Editing Fraxinus

{{Short description|Genus of plants}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Koeh-062.jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Fraxinus ornus]]''<br/>1862 illustration<ref>Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen</ref>
|display_parents = 2
|parent_authority =
|taxon = Fraxinus
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?4752 |title=''Fraxinus'' L. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=3 April 2006 |access-date=21 August 2016}}</ref>
|synonyms_ref = <ref name="ashley"/>
|synonyms = 
* ''Ornus'' <small>Boehm.</small>
* ''Fraxinoides'' <small>Medik.</small>
* ''Mannaphorus'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Calycomelia'' <small>Kostel.</small>
* ''Leptalix'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Ornanthes'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Samarpses'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Aplilia'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Meliopsis'' <small>Rchb.</small>
* ''Petlomelia'' <small>Nieuwl.</small>
}}
[[File:Ash flower.JPG|thumb|European ash in flower]]
[[File:NarrowleafAsh.jpg|thumb|Narrow-leafed ash (''Fraxinus angustifolia'') shoot with leaves]]

'''''Fraxinus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|r|æ|k|s|ᵻ|n|ə|s}}), commonly called '''ash''', is a [[genus]] of plants in the olive and lilac family, [[Oleaceae]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Western Garden Book |year=1995 |pages=606–07 |publisher=[[Sunset Books]] |edition=6th |isbn=978-0376038500}}</ref> and comprises 45–65 species of usually medium-to-large [[tree]]s, most of which are [[deciduous]] trees, although some [[Subtropics|subtropical]] species are [[evergreen]] trees. The genus is widespread throughout much of Europe, Asia, and North America.<ref name="ashley">{{cite web |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=369462 |title=Fraxinus |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Kew Royal Botanical Gardens| access-date=16 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://luirig.altervista.org/flora/taxa/floraspecie.php?genere=Fraxinus |title=''Fraxinus'' |work=Altervista Flora Italiana |access-date=16 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=113002 |work=Flora of China |volume=15 |pages=273 |via= 衿属 qin shu |title=''Fraxinus'' Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 1057. 1753}}</ref><ref>Philips, Roger (1979). [https://books.google.com/books?id=FV62KNVkDNIC ''Trees of North America and Europe: A Guide to Field Identification, Revised and Updated'']. New York: Random House. {{ISBN|0-394-50259-0}}. {{oclc|4036251}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=FRAXI |title=Genus ''Fraxinus'' |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |access-date=21 August 2016}}</ref>

The leaves are [[opposite leaves|opposite]] (rarely in [[Whorl (botany)|whorl]]s of three), and mostly [[pinnate|pinnately compound]], though simple in a few species. The seeds, popularly known as "keys" or "helicopter seeds", are a type of fruit known as a [[samara (fruit)|samara]]. Some ''Fraxinus'' species are [[Dioecy|dioecious]], having male and female flowers on separate plants but sex in ash is expressed as a continuum between male and female individuals, dominated by unisexual trees. With age, ash may change their sexual function from predominantly male and hermaphrodite towards femaleness;{{Clarify|date=October 2021|reason= Since there are male, female, and mixed sex ashes, it is unclear why this statement is suggesting the male and hermaphrodite trees become female with age; have not found another reference for this claim}}<ref>Gender variation in ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) Pierre Binggeli & James Power (1991)</ref> if grown as an ornamental and both sexes are present, ashes can cause a considerable litter problem with their seeds.

[[Rowan]]s, or '''mountain ashes''', have leaves and buds superficially similar to those of true ashes, but belong to the unrelated genus ''[[Sorbus]]'' in the [[Rosaceae|rose family]].

== Etymology ==
The tree's common English name, "ash", traces back to the [[Old English]] ''æsc'', which relates to the Proto-Indo-European for the tree, while the name of the Genus originated in [[Latin]], from a Proto-Indo-European word for [[birch]]. Both words, [[wikt:æsc#Noun_2|æsc]] in Old English and [[wikt:fraxinus#Noun|frāxinus]] in Latin, are also used to mean "[[spear]]," as its wood is good for shafts.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture |editor1-first=J. P. |editor1-last=Mallory |editor2-first=Douglas Q. |editor2-last=Adams |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-884964-98-5 |page=32}}</ref>

== Selected species ==
Species are arranged into sections supported by phylogenetic analysis:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oleaceae.info/publications/Wallander2008.pdf |title=Systematics of Fraxinus (Oleaceae) and evolution of dioecy |access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Phylogeny and Biogeographic History of Ashes ( Fraxinus, Oleaceae) Highlight the Roles of Migration and Vicariance in the Diversification of Temperate Trees|first1=Damien Daniel|last1=Hinsinger|first2=Jolly|last2=Basak|first3=Myriam|last3=Gaudeul|first4=Corinne|last4=Cruaud|first5=Paola|last5=Bertolino|first6=Nathalie|last6=Frascaria-Lacoste|first7=Jean|last7=Bousquet|date=21 November 2013|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e80431|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0080431|pmid=24278282|pmc=3837005|bibcode=2013PLoSO...880431H|doi-access=free}}</ref>

; Section ''Dipetalae''
* ''[[Fraxinus anomala]]'' <small>Torr. ex S.Watson</small> – singleleaf ash
* ''[[Fraxinus dipetala]]'' <small>Hook. & Arn.</small> – California ash or two-petal ash
* ''[[Fraxinus parryi]]'' <small>[[Reid Venable Moran|Moran]]</small> – Chaparral ash
* ''[[Fraxinus quadrangulata]]'' <small>Michx.</small> – blue ash
* ''[[Fraxinus trifoliolata]]''

; Section ''Fraxinus''
* ''[[Fraxinus angustifolia]]'' <small>Vahl</small> – narrow-leaved ash
** ''[[Fraxinus angustifolia]]'' subsp. ''oxycarpa'' <small></small> – Caucasian ash
** ''[[Fraxinus angustifolia]]'' subsp. ''syriaca'' <small></small>
* ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]'' <small>L.</small> – European ash
* ''[[Fraxinus mandshurica]]'' <small>Rupr.</small> – Manchurian ash
* ''[[Fraxinus nigra]]'' <small>Marshall</small> – black ash
* ''[[Fraxinus pallisiae]]'' <small>Wilmott</small> – Pallis' ash
* ''[[Fraxinus sogdiana]]'' {{small|Bunge}} – Tianshan ash

; Section ''Melioides sensu lato''
* ''[[Fraxinus chiisanensis]]'' {{small|Nakai}} – Jirisan ash
* ''[[Fraxinus cuspidata]]'' <small>Torr.</small> – fragrant ash
* ''[[Fraxinus platypoda]]'' {{small|Oliv.}} – Chinese red ash
* ''[[Fraxinus spaethiana]]'' <small>Lingelsh.</small> – Späth's ash

; Section ''Melioides sensu stricto''
* ''[[Fraxinus albicans]]'' <small>Buckley</small> – Texas ash
* ''[[Fraxinus americana]]'' <small>L.</small> – white ash or American ash
* ''[[Fraxinus berlandieriana]]'' <small>DC.</small> – Mexican ash
* ''[[Fraxinus caroliniana]]'' <small>Mill.</small> – Carolina ash
* ''[[Fraxinus latifolia]]'' <small>Benth.</small> – Oregon ash
* ''[[Fraxinus papillosa]]'' <small>Lingelsh.</small> – Chihuahua ash
* ''[[Fraxinus pennsylvanica]]'' <small>Marshall</small> – green ash
* ''[[Fraxinus profunda]]'' <small>(Bush) Bush</small> – pumpkin ash
* ''[[Fraxinus uhdei]]'' <small>(Wenz.) Lingelsh.</small> – Shamel ash or Tropical ash
* ''[[Fraxinus velutina]]'' <small>Torr.</small> – velvet ash or Arizona ash

; Section ''Ornus''
* ''[[Fraxinus apertisquamifera]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus baroniana]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus bungeana]]'' <small>DC.</small> – Bunge's ash
* ''[[Fraxinus chinensis]]'' <small>Roxb.</small> – Chinese ash or Korean ash
* ''[[Fraxinus floribunda]]'' <small>Wall.</small> – Himalayan manna ash
* ''[[Fraxinus griffithii]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> – Griffith's ash
* ''[[Fraxinus insularis]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small> – Chinese flowering ash
* ''[[Fraxinus japonica]]'' <small></small> – Japanese ash
* ''[[Fraxinus lanuginosa]]'' – Japanese ash
* ''[[Fraxinus longicuspis]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus malacophylla]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus micrantha]]'' <small>Lingelsh.</small>
* ''[[Fraxinus ornus]]'' <small>L.</small> – manna ash or flowering ash
* ''[[Fraxinus paxiana]]'' <small>Lingelsh.</small>
* ''[[Fraxinus sieboldiana]]'' <small>Blume</small> – Japanese flowering ash

; Section ''Pauciflorae''
* ''[[Fraxinus dubia]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus gooddingii]]'' <small></small> – Goodding's ash
* ''[[Fraxinus greggii]]'' <small>A.Gray</small> – Gregg's ash
* ''[[Fraxinus purpusii]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus rufescens]]''

; Section ''Sciadanthus''
* ''[[Fraxinus dimorpha]]''
* ''[[Fraxinus hubeiensis]]'' <small>Ch'u & Shang & Su</small> – 湖北梣, ''Hubei qin''
* ''[[Fraxinus xanthoxyloides]]'' <small>(G.Don) Wall. ex DC.</small> – Afghan ash<ref name="GRINspecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?4752 |title=Species Records of ''Fraxinus'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=22 February 2010}}</ref><ref name="ITIS">{{cite web |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=32928 |title=''Fraxinus'' L. |work=ITIS Standard Reports |publisher=Integrated Taxonomic Information System |access-date=22 February 2010}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:EurAshSeeds.jpg|Closeup of European ash seeds
File:Fraxinus ornus JPG1b.jpg|''F. ornus''
File:Treelets on fallen Ash tree.JPG|Unusual "treelets" growing from a fallen ash tree in Lawthorn Wood, Ayrshire, Scotland
</gallery>

== Ecology ==
North American native ash tree species are a critical food source for North American frogs, as their fallen leaves are particularly suitable for tadpoles to feed upon in ponds (both temporary and permanent), large puddles, and other water bodies.<ref name=frogs>{{cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Bervan |first2=Keith |last3=Tiegs |first3=Scott |date=3 May 2013 |title=Anthