine-photo-tour_15.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Publications ==
* Reines, F. & C. L. Cowan Jr. [https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4425708-detection-free-neutrino "On the Detection of the Free Neutrino"], [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] (LANL) (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory), [[United States Department of Energy]] (through predecessor agency the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]), (August 6, 1953).
* Reines, F., Cowan, C. L. Jr., Carter, R. E., Wagner, J. J. & M. E. Wyman. [https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4326484-free-antineutrino-absorption-cross-section-part-measurement-free-antineutrino-absorption-cross-section-part-ii-expected-cross-section-from-measurements-fission-fragment-electron-spectrum "The Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section. Part I. Measurement of the Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section. Part II. Expected Cross Section from Measurements of Fission Fragment Electron Spectrum"], [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] (LANL) (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory), [[United States Department of Energy]] (through predecessor agency the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]), (June 1958).
* Reines, F., Gurr, H. S., Jenkins, T. L. & J. H. Munsee. [https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4782132-neutrino-experiments-reactors "Neutrino Experiments at Reactors"], [[University of California-Irvine]], [[Case Western Reserve University]], [[United States Department of Energy]] (through predecessor agency the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]), (September 9, 1968).
* Roberts, A., Blood, H., Learned, J. & F. Reines. [https://www.osti.gov/biblio/7332526-status-aims-dumand-neutrino-project-ocean-neutrino-detector "Status and Aims of the DUMAND Neutrino Project: the Ocean as a Neutrino Detector"], [[Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory]] (FNAL), [[United States Department of Energy]] (through predecessor agency the [[Energy Research and Development Administration]]), (July 1976).
* {{cite book |first=F. |last=Reines |year=1991 |title=Neutrinos and Other Matters: Selected Works of Frederick Reines |location=Teaneck, N.J. |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-02-0392-4 | url=https://archive.org/details/neutrinosotherma00fred|url-access=registration }}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== See also ==

* [[List of Jewish Nobel laureates]]

== References ==
* {{cite book
 |last=Close
 |first=Frank E. | author-link=Frank Close
 |year=2012
 |title=Neutrino
 |location=Oxford
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |isbn=9780199574599
 |oclc=840096946
}}
* {{cite book
 | last1 = Truslow
 | first1 = Edith C.
 | last2 = Smith
 | first2 = Ralph Carlisle
 | title = Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story, Volume II: August 1945 to December 1946
 | publisher = Tomash Publishers
 | year = 1961
 | location = Los Angeles
 | url = https://archive.org/details/projectylosalamo0002unse
 | access-date = February 20, 2014
 | quote = Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532
 | isbn = 978-0-938228-08-0
 | url-access = registration
 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7779p0zf Guide to the Frederick Reines Papers.] Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
* {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1995 ''The Neutrino: From Poltergeist to Particle''

{{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1976–2000}}
{{1995 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Winners of the National Medal of Science}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|History of science|Nuclear technology|Physics}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Reines, Frederick}}
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
[[Category:American Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:20th-century American physicists]]
[[Category:Case Western Reserve University faculty]]
[[Category:Jewish American physicists]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science laureates]]
[[Category:New York University Graduate School of Arts and Science alumni]]
[[Category:People from Union City, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Scientists from Paterson, New Jersey]]
[[Category:People from Rockland County, New York]]
[[Category:Stevens Institute of Technology alumni]]
[[Category:Union Hill High School alumni]]
[[Category:University of California, Irvine faculty]]
[[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Winners of the Panofsky Prize]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project people]]
[[Category:Cold War history of the United States]]
[[Category:Scientists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Recipients of Franklin Medal]]