Editing Frederick II of Denmark

{{Short description|King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Frederick II
| image        = 1581 Frederik 2..jpg
| caption      = Portrait by [[Hans Knieper]], 1581.
| reign        = 1 January 1559 – 4 April 1588
| coronation   = 20 August 1559<br/>[[Copenhagen Cathedral]]
| succession   = [[List of Danish monarchs|King of Denmark]] and [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norway]]
| moretext     = ([[Style of the Danish sovereign|more...]])
| predecessor  = [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]]
| successor    = [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]]
| spouse       = {{Marriage|[[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow]]|20 July 1572}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| issue        = {{plainlist|
*[[Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Elizabeth, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg]]
*[[Anne of Denmark|Anne, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland]]
*[[Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway]]
*[[Ulrik of Denmark (1578–1624)|Ulrik, Prince-Bishop of Schwerin]]
*[[Augusta of Denmark|Augusta, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp]]
*[[Hedwig of Denmark|Hedwig, Electress of Saxony]]
*[[John, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein]]}}
| house        = [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]]
| father       = [[Christian III of Denmark]]
| mother       = [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg]]
| birth_date   = 1 July 1534
| birth_place  = [[Haderslevhus]] Castle, Haderslev, Denmark
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1588|4|4|1534|7|1|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Antvorskov Castle]], Zealand, Denmark
| burial_place = 5 August 1588<br/>[[Roskilde Cathedral]], Zealand, Denmark
| religion     = [[Lutheran]]
| signature    = Frederik II signature.svg
}}

'''Frederick II''' (1 July 1534&nbsp;– 4 April 1588) was King of [[Denmark-Norway|Denmark and Norway]] and Duke of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] and [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scocozza.|first=Benito|title=Christian 4.|date=1988|publisher=Politikens Forlag|isbn=87-567-4458-7|edition=1.|location=København|page=12|oclc=68679580|issue=4}}</ref> from 1559 until his death in 1588.<ref name=":23">[http://www.gravsted.dk/person.php?navn=frederik2 ''Frederik 2'' (Dansk Konge)]</ref>

A member of the [[House of Oldenburg]], Frederick began his personal rule of Denmark-Norway at the age of 24. He inherited capable and strong realms, formed in large by [[Christian III of Denmark|his father]] after the civil war known as the [[Count's Feud]], after which Denmark-Norway saw a period of economic recovery and of a great increase in the [[Centralisation|centralised]] authority of the Crown.<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 89''</ref>

Frederick was, especially in his youth and unlike his father, belligerent and adversarial, aroused by honor and national pride,<ref>Danmarks Historien, Christoffersen Peder, Gyldendals Forlag, side 298</ref> and so he began his reign auspiciously with a campaign under the aged [[Johan Rantzau]], which reconquered [[Dithmarschen]]. However, after miscalculating the cost of the [[Northern Seven Years' War]], he pursued a more prudent [[foreign policy]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 October 2011|title=Kongerækken|url=http://kongehuset.dk/monarkiet-i-danmark/kongerakken|access-date=23 July 2020|website=Kongehuset|language=da}}</ref> The remainder of Frederick II's reign was a period of tranquillity,<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 99''</ref> in which king and nobles prospered. Frederick spent more time hunting and feasting with his councillors, and focused on architecture and science.<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 98''</ref> During his reign, many building projects were begun, including additions to the royal castles of [[Kronborg]] at [[Helsingør|Elsinore]] and [[Frederiksborg Castle|Frederikborg Castle]] at [[Hillerød]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederiksborg Slot|url=https://dnm.dk/frederiksborg-slot/|access-date=23 July 2020|website=Frederiksborg|language=da-DK}}</ref>

Frederick has to a great extent been overshadowed by his popular, long-reigning son [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]],<ref name=":0">{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway |volume= 11 }}</ref> and often been portrayed with skepticism and resentment, resulting in the prevailing portrait of Frederick as a man and as king: an unlettered, inebriated, brutish sot.<ref name=":12">Lockhart, Paul D., page 36</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik II|url=http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/oversigter/konger/Frederik_2/Frederik_2.htm|access-date=23 July 2020|website=www.roskildehistorie.dk}}</ref> This portrayal is, however, inequitable and inaccurate, and recent studies<ref group="note">Thanks in large part to the research of historian [[Frede P. Jensen]], who, after thorough archival studies, were able to provide a real and contemporary historical description of the King's character.</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite news|last=Frandsen|first=Karl-Erik|date=2013|title=Poul Grinder-Hansen: Frederik 2. Danmarks renæssancekonge|work=Tidsskrift|url=https://tidsskrift.dk/historisktidsskrift/article/download/56665/76866/}}</ref> reappraise and acknowledge him as highly intelligent; he craved the company of [[Scholar|learned men]], and in the correspondence and legislation he dictated to his secretaries he showed himself to be quick-witted and articulate.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2., 1534–1588|url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/frederik-2-1534-1588/|access-date=21 July 2020|website=danmarkshistorien.dk|language=da}}</ref> Frederick was also open and loyal, and had a knack for establishing close personal bonds with fellow princes and with those who served him.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":2">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 3-page 1''</ref>

In 1572, Frederick [[Cousin marriage|married his cousin]] [[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow|Sophie of Mecklenburg]]. Their relationship is regarded as one of the happiest [[Royal intermarriage|royal marriages]] in [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]]. In the first ten years after the wedding, they had seven children, and are described as inseparable and harmonious.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2. - Kronborg Slot|url=https://kongeligeslotte.dk/da/slotte-og-haver/kronborg-slot/udforsk-kronborg-slot/frederik-2.html|access-date=2021-07-23|website=kongeligeslotte.dk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bach-Nielsen|first=Carsten|date=2015-06-29|title=Frederik II of Denmark and Sophie of Mecklenburg – a Renaissance Star Couple. A German Royal Representational Form in Denmark?|url=https://ojs.abo.fi/ojs/index.php/ico/article/view/972|journal=ICO Iconographisk Post. Nordisk tidskrift för bildtolkning – Nordic Review of Iconography|issue=2|pages=39–65|issn=2323-5586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2.|url=http://www.historie-online.dk/boger/anmeldelser-5-5/15-1600-arene-renaessancen-33/frederik-2|access-date=2021-07-23|website=www.historie-online.dk}}</ref>

Frederick was committed to becoming the mightiest king in [[Northern Europe|the North]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Kronborg Slot Helsingør Hamlets Castle Elsinore Denmark|url=http://www.helsingorby.dk/kronborg.htm|access-date=2021-07-23|website=www.helsingorby.dk}}</ref> and for several years he fought [[Northern Seven Years' War|exhausting wars]] against his [[Rivalry|archrival]] [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Erik XIV of Sweden]], after which the battles changed character. It became a competition to see who could trace their [[Genealogy|family history]] the furthest, and who could construct the most formidable castles.<ref name=":1" /> In the 1570s he constructed [[Kronborg]], a large [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance castle]] that became widely recognized abroad, and its [[dance hall]] was the largest in [[Northern Europe]] at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kronborg {{!}} lex.dk|url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Kronborg|access-date=2021-07-23|website=Den Store Danske|language=da}}</ref> He enjoyed entertaining guests and throwing elaborate festivities, which were well known throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dansesalen - Udforsk slottet - Kronborg Slot - Slotte og haver - Kongelige Slotte|url=https://kongeligeslotte.dk/da/slotte-og-haver/kronborg-slot/udforsk-kronborg-slot/dansesalen.html|access-date=2021-07-23|website=kongeligeslotte.dk}}</ref> During the same period, the [[Royal Danish Navy (1510-1814)|Danish-Norwegian fleet]] was developed into one of Europe's largest and most modern. As part of his efforts to strengthen the kingdoms, he provided much support for [[Science in the Renaissance|science]] and [[Culture of Denmark|culture]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2. ♔ 1559-1588 - Kongernes Samling|url=https://www.kongernessamling.dk/rosenborg/person/frederik-2/|access-date=2021-07-23|website=www.kongernessamling.dk|language=da-DK}}</ref>

== Early years and education ==
{{Further|Count's Feud}}Frederick was born on 1 July 1534 at [[Haderslevhus Castle]], the son of Duke Christian of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] and [[Holstein]] (later King [[Christian III of Denmark]] and Norway) and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg]], the daughter of [[Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McNaughton, Arnold |title=The book of kings: a royal genealogy|date=1973|publisher=Garnstone Press|isbn=0-900391-19-7|location=London|page=156|oclc=2155441}}</ref> His mother was the sister of [[Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg|Catherine]], the first wife of the [[Sweden|Swedish]] king [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav Vasa]], and the mother of [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]], his future rival.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Koebenhavn1536.gif|left|thumb|323x323px|[[The Siege of Copenhagen 1535-1536]] during the [[Count's Feud]], a period of Danish instability that would shape Frederick's childhood.]]
At the time of Frederick's birth, [[Count's Feud|a civil war]] of Denmark was coming to an end (just three days after Frederick's birth his father [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian]] became King of Denmark). The previous king, [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]], died on 10 April the year before, but the Danish [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]], which traditionally ruled the kingdom with the king''',''' had not chosen a successor, and now Denmark had, for more than a year, functioned as an [[Nobility|Aristocratic]] Republic.<ref name=":2" /> The father of the newborn Frederik, Christian, although eldest son of the late king, was not automatically King of Denmark, as the kingship in Denmark was not [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]], but [[Elective monarchy|elective]]. Noblemen of the [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]] could choose to pick another member of the royal family as king if they so decided.

[[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] and his son Christian were staunch [[Protestants]] and adherents to the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran cause]], however, in the [[Rigsraadet|Council of the Realm]], which consisted of many [[Bishops in the Catholic Church|Catholic bishops]] as well as a number of powerful noblemen from the old nobility, there were a majority to support the established [[Catholic Church]]. After a period of [[interregnum]] and after subsequent risings in favour of the former [[Christian II of Denmark|King Christian II]], a period known as [[Count's Feud|the Count's Feud]], [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] finally became victorious, and was proclaimed King of a new Protestant Denmark.<ref>''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 3-page 2''</ref>

=== Proclaimed heir apparent ===
After [[Christian III of Denmark|King Christian III's]] victory in the [[Count's Feud]], royal power had now returned to Denmark, and in such a way that the king could set his own terms.<ref name=":3">Lockhart, Paul D., page 28</ref> In his ''[[haandfæstning]]'', a document which all former Danish Kings must sign, and which regulates the relationship between king and [[Danish nobility|nobility]], he reduced the nobility's power, and established that the first son of the king should always be seen as [[heir apparent]], and succeed his father automatically.<ref name=":4">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 3-page 9''</ref>

On 30 October 1536 Christian convened the [[estates of the realm]] (''Rigsdag'') to [[Copenhagen]], where they formally proclaimed Frederick [[heir apparent]] and successor to the throne, granting him the title "'''Prince of Denmark'''".<ref name=":4" /> In 1542, the Prince travelled around Denmark and was hailed by the people. In the Midsummer of 1548 Christian III and his son Frederick, in a fleet of 7 ships and together with 30 Danish nobles, sailed for [[Oslo]], where Frederick was hailed as heir apparent to the [[Monarchy of Norway|Throne]] of the [[Norway|Kingdom of Norway]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederick II {{!}} king of Denmark and Norway|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Denmark-and-Norway|access-date=22 July 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> The royal reception included Danish nobles holding fiefs in [[Norway]], received by Prince Frederik on his ship. The entire Norwegian nobility had been summoned to Oslo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Larson, James L. |title=Reforming the north: the kingdoms and churches of Scandinavia, 1520–1545|date=2 January 2014|isbn=978-1-107-68945-9|page=435|oclc=861358270}}</ref>

=== Upbringing ===
While [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] secured control of Denmark and Norway, his and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea's]] children grew up in the bosom of the family. In addition to [[Anne of Denmark, Electress of Saxony|Anna]], who was born in 1532, and Frederik from 1534, the group of siblings consisted of [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus]], born 1540, and [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg|John]], who was born in 1545 and called [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg|John the Younger]], to distinguish him from Christian III's half-brother, [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev|John the Elder]]. Youngest was [[Dorothea of Denmark, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg|a girl]] who was born in 1546 and named after her mother.<ref name=":3" />

It was the usual pedagogical view of the time that parents were so inclined to spoil their own children that the upbringing of the children should be delegated to other members of the family,<ref name=":5">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 1''</ref> typically the child's maternal grandparents. But [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Queen Dorothea]] didn't want to send the children away when in [[Infant|infancy]]. Moreover, [[Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg|her own mother]] was suspected of nurturing Catholic sympathies, and in the religious era, a Lutheran Danish king could not in good conscience expose his child to Catholic influences. Another contributing factor has probably been the royal couple's concern by leaving the children too much out of sight in the tense political situation that prevailed in the first ten years of Frederik's life.<ref name=":5" />

=== Education ===
Frederik's education, although profound and thorough, was focused on the [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] and [[Lutheranism|lutheran]] doctrine, Frederick mainly learning instructions in theology.<ref name=":6">Lockhart, Paul D., page 35</ref> While a princely educational program, which included learning the art of [[stewardship]], diplomacy and war, was proposed and planned by the Danish Chancellor, it was not executed in full as the Danish Chancellor's relationship with [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] deteriorated before the education could begin.<ref name=":7">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 2''</ref>

Life at the court of [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea]] was imbued with a fervent [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Christianity]] with which all their children naturally grew up. In March 1538 [[Chancellor]] Wolfgang von Utenhof proposed an educational program for the young Prince Frederick. He was to have a Danish [[Steward (office)|court steward]], but he also had to work with and be inspected daily by a [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]], who was to be a reliable and sobering man from the [[Holstein]] [[nobility]]. The prince had to learn [[Latin]], German, [[Danish language|Danish]], French and other languages, and when he got older he had to learn [[fencing]] and other chivalry exercises. He was to have 10–15 young men for company both in his studies and in his chivalrous exercises.<ref name=":7" />

To which extent this educational program was followed is not known. In 1541, Frederick aged 7, he began his schooling. Frederick was appointed [[Hans Svaning|Hans Svenning]], a reputed Danish [[Humanism|humanist]] and professor of [[rhetoric]] at [[University of Copenhagen]], as teacher.<ref name=":7" />

=== Dyslexia ===
[[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dorothea]] had probably been expecting a lot from Frederick's schooling.<ref name=":8">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 3''</ref> The son was obviously bright and had a good memory. So much bigger has the disappointment, and the amazement, been when the teaching started. Frederick learned to write beautiful and clear letters, but when it came to reading and spelling, the royal student was "a disaster".<ref name=":8" />

For [[Hans Svaning]], this deranged spelling of Frederick's could only be seen as sloppy and laziness, given that the royal boy otherwise seemed smart enough.<ref name=":9">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 4''</ref> Time and time again, Frederick has been punished, probably not only by the teacher, but also by his strict mother, who would gladly step in if Svaning's teaching was not sufficient.<ref name=":9" />

Because of Frederick's heavy [[dyslexia]], he was perceived by his contemporaries as unlettered and illiterate. Both Frederick's father and mother looked with skepticism at the heir to the throne, and they kept him under the watchful eye of knowledgeable men as far as possible to prevent him from publicly speaking out. Neither did his father entrust Frederik with any administrative duties.<ref name=":8" />

=== Malmøhus ===
[[File:Malmöhus_slott_2.jpg|thumb|317x317px|[[Malmö Castle]] in [[Scania]], where Frederick spent much of his later youth.]]
It was only at the age of 20 in 1554 that Frederik was allowed to hold his own court at [[Malmö Castle]] in [[Scania]], but under the supervision of the middle-aged lensman ('[[Fief]]-man') [[Ejler Hardenberg]], who was appointed the prince's court master. At the same time, political training began, which was put in the hands of the two driven noblemen [[Eiler Rønnow]] and Erik Rosenkrantz.<ref name=":10">''Grinder-Hansen, Poul, section 4-page 5''</ref> The years in [[Scania]], must have felt like a liberation for Frederick.<ref name=":9" /> He had finally escaped from the royal court with its tightly regulated existences and pious daily lives. Just outside the moats around [[Malmö Castle]] was the lively trading town of [[Malmö]], which offered a young man all-out experiences.<ref name=":10" />

While spending many of his youth years in [[Scania]], he became known as the "'''[[Sovereign prince|Prince]] of Scania'''" (''princeps Scaniæ'') ({{Langx|da|Fyrste af Skåne}}).<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Bricka|first=Carl Frederik|title=289 (Dansk biografisk Lexikon / V. Bind. Faaborg – Gersdorff)|url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/5/0291.html|access-date=22 July 2020|website=runeberg.org|language=da}}</ref> It is not known whether this title was ever officially decreed to him.<ref name=":11" />

=== Travels to Germany with his brother-in-law ===
{{Further|Grand Tour}}
[[File:Lucas_Cranach_d._J._004.jpg|left|thumb|Frederick II's close friend and companion, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]].]]
The only political education that Frederik received came from his close friendship with his brother-in-law, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony|Elector Augustus of Saxony]] (reigned 1553–86). Some authors have later stated that Augustus was "the only strong emotional support" Frederick received in his youth.<ref name=":6" />

Augustus, who was the husband of Frederik's elder sister [[Anne of Denmark, Electress of Saxony|Anne]], took Frederik under his wing, chaperoning him on a trip throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1557–58. Here Frederik made the acquaintance of the new emperor, [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] (reigned 1558–64) at his [[coronation]], his son and heir apparent [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] (emperor 1564–76), [[William the Silent|William of Orange]], and a host of other more prominent German Protestant princes. The experience nurtured in Frederik a lasting appreciation of the great complexity of German politics and a taste for all things military.<ref name=":6" />

This was most troubling to Frederick's father, the ageing [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], who feared that in the Empire Frederick would develop ambitions that would exceed both his abilities and the resources of his kingdoms, and that the trip would ultimately drag Denmark-Norway into the maelstrom of German princely politics.<ref name=":11" />

=== Peder Oxe ===
In 1552, Steward of the Realm, [[Peder Oxe]] (1520–1575), had been raised to Councillor of State (''Rigsraad''). During the spring of 1557, Oxe and [[Christian III of Denmark|the King]] had quarreled over a mutual property exchange. Failing to compromise matters with the King, Oxe had fled to Germany in 1558.

== Reign ==

=== Proclaimed King ===
[[File:Coronatio Regis et equitum auratorum creatio, Hafniæ, post gestum bellum Dithmarsicum, eadem æstate, 20. Augusti.jpg|thumb|20 August 1559: ''Coronatio Regis et equitum auratorum creatio, Hafniæ, post gestum bellum Dithmarsicum, eadem æstate, 20. Augusti''.]]

Frederick's father [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] died on 1 January 1559 at [[Koldinghus]]. Frederick was not present at his father's bedside when he died, a circumstance that did not endear the new king, now King Frederick II of Denmark-Norway, to the councillors who had grown to appreciate and revere Christian.<ref name=":12"/>

On 12 August 1559 Frederick signed his [[haandfæstning]] (lit. "Handbinding" viz. curtailment of the monarch's power, a Danish parallel to the [[Magna Carta]]) and on 20 August 1559 Frederick II was [[Coronation|crowned]] at the [[Church of Our Lady (Copenhagen)|Church of Our Lady]] in Copenhagen<ref>{{cite book|last1=Monrad Møller|first1=Anders|title=Enevældens kroninger. Syv salvinger – ceremoniellet, teksterne og musikken|publisher=Forlaget Falcon|year=2012|isbn=978-87-88802-29-0|page=11}}</ref> by a Danish [[Superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]], with [[Nicholas Palladius|Nicolaus Palladius]] and [[Jens Skielderup]] two Norwegian [[Superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]] assisting, symbolizing the relationship between the kingdoms of [[Denmark–Norway|Denmark and Norway]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bugge, Alexander |title=Norges historie: fremstillet for det norske folk.|date=1916|publisher=Aschehoug|page=123|oclc=911156583}}</ref> Week-long and elaborate celebrations are said to have taken place after the coronation.<ref name=":12" />

=== Conquest of Ditmarschen ===
[[File:Schleswig_holstein_hei_(1).png|thumb|[[Dithmarschen]]]]
Within weeks of Christian's passing, Frederick joined with his uncles in [[Holstein]], [[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev|John]] and [[Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Adolf]], in a [[military campaign]] to conquer the [[Dithmarschen|Ditmarschen]], under [[Johan Rantzau]]. Frederik II's [[Uncle|great-uncle]], [[John, King of Denmark|King John]], had failed to subjugate the peasant republic in 1500, but the Frederick's 1559-campaign was a quick and relatively painless victory for the Danish Kingdom. The brevity and low cost of the campaign were cold comforts to the members of the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]], [[Johan Friis]] in particular. Friis had warned Frederick that a very real threat of conflict with Sweden loomed just over the horizon, but the king had not listened, and had not even consulted with the Council about the Ditmarschen.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bølling|first=Hans|title=Danmarks Konger: fra Christian I til Christian X|publisher=Nationaltidene|year=1944–1945|page=14}}</ref>

=== Early relationship with the Council of the Realm ===
The adversarial king–Council relationship improved relatively quickly however, and not because Frederik caved in to conciliar opposition. Rather, the two parties quickly learned to work together because their interests, and the Kingdom's, required that they did so. From an early time, the council invested much power in Frederick, as they had no desire to go back to the destructive near-anarchy of the pre-civil war years.<ref>Lockhart, Paul D., page 37</ref>

Frederik would soon learn how to play the constitutional game, that is required in a consensual monarchy, such as Denmark; namely to humour the Council without sacrificing his own royal interests. This meant showing generosity to the conciliar [[aristocracy]] through various gifts and concessions, which he did in grand style. Shortly before the signing of his coronation charter (''[[haandfæstning]]''), [[Andreas von Barby]], leader of the German Chancery, died. Barby was not well liked in the Council of the Realm, but he was extreamly wealthy.<ref>DFH, i. 78–80; Colding, Studier, 68–77; Peder Enevoldsen, 'Lensreformerne i Danmark 1557–96', HTD, 81 (1981–82), 343–98</ref> The extensive [[fief]]s in his possession reverted to the Crown, and Frederik was careful to distribute out these properties among the leading members of the Council of the Realm. Throughout his reign, Frederik would reward his conciliar aristocracy generously. Fiefs were distributed on highly favourable terms.<ref>Lockhart, Paul D., page 38</ref>

The substantially warmer relationship between king and Council of the Realm after the [[Dithmarschen|Ditmarschen]] campaign is best illustrated by the Danish central administration's performance in the greatest national crisis of the reign, the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] (1563–70) against Sweden.

=== Relationship with Livonia ===
From his predecessor, Frederick inherited the [[Livonian War]]. In 1560, he installed his younger brother, [[Magnus of Holstein]] (1540–1583), in the [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]]. King Frederick II largely tried to avoid conflict in [[Livonia]] and consolidated amicable relations with Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] in the 1562 [[Treaty of Mozhaysk]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Magnus, Konge af Lifland, 1540–83|url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/11/0050.html|access-date=15 August 2016|publisher=Dansk biografisk Lexikon}}</ref> His brother Magnus was later made titular King of Livonia, as a vassal of Tsar Ivan IV.

=== Northern Seven Years' War ===
{{Further|Northern Seven Years' War}}King Frederick's competition with Sweden for supremacy in the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] broke out into open warfare in 1563, the start of the [[Northern Seven Years' War]], the dominating conflict of his rule.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2 – Udforsk slottet – Kronborg Slot – Slotte og haver – Kongelige Slotte|url=https://kongeligeslotte.dk/da/slotte-og-haver/kronborg-slot/udforsk-kronborg-slot/frederik-2.html|access-date=23 July 2020|website=kongeligeslotte.dk}}</ref>

The leading councillors, [[Johan Friis]] foremost among them, had feared a Swedish onslaught for several years, and after the succession of Frederick II's first cousin, the ambitious and unbalanced [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]] (reigned 1560–1568) to the [[Gustav I of Sweden|Vasa]] throne a confrontation appeared inevitable. Still, few councillors wanted war, and they preferred to wait until it was forced upon them, while Frederik preferred a [[Preemptive war|preemptive strike]]. Despite its initial opposition to the war, the [[Riksråd|Council of the Realm]] went along with the king. Frederik II, wisely, made no effort to exclude the council from the direction of the war, and though he retained chief operational control he entrusted much responsibility to his councillors, including Holger Ottesen [[Rosenkrantz (noble family)|Rosenkrants]], [[Marshal]] [[Otte Krumpen]], and [[Admiral]] [[Herluf Trolle]].<ref name=":13">Lockhart, Paul D., page 39</ref>
[[File:Fredrik_II_conqueres_Älvsborg_1563.jpg|left|thumb|460x460px|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway [[Siege of Älvsborg (1563)|attacking Älvsborg]], 1563.]]
Only one constitutional crisis emerged during [[Northern Seven Years' War|the war]]; in late 1569, after six years of war, the Council decided not to provide the king with further grants of taxation. The war had been costly, both in lives and in gold, but since 1565 Denmark-Norway had made no appreciable gains. The council had already asked Frederik to make peace, and he had made a half-hearted attempt to do so in 1568, but neither Frederik nor his [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Swedish opponent]] was willing to concede defeat.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|last=Jensen, Frede P.|title=Danmarks konflikt med Sverige 1563–1570|date=1982|publisher=Den danske historiske forening|isbn=87-87462-19-2|pages=286–94|oclc=185811858}}</ref>

The war developed into an extremely expensive [[war of attrition]] in which the areas of [[Scania]] were ravaged by the Swedes, and [[Norway]] was almost lost. During this war, King Frederick II led his army personally on the battlefield, but although with some small success, overall without much result.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The council, in cutting off financial support, had hoped to coerce the king into ending the war. Frederik felt betrayed, and after some reflection, Frederick felt that the only honourable recourse was [[abdication]].<ref name=":14" /> With his [[letter of resignation]] in the hands of the councillors, he left [[Copenhagen|the capital]] to go hunting in the [[Rural area|countryside]]. The king, still unmarried, had no heir, and consequently the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]] had good reason to fear another leaderless [[interregnum]] and even another civil war. It played into the king's hands; the Council begging for his return to the throne and allowed him to summon a [[Diet (assembly)|Diet]] to consider additional [[Tax levy|tax levies]].<ref name=":14" />

The conflict damaged his relationship with his noble councillors; however, the later [[Sture murders]] of 24 May 1567 by the insane King Eric XIV in Sweden, eventually helped stabilize the situation in Denmark-Norway. After King [[John III of Sweden]], King Eric's successor, refused to accept a peace favoring Denmark-Norway in the [[Treaties of Roskilde (1568)]], the ongoing war dragged on until it was ended by a status quo peace in the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)]], that let Denmark-Norway save face but also show limits of Danish and Norwegian military power.<ref name=":33">{{cite web|title=Frederik 2|url=https://snl.no/Frederik_2|access-date=15 August 2016|publisher=Store norske leksikon}}</ref>

Frederik II learned a great deal about kingship during the war with Sweden. He learned to include the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]] in most matters of policy, but he also learned that it was possible to manipulate the council, even to bend it to his own will, without humiliating it or undermining its authority.<ref name=":13" /> He would later come to master this ability and use it extensively.<ref name=":13" />

=== Later reign ===
During the eighteen remaining years of his reign, Frederik would come to drew extensively on the lessons he learned in the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] with [[Eric XIV of Sweden]]. In the peacetime years, he maintained a rather peripatetic court, moving from residence to residence throughout the Danish countryside, spending a fair share of his time in [[hunting]]. This allowed him the opportunity to meet members of the [[Riksråd|Council]] individually and informally, in their home regions. As was required of the Danish King, he did summon the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]] once annually to meet at the ''herredag'', but most of his business with the council was done on a one-to-one basis.<ref name=":15">Lockhart, Paul D., page 40</ref> This ensured a very close personal bond with each member of the council while minimizing the opportunity for the council to oppose him as a full body. Frederik's personable disposition also helped,<ref name=":33" /> and so, too, did the informal nature of court life under Frederik II. The king [[Hunting|hunted]], [[Banquet|feasted]], and drank with his noble [[councillor]]s and [[adviser]]s, and even with visiting [[Dignitary|foreign dignitaries]], treating them as his equal peers and companions rather than as political opponents or inferiors. The eighteenth-century chronicler [[Ludvig Holberg]] claimed that when dining at his court, Frederik would frequently announce that 'the king is not at home', which signalled to his guests that all court [[Formality|formalities]] were temporarily suspended, and that they could talk and joke as they pleased without restraint. The Danish court of Frederick II may have appeared to be unsophisticated to outside observers, but the openness and bawdiness of court life served Frederik's political purposes.<ref name=":15" /> In 1585, he visited Norway for the first and only time as king, but only went to [[Bohuslen]].<ref>[http://nbl.snl.no/Frederik_2 Norsk biografisk leksikon – Frederik II]</ref>

==== Financial situation ====
The great cost of the [[Northern Seven Years' War]], some 1.1&nbsp;million [[Danish rigsdaler|rigsdaler]], was recovered chiefly from higher taxation on both Danish and Norwegian farm properties.<ref name=":16">Lockhart, Paul D., page 41</ref> After state finances collapsed in the aftermath of the war, King Frederick II called [[Peder Oxe]] home to address the kingdom's economy. The taking over of Danish administration and finances by the able councillor, provided a marked improvement for the national treasury. Councillors of experience, including [[Niels Kaas]], [[Arild Huitfeldt]], and [[Christoffer Valkendorff]], took care of the domestic administration. Subsequently, government finances were put in order and Denmark-Norway's economy improved. One of the chief expedients of the improved state of affairs was the raising of the [[Sound Dues]]. Oxe, as lord treasurer, reduced the national debt considerably and redeemed portions of [[crown land]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christian III, Peder Oxe and the 1557 Meeting of the Great Council: Royal Purges and Succession|url=http://www.historisktidsskrift.dk/summary/108_387.html|access-date=15 August 2016|publisher=historisktidsskrift.dk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Oxe, Peder, 1520–75, Rigshofmester|url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/12/0497.html|access-date=15 August 2016|publisher=Dansk biografisk Lexikon}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=''Frederik 2'' (Danish Kings and their History)|url=http://www.danskekonger.dk/eng/biografi/FreII.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729205146/http://www.danskekonger.dk/eng/biografi/FreII.html|archive-date=29 July 2010|access-date=10 May 2010}}</ref>

=== Constructions in reign ===
[[File:Frederik_II_Builds_Kronborg_Castle_at_Elsinore,_KMS3296.jpg|alt=|thumb|416x416px|King Frederick II builds [[Kronborg Castle]] at [[Elsinore]].]]
After the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] a period of affluence and growth followed in Danish-Norwegian history. The greater financial liquidity of the crown and the king's decreased dependence on the [[Riksråd|Council]] for funding, while not meaning that Frederick was actively seeking to sidestep conciliar control,<ref name=":16" /> it did allow him to be less frugal than his late father, [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], had been. Considerable funds were devoted to an expansion of [[Royal Danish Navy|the Danish-Norwegian fleet]] and of the facilities for its support, not merely for security purposes but also to aid Frederick's active endeavours to rid the [[Baltic Sea]] of [[Piracy|pirates]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grundtvig|first=Johann|title=Frederik den Andens Statshusholdning|publisher=C. A. Reitzel|year=1876|location=Copenhagen|pages=CLXXVI–CLXXVII}}</ref> The increased revenues likewise enabled Frederik to undertake the construction of Denmark's first national [[Street network|road network]], the so-called ''kongevej'' ('[[King's Road (Denmark)|King's Road]]'), connecting the larger towns and the royal residences.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wittendorff, Alex |title=Alvej og kongevej studier i samfaerdselsforhold og vejenes topografi i det 16. og 17. århundrede ; [mit engl. Zsfassung.]|date=1973|publisher=Akad. Forl|pages=164–207, 244–57|oclc=1071371212}}</ref>

The most visible area of expenditure, however, was the royal castles and the court itself. Frederick spent freely on the reconstruction of several royal residences and other cities:<ref>{{Cite book|last=NORN, Otto Creemers.|title=Kronborgs bastioner. En fortifikationshistorisk studie. [With plans.].|date=1954|pages=19–37|oclc=562940392}}</ref>

* [[Antvorskov]] (near Slagelse, Sjælland), was one of Frederick's favourite hunting-castles. He later died at [[Antvorskov]].
* In 1567, King Frederick II founded [[Fredrikstad]] in Norway. [[Frederik II Upper Secondary School]] in [[Fredrikstad]], one of the largest schools of its kind in Norway, is named after Frederick.<ref>[http://www.fredrikstad.kommune.no/museet/default.asp?ArtID=1069 Fredrikstad museum<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121021105/http://www.fredrikstad.kommune.no/museet/default.asp?ArtID=1069|date=21 January 2008}}</ref>
* He also rebuilt [[Kronborg]] in [[Elsinore]] from a medieval fortress into a magnificent [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]] castle, between 1574 and 1585.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aerenlund.dk/idag/konge.asp?periode=40 |title=''Frederik II (1559–1588)'' (Familien Sørensens Hjemmeside – og Rejseholdet) |access-date=10 May 2010 |archive-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719121213/http://www.aerenlund.dk/idag/konge.asp?periode=40 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* In 1560 Frederick converted the North Sealand farm Hillerødsholm into a great [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance castle]], [[Frederiksborg Castle|Frederiksborg]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frederik 2.|url=https://dnm.dk/opslag/frederik-2/|access-date=23 July 2020|website=Frederiksborg|language=da-DK}}</ref>
* In 1561, Frederik II developed and fortified [[Skanderborg]] Castle with materials from [[Øm Abbey]].

For all Frederick's egalitarian behaviour at his court, Frederick was acutely aware of his elevated status. Like most monarchs of his day, he sought to bolster his international reputation through a measure of ostentatious display, in his patronage of artists and musicians, as well as in the elaborate ceremonies staged for royal weddings and other public celebrations.

=== Kronborg and "[[Øresund|The King's Sound]]" ===
[[File:KronborgCastle_HCS.jpg|left|thumb|321x321px|[[Kronborg]] Castle in [[Helsingør|Elsinore]].]]
Frederick II had claimed naval supremacy in 'the king's sound', as he called [[Øresund|The Sound]] and, indeed, the whole expanse of waters lying between his Norwegian and Icelandic possessions. In 1583 he secured an agreement by which England made an annual payment for permission to sail there, and France later followed suit.<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 100''</ref>

He also tried to bring the Icelandic trade and fisheries into the hands of his own subjects instead of Englishmen and Germans and encouraged adventurers such as [[Magnus Heinason]], to whom he gave a monopoly of trade with the [[Faroe Islands|Faeroes]], a half-share in ships captured on unlawful passage to the [[White Sea]], and backing for a bold but unsuccessful attempt to reach east [[Greenland]].<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 102''</ref>

== Relationship with the Church ==
The necessity of maintaining order within the church meant that royal interference into [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] affairs was unavoidable. There was no longer an [[archbishop]] within the [[hierarchy]], so the king was the final authority in matters that could not be settled by the bishops alone. As his father, [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], put it, kings were the 'father to the superintendents'.<ref name=":17">Lockhart, Paul D., page 66</ref>

As protector of the church and therefore of the clergy, Frederick frequently intervened in disputes between clergy and [[laity]], even when the issues involved were trivial ones.<ref name=":17" />

Frederik II, repeatedly came to the defence of new parish priests whose congregations tried to force them to marry their predecessors' [[widow]]s, and sometimes to protect preachers from the wrath of overbearing noblemen. Conversely, the king – and especially Frederik II – would see to it personally that unruly, incompetent, or disreputable priests lost their parishes, or he would [[pardon]] those who had been punished by their superintendents for minor infractions. Protecting and disciplining the clergy was, after all, part of the king's obligation to the [[Church of Denmark|state church]].<ref name=":18">Lockhart, Paul D., page 67</ref>

Frederik II was more active than his late father in extending his royal authority into areas that the 1537 Ordinance had protected from secular power.<ref>''Derry, T. K. (Thomas Kingston), page 101''</ref> Frederik consulted with members of the [[University of Copenhagen Faculty of Theology|theological faculty]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]]—the so-called 'most learned ones' (''højlærde'')—but he did not shy away from making changes in the most minute liturgical matters. He stipulated the books that every parish priest should have in his library, set standardized times for worship services in the towns, and set minimal standards of competence for all preachers.<ref name=":18" />
Although Frederick interfered much in [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] affairs, [[Paul D. Lockhart|Paul Douglas Lockhart]] pointed out, that Frederick "was not interested in dictating conscience", stating that "he wanted only to prevent useless religious disputes, disputes that could weaken the kingdom and leave it vulnerable to Catholic aggression".<ref name=":22"/>

=== Book of Concord ===
[[File:Concordia,_Dresden_1580_-_fba.jpg|left|thumb|400x400px|''[[Book of Concord|The Book of Concord]]'']]
A good testimony of Frederik's stubborn resistance to all religious controversy can be found in his response to the late sixteenth-century [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] statement of faith, [[Book of Concord|the Formula and Book of Concord]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite book|last=Lockhart, Paul Douglas |title=Frederik II and the Protestant cause: Denmark's role in the Wars of Religion, 1559–1596|date=2004|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-13790-4|location=Leiden|page=78|oclc=53485232}}</ref> The 'Concord', which was written by leading [[Saxons|Saxon]] divines and sponsored by Frederik II's brother-in-law, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], was an attempt to promote unity among the German Lutheran princes. As a unifier, however, the Concord was an abject failure.<ref name=":20">Lockhart, Paul D., page 71</ref>

August had recently purged his court of [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Philippists]], and [[Lutheran orthodoxy|orthodox Lutherans]] like [[Jakob Andreae|Jacob Andreae]] composed the document. The Concord was extremely orthodox.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|last=Lockhart, Paul Douglas |title=Frederik II and the Protestant cause: Denmark's role in the Wars of Religion, 1559–1596|date=2004|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-13790-4|location=Leiden|page=77|oclc=53485232}}</ref> Frederik II had already clashed with his old friend and companion Augustus over theological issues: in 1575, Augustus had complained profoundly about the Calvinist sentiments expounded by [[Niels Hemmingsen]] in the [[treatise]] Syntagma institutionum christianarum (1574). Though Frederik tried to defend [[Niels Hemmingsen|Hemmingsen]], who was his favourite divine, he also wanted to keep Augustus' friendship, and he therefor dismissed Hemmingsen – with honour – from his post at the [[University of Copenhagen]] in 1579. Frederik was not nearly so receptive to August's promotion of the Concord.<ref name=":22">Lockhart, Paul D., page 70</ref>

Like many other contemporaries of his time, Frederick believed that the Book of Concord promoted discord, and not harmony. Ignoring Augustus's warnings that a Calvinist plot had taken root in Denmark's clergy, he banned the Concord from his lands in July 1580.<ref name=":20" /> Possession of the book, or even discussion of its contents, would be punished severely.<ref name=":19" /> The king burned his own personal copies, which were sent to him by his sister [[Anne of Denmark, Electress of Saxony|Anne]], wife of Augustus. The Concord, he argued, contained "teachings which are foreign and alien to us and to our churches, [and which] could easily disrupt the unity which ... these kingdoms have hitherto maintained".<ref name=":22" />

=== Marriage Ordinance ===
Frederik II's 'Marriage Ordinance' of 1582, inspired by [[Niels Hemmingsen]]'s writings on the institution, allowed divorce for a wide range of reasons, including [[infidelity]], [[impotence]], [[leprosy]], [[venereal disease]], and [[outlaw]]ry.<ref name=":21" />

== Areas of interest ==
[[File:Portrait_of_Frederick_II,_King_of_Denmark_and_Norway_by_Hendrick_Goltzius_Rijksdienst_voor_het_Cultureel_Erfgoed_NK1360.jpg|left|thumb|342x342px|Frederick II in his later years.]]
=== University of Copenhagen ===
Frederick was a great [[Patronage|patron]] of the [[University of Copenhagen]], where he introduced educational reforms in the 1570s and 1580s. Frederik increased the university's budget almost exponentially, expanding the size of its teaching staff and providing substantially higher salaries.<ref name=":32">Lockhart, Paul D., page 78</ref> While demanding higher educational standards from the priesthood, Frederick and his advisers provided more support for impoverished students. One hundred students, selected by the faculty, received room and board free of fee from the crown, each for a period of five years. Four especially promising students would be awarded the ''stipendium regium'', which paid all costs for [[International student|study abroad]] so long as the recipient returned to [[Copenhagen]] to finish his doctorate.<ref name=":32"/>

=== Medicine ===
The interests of Frederik II and his intellectual circle of wise men were more wide-ranging than that of [[Christian III of Denmark|his father]]'s [[Theology|theological]] one. Frederik had a strong proclivity for [[Paracelsianism|Paracelsian medicine]]: in 1571 he appointed Johannes Pratensis to the medical faculty of the [[University of Copenhagen]], and in the same year [[Petrus Severinus]] became his personal physician. Severinus wielded considerable influence among Paracelsian practitioners, following the publication of his Idea ''medicinæ philosophicæ'' (1571).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shackelford, Jole.|title=A philosophical path for Paracelsian medicine: the ideas, intellectual context, and influence of Petrus Severinus (1540/2-1602)|date=2004|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Cophenhagen|isbn=978-87-7289-817-9|location=Copenhagen|oclc=56966680}}</ref>

=== Alchemy, astrology and Tycho Brahe ===
[[File:Tycho_Brahe.JPG|thumb|383x383px|[[Tycho Brahe]]]]
Frederik II's fascination with [[alchemy]] and [[astrology]], common to contemporary sovereigns, sped the rise of the astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] to international renown as a pioneer in Europe's [[Scientific Revolution]]. Tyge Brahe came from the highest ranks of the Danish ruling elite: his father, [[Otte Brahe]] til Knudstrup, was a fiefholder in [[Scania]] and a member of the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]], as was Tyge's brother {{ill|Axel Brahe|da|Axel Ottesen Brahe}}.<ref name=":25">Lockhart, Paul D., page 80</ref><ref name=":34">{{cite web|title=Life and Times of Tycho Brahe|url=http://reformation.org/tycho-brahe.html|access-date=15 August 2016|publisher=reformation.org}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_historie/Danmark_1536-1849/J%C3%B8rgen_Brahe_-_Havn?highlight=J%C3%B8rgen%20Thygesen%20Brahe|title=Jørgen (Thygesen) Brahe|encyclopedia=Den Store Danske|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

After an extensive education abroad, Tycho Brahe returned to Denmark not to pursue a career in state service as men of his blood typically did, but instead retreated to the [[monastery]] at [[Herrevad Abbey|Herrevad]],<ref name=":35" /> where he and his maternal uncle [[Steen Bille|Sten Bille]] experimented with the manufacture of paper and glass and maintained a private [[observatory]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Christianson, John Robert.|title=On Tycho's island: Tycho Brahe, science, and culture in the sixteenth century|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-00884-0|oclc=899038154}}</ref> Brahe's treatise on the [[supernova]] that appeared in [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]] in November 1572, published at the behest of the rigshofmester [[Peder Oxe]], brought his activities to the attention of Frederik and his court.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=Mary Lou|date=2001–2008|title=On Tycho's Island: Tycho Brahe and His Assistants, 1570–1601 On Tycho's Island: Tycho Brahe and His Assistants, 1570–1601|journal=Physics Today|volume=54|issue=8|page=47|doi=10.1063/1.1404849|s2cid=177365048 |issn=0031-9228|doi-access=free}}</ref> At the king's insistence, Brahe took up a lectureship at the [[University of Copenhagen]] in 1574,<ref name=":34" /> and two years later he was granted the island of [[Ven (Sweden)|Ven]] as his [[fief]].<ref name=":27">{{Cite book|author=Thoren, Victor E. |author2=Christianson, J. R. |title=The Lord of Uraniborg: a Biography of Tycho Brahe|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-66541-7|oclc=776969800}}</ref> As a fiefholder, he turned out to be a minor disaster, but the observatory at his residence, [[Uraniborg]], drew students from all over Europe. From 1576 until his expulsion by [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] in 1597, Brahe supervised the first publicly funded scientific research institute in European history.<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":27" />

=== Character as patron of science ===
In his later life, Frederik was fiscally cautious in all matters of state, but he gave an abundance of royal support when it was directed towards the life of the mind. Even after he dismissed [[Niels Hemmingsen|Hemmingsen]] from the [[University of Copenhagen]] in 1579, for example, he made sure that the theologian still had a gracious salary and the opportunity to study. [[Tycho Brahe]] received not only [[Ven (Sweden)|Ven]] as a 'free fief', but also several other [[fief]]s, [[canonries]], and farms in [[Scania]] to fund his work at [[Uraniborg]].<ref name=":32"/>

Frederik himself picked out the island of [[Ven (Sweden)|Ven]] as a place where Brahe could conduct his experiments without distraction. Perhaps the king was driven, in part, by a desire to enhance Denmark's reputation among the great nations of Europe, but even so he demonstrated a finely tuned appreciation for intellectual talent.<ref name=":25" />

As Frederick is alleged to have said to Brahe:<ref name=":32" />{{Blockquote|text=I will sail over to the island [Hven] from time to time and see your work in astronomy and chemistry, and gladly support your investigations, not because I have any understanding of astronomical matters ... but because I am your king and you my subject ... . I see it as my duty to support and promote something like this|author=Frederick II to Tycho Brahe|title=|source=}}

=== Hunting, drinking and feasting ===
[[File:Gamle Frederiksborg c 1585.jpg|thumb|502x502px|Hillerødsholm Castle (later [[Frederiksborg Castle]]) one of Frederick's favourite hunting-castles. Painting at [[Gripsholm Castle]].]]
Frederick's areas of interest did not consist only of [[Theology|theological]] and [[Science|scientific]] ones. Frederick is known very well for his love of [[hunting]], [[drinking]] and [[Banquet|feasting]].<ref name=":31" /> In his youth and in the start of his reign this was a way for Frederick to get away from the Danish court and its formalities.<ref name=":15" /> However, in Frederick's later reign he began using hunting and feasting as a political tool. In the peacetime years of his reign, Frederick would maintain a peripatetic court, moving from residence to residence throughout the Danish countryside, spending a fair share of his time [[hunting]]. This allowed him the opportunity to meet members of the [[Riksråd|Council]] individually and informally, in their own home regions. Most of his business with the [[Council of the Realm (Denmark)|Council of the Realm]] was therefor done on a one-to-one basis.<ref name=":15" /> This ensured a very close personal bond with each member of the council while minimizing the opportunity for the council to oppose him as a body. Frederik's personable disposition undoubtedly helped.<ref name=":32" />

==== Informal nature of court life ====
The king [[Hunting|hunted]], [[Banquet|feasted]], and drank with his [[councillor]]s and [[adviser]]s, and even with visiting European [[Dignitary|foreign dignitaries]], treating them as his peers and companions rather than as political opponents or inferiors. The eighteenth-century chronicler [[Ludvig Holberg]] claimed that when dining at the court of Frederick II, he would frequently announce that 'the king is not at home', which signalled to his guests that all court [[Formality|formalities]] were temporarily suspended, and that they could talk and joke as they pleased without restraint. The Danish court may have appeared unsophisticated to outside observers, but the openness and bawdiness of court life served Frederik's political purposes.<ref name=":15" />

==Youth and marriage==

=== Anne Hardenberg ===
As a young man, Frederick II had desired to marry the noblewoman, [[Anne of Hardenberg|Anne Hardenberg]], who had served as a lady-in-waiting to his mother, the [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg|Dowager Queen Dorothea of Denmark]], however as she was not of princely birth, this was impossible.<ref>[http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/Governors.htm ''Anne Corfitzdatter Hardenberg of Helsingborg'' (Worldwide Guide to Women in Leadership)]</ref> There is no evidence that either of them had any interest in entering a morganatic marriage and Anne Hardenberg was married six months after Frederick, after which there is no known contact between them.

=== Possible matrimonies ===
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Negotiations to find a suitable royal bride were manifold during the 1560s, but mostly it came to nothing, often because Frederick strongly insisted on meeting the prospective bride before committing to her.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grinder-Hansen|first=Poul|title=Frederik 2 – Danmarks Renæssancekonge|date=29 May 2013|publisher=Gyldendal|isbn=978-87-02-13569-5|page=55}}</ref> The proposed matrimonies included:

* [[Renata of Lorraine]]: Throughout the 1550s, Frederick's father [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] strongly advocated a marriage alliance with the [[House of Lorraine]], hoping that a match between his son Prince Frederik and claimant to the Danish throne [[Christina of Denmark]]'s daughter [[Renata of Lorraine|Renata]], would settle the claimant disputes, and possibly even add [[Lorraine]] to the Oldenburg patrimony.<ref>Lockhart, Paul D., page 118</ref> The match never took place—Frederik was indifferent to it,<ref name=":28">Lockhart, Paul D., page 119</ref> many of the king's advisers opposed it, and Christina was none too cooperative – but it remained Christian III's fervent hope to the end of his days.<ref name=":28" />
*[[Juliane of Nassau-Dillenburg (1546–1588)|Juliana of Nassau]]: Throughout the 1560s, a marriage between Frederick and [[William the Silent|William of Orange's]] sister, [[Juliane of Nassau-Dillenburg (1546–1588)|Juliana]], was heavily considered. Frederick and the [[Council of State (Denmark)|Danish Council of State]] wanted to strengthen relations with other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] powers, and the relationship between Frederick and William was very positive, and they kept close confidential correspondence right up until Frederick's death.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Frede P.|date=1993|title=Frederik 2. og truslen fra de katolske magter|trans-title=Frederik II and the threat from the Catholic powers|url=https://tidsskrift.dk/historisktidsskrift/article/download/53543/71538?inline=1|journal=Historisk Tidsskrift|volume=16|page=239}}</ref> The marriage failed due to [[High and low politics|high political]] complications, as Frederick did not want to appear as an obvious supporter of one of [[Spain|Spain's]] enemies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grinder-Hansen|first=Poul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cfnx7iTjtV8C&dq=Juliana&pg=PT173|title=Frederik 2.: Danmarks renæssancekonge|date=2013-05-29|publisher=Gyldendal A/S|isbn=978-87-02-13569-5|language=da}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Günther {{!}} lex.dk|url=https://biografiskleksikon.lex.dk/G%C3%BCnther|access-date=2021-07-24|website=Dansk Biografisk Leksikon|language=da}}</ref>
* [[Mary, Queen of Scots|Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots]].<ref name=":29">{{Cite book|last=Fabricius, A.|title=Illustreret Danmarkshistorie for Folket.|date=1914|pages=182–183|oclc=873940782}}</ref>
* He had also wooed Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], but to no avail, and was later made a [[Knight of the Garter]].<ref name=":29" />
* A daughter of [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Ferdinand I]].<ref name=":29" />
* A daughter of [[Albert V, Duke of Bavaria]].<ref name=":29" />
* [[Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast|Margaret of Pomerania]]: Frederick's aunt [[Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg|Elizabeth of Denmark]], introduced Frederick to the 17-years-old [[Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast|Margaret of Pomerania]], but Frederick was instead interested in Elizabeth's daughter [[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow|Sophie]].<ref name=":29" />

=== Marriage to Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow ===
[[File:Sophiemecklenburgdenmark.jpg|left|thumb|214x214px|Wife of Frederick II, [[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow]]]]
On 20 July 1572, he was married to [[Sophia of Mecklenburg-Güstrow|Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow]], a descendant of King [[John, King of Denmark|John of Denmark]], and also his own first half-cousin, through their grandfather, [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I, King of Denmark and Norway]].

Sophie was the daughter of [[Ulrich, Duke of Mecklenburg|Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow]] and [[Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg|Elizabeth of Denmark]]. Their marriage was harmonious and happy. Sophie is consistently mentioned in Frederick's handwritten diary as "mynt Soffye", meaning "my Sophie" and she followed him through the country as the court was very mobile. Queen Sophie was a loving mother, nursing her children personally during their illnesses. When Frederick was sick with malaria in 1575, she personally nursed him and wrote many worried letters to her father about his progress.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frederica|first=J.A.|date=1892|title=Nogle Breve fra Frederik IIs Dronning Sofie til hendes Fader, hertug Ulrich af Meklenborg|url=https://tidsskrift.dk/personalhistorisk_tidsskrift/issue/archive|journal=Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift|volume=Tredie Række|pages=1–8}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Grinder-Hansen|first=Poul|title=Frederik II – Danmarks Renæssancekonge|publisher=Gyldendal|year=2013|isbn=978-87-02-13569-5|pages=See Chapter 12, Kærlighed, chapter 24, Private notater}}</ref>

After Frederick's death Sophie was granted a 'Dowager-pension' ({{Langx|da|Livgeding}}), consisting of [[Nykøbing Castle]] and the islands of [[Lolland]] and [[Falster]]. The Dowager Queen Sophie managed her estates in [[Lolland]]-Falster so well that her son could borrow money from her on several occasions for his wars.<ref name="Dansk Kvindebiografisk Leksikon">[http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/597/bio/1348/origin/170/ Dansk Kvindebiografisk Leksikon]</ref>

== Issue ==
Frederick and Sophie had seven children:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
! style="width:20%;" |Name
! style="width:100px;" |Portrait
!Birth
!Death
!Notes
|-
|[[Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Elizabeth of Denmark]]
|[[File:Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.jpg|frameless|156x156px]]
|25 August 1573
|19 June 1625
|She married on 19 April 1590 [[Henry Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]]. They had 10 children.
|-
|[[Anne of Denmark]]
|[[File:Anne of Denmark 1605.jpg|frameless|157x157px]]
|12 December 1574
|2 March 1619
|She married on 23 November 1589 King [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland]] (later also King James I of England). They had 7 children.
|-
|[[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway]]
|[[File:Christian IV Pieter Isaacsz 1612.jpg|frameless|146x146px]]
|12 April 1577
|28 February 1648
|He married firstly on 27 November 1597 [[Anne Catherine of Brandenburg]]. They had 7 children.

He married secondly, [[Morganatic marriage|morganatically]], [[Kirsten Munk]]. They had 12 children.

Christian had at least 5 other illegitimate children.
|-
|[[Ulrik of Denmark (1578–1624)|Ulrik of Denmark]]
|[[File:Hertug Ulrik.jpg|frameless|147x147px]]
|30 December 1578
|27 March 1624
|He became last [[Bishop of Schleswig|Bishop of the old Schleswig see]] (1602–1624), 
He became Ulrich II as Administrator of the [[Bishopric of Schwerin|Prince-Bishopric of Schwerin]] (1603–1624).

He married Lady Catherine [[Von Hahn|Hahn]]-Hinrichshagen.
|-
|[[Augusta of Denmark]]
|[[File:Augusta af Danmark NMGrh 1306 .jpg|frameless|138x138px]]
|8 April 1580
|5 February 1639
|She married on 30 August 1596 [[John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp]]. They had 8 children.
|-
|[[Hedwig of Denmark]]
|[[File:Hedevig af Sachsen.JPG|frameless|120x120px]]
|5 August 1581
|26 November 1641
|She married on 12 September 1602 [[Christian II, Elector of Saxony]]. The marriage was childless.
|-
|[[John, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein|John of Denmark, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein]]
|[[File:Hans 1583-1602.jpg|frameless|120x120px]]
|9 July 1583
|28 October 1602
|He was betrothed to [[Tsarevna]] [[Ksenia Godunova|Ksenia]] (Xenia) daughter of [[Boris Godunov]], Tsar of Russia, but died before the marriage could take place.
|}

== Death and burial ==
[[File:Antvorskov_Kloster.jpg|left|thumb|185x185px|[[Antvorskov]] were King Frederick II of Denmark died.]]
[[File:Roskilde Dom10.jpg|thumb|Sepulchral monument of Frederick II by [[Gert van Egen]] in the Christian I's Chapel (Chapel of the Magi).]]
King Frederick II died on 4 April 1588, aged 53, at [[Antvorskov]].

Frederick was buried on 5 August 1588 in [[Roskilde Cathedral#Chapel of the Magi (Christian I's chapel)|Christian I's chapel]] at [[Roskilde Cathedral]], where his son [[Christian IV of Denmark|King Christian IV]] later built a large monument in honour of his late father.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bricka|first=Carl Frederik|title=293 (Dansk biografisk Lexikon / V. Bind. Faaborg – Gersdorff)|url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/5/0295.html|access-date=23 July 2020|website=runeberg.org|page=293|language=da}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
Many recent historians, such as Poul Grinder-Hansen, [[Paul D. Lockhart|Paul Douglas Lockhart]], Thomas Kingston Derry and [[Frede P. Jensen]] have expressed, that it is difficult to see how the reign, and especially the later reign, of Frederik II could be viewed as anything other than a resounding success.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":2" /> Frederick's character have throughout time been misinterpreted by Danish historians as unlettered, foolish and stupid; leaving state affairs to his [[Riksråd|councillors]] to go [[hunting]] in the countryside.<ref name=":24" />

However, this is incorrect, and Frederick was highly intelligent. He craved the company of [[Scholar|learned men]], who composed his inner circle of intellectuals, and they had many interests, including medicine, [[alchemy]], [[astrology]] and theology.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Colding, Poul |title=Studier i Danmarks politiske historie i slutningen af Christian III.s og begyndelsen af Frederik III.s tid.|date=1939|publisher=Nyt nordisk forlag—Arnord Busck|oclc=581614588}}</ref> As [[Paul D. Lockhart|Paul Douglas Lockhart]] later stated: "Frederik II may have been a near illiterate (...) but nonetheless he was enlightened as few monarchs of his generation were. It is difficult to see how Danish historians for so long laboured under the impression that he was little better than a drunken fool".<ref name=":25" />

=== Classical and more recent portrayal ===
The negative portrayal of Frederik II was founded by the [[Cultural history|cultural historian]] [[Troels Frederik Lund]] in his 1906 biography of [[Peder Oxe]], who in his opinion saved Denmark on the brink of abyss against the foolhardy young king and his German war-mad officers.<ref name=":24" /> This portrayal was continued by [[Erik Arup]], he wrote:

{{Blockquote|text=He (Frederick II) was robust and brutal, so hotheaded and gross in his whole way that it was striking even for his contemporaries. His penchant for overestimating himself and underestimating everyone else was a profound feature of him that made him highly ungracious and unlovable|author=Erik Arup|title=|source=}}

Often described as wilful and impatient, he was easily moved to anger, and by his early twenties had exhibited a weakness for strong drink and an addiction to the hunt. These are the traits upon which Danish historians have most often focused, resulting in the prevailing portrait of Frederik as a man and as king: an unlettered, inebriated, brutish sot, who virtually abdicated his responsibilities of king in favour of hunting and binge drinking.<ref name=":12"/>

This portrayal is, however, unfair and inaccurate, and thanks to the research of Frede P. Jensen it has been redrawn. [[Frede P. Jensen]] (1940–2008), after thorough archival studies, was one of the first historians in Denmark who, in his works, radically changed the view of the King Frederick II.<ref name=":30">Lockhart, Paul D., page 79</ref>

Frederik was indeed no great scholar, owing largely to the fact that he was very [[Dyslexia|dyslexic]]. Throughout his entire life he would struggle with his difficulty in reading and writing, and it embarrassed him immensely. But he was, as those close to him would attest, highly intelligent; he craved the company of [[Scholar|learned men]], and in the correspondence and legislation he dictated to his secretaries he showed himself to be quick-witted and articulate. Frederik was also open and loyal, and had a knack for establishing close personal bonds with fellow princes and with those who served him. These qualities would make him an ideal politician. Indeed, Frederik would take the chief legacy of his father's kingship – the close symbiosis between king and aristocracy – to its logical limits, and simultaneously would bring Denmark to the height of its power and influence in European affairs.<ref name=":12"/>

The rebirth of the [[University of Copenhagen]] and the professionalization of the central administration, coupled with the prominence of learned men within the king's inner circle, gave the court of Frederik II a uniquely refined and scholarly character that was lacking in his father's court. This, in turn, gave rise to increased intellectual activity throughout the realm. Literature, mostly [[Theology|theological]], blossomed in the second half of the century.<ref name=":30" />

== Title, style, honours and arms ==

=== Titles and styles ===
* 1554 – 1 January 1559 (While in [[Scania]] ): ''Frederick, Prince of Scania''<ref name=":11" />
*1 January 1559 – 4 April 1588: ''[[By the Grace of God]], [[King of Denmark]] and [[King of Norway|Norway]], [[King of the Wends|the Wends]] and [[King of the Goths|the Goths]], [[Duke of Schleswig]], [[Duke of Holstein|Holstein]], [[Duke of Stormarn|Stormarn]] and [[Duke of Dithmarschen|Dithmarschen]], [[Count of Oldenburg]] and [[Count of Delmenhorst|Delmenhorst]].''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strunk|first=Christian Adolph Frederik|url=http://www.kb.dk/e-mat/dod/130008915963.pdf|title=Samlinger over en beskrivende Catalog over Portraiter af Danske, Norske og Holstenere|publisher=J.H. Schultz|year=1882|location=København|pages=29–30|trans-title=Collections of a descriptive catalogue of portraits of Danish, Norwegian and Holsteins}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Wad|first=Gustav Ludvig|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4s5JAQAAMAAJ|title=Breve til og fra Herluf Trolle og Birgitte Gjøe (1. bind)|publisher=Gustab Ludvig Wad|year=1893|location=Copenhagen|chapter=Letter from Herluf Trolle to Frederick II of Denmark (23 December 1562)}}</ref>

=== Orders ===

* Summer 1561 – 4 April 1588: {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Order of Saint Michael]]{{sfn|Lockhart|2004||p=89}}
* April 1579 – 4 April 1588: {{Flagicon|England}} [[Order of the Garter]]{{sfn|Lockhart|2004||p=181}}

=== Coat of Arms ===
{| width="80%" align="center" border="0"
! width="33%" |[[File:Royal Arms of Norway & Denmark (1559-1699).svg|frameless]]
! width="33%" |[[File:Coat of arms of Frederick II, King of Denmark and Norway, KG.png|frameless|300x300px]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" |Coat of arms of Frederick as King of Denmark and Norway.
| style="text-align: center;" |Coat of arms of Frederick as [[Knight of the Order of the Garter]].
|}

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|ref=<ref>Neil D. Thompson and Charles M. Hansen, ''The Ancestry of Charles II, King of England'' (American Society of Genealogists, 2012).</ref>
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Frederick II of Denmark'''
|2= 2. [[Christian III of Denmark]]
|3= 3. [[Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg]]
|4= 4. [[Frederick I of Denmark]]
|5= 5. [[Anna of Brandenburg]]
|6= 6. [[Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg]]
|7= 7. [[Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg|Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]]
|8= 8. [[Christian I of Denmark]]
|9= 9. [[Dorothea of Brandenburg]]
|10= 10. [[John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg]]
|11= 11. [[Margaret of Thuringia]]
|12= 12. [[John V, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg]]
|13= 13. [[Dorothea of Brandenburg (1446-1519)|Dorothea of Brandenburg]]
|14= 14. [[Henry IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]]
|15= 15. [[Catherine of Pomerania-Wolgast]]
}}

== Notes ==
<references group="note" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book|last=Derry, T. K. |title=A history of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland|date=2008|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-3799-7|location=Minneapolis|oclc=757764817}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grinder-Hansen, Poul |title=Frederik 2.: Danmarks renæssancekonge|year=2013|isbn=978-87-02-08108-4 |location=[Copenhagen] |publisher=Gyldendal |trans-title=Frederick II: Denmark's Renaissance King|oclc=859151055}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lockhart, Paul Douglas |title=Denmark, 1513–1660: the rise and decline of a Renaissance monarchy|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-927121-4|oclc=844083309}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scocozza|first1=Benito|chapter=Frederik 2.|title=Politikens bog om danske monarker|trans-title=Politiken's book about Danish monarchs|year=1997|publisher=Politikens Forlag|location=Copenhagen|isbn=87-567-5772-7|pages=120–124|language=da}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lockhart |first=Paul |title=Frederik II and the Protestant Cause |publisher=Brill |year=2004 |location=Boston}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Frederick II of Denmark}}
* [http://kongehuset.dk/english/the-monarchy-in-denmark/The-Royal-Lineage The Royal Lineage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314224944/http://kongehuset.dk/english/the-monarchy-in-denmark/The-Royal-Lineage |date=14 March 2015 }} at the website of the [[Danish Monarchy]]
* [http://www.kongernessamling.dk/en/rosenborg/person/frederik-ii/ Frederick II] at the website of the Royal Danish Collection
* {{Cite EB1911 |last=Bain |first=Robert Nisbet |author-link=Robert Nisbet Bain |wstitle=Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway |pages= 50–51}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Oldenburg]]|1 July|1534|4 April|1588|name=Frederick II}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Danish monarchs|King of Denmark]] and [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norway]]|years=1559–1588}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]]}}
{{s-bef|rows=1|before=[[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]]<br />[[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev|John II ''the Elder'']] and [[Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Adolf]]<br /><small>'''(in condominial rule)'''</small>}}
{{s-ttl|rows=1|title=[[List of rulers of Schleswig-Holstein|Duke of Holstein]] and [[List of dukes of Schleswig#House of Oldenburg|Schleswig]]|regent1=[[John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev|John II]]|years1=1559–1580|regent2=[[Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Adolf]]|years2=1559–1586|regent3=[[Frederick II, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Frederick II]]|years3=1586–1587|regent4=[[Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Philip]]|years4=1587–1588|years=1559–1588}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]]<br />and [[Philip, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Philip]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Monarchs of Denmark}}
{{Monarchs of Norway}}
{{Monarchs of Iceland}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Frederick II of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:1534 births]]
[[Category:People from Haderslev Municipality]]
[[Category:1588 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century Norwegian monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Schleswig]]
[[Category:Dukes of Holstein]]
[[Category:People from Denmark–Norway]]
[[Category:Protestant monarchs]]
[[Category:Burials at Roskilde Cathedral]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:16th-century monarchs of Denmark]]
[[Category:People of the Northern Seven Years' War]]
[[Category:People of the Livonian War]]
[[Category:Children of Christian III of Denmark]]
[[Category:Royalty and nobility with dyslexia]]
[[Category:Sons of kings]]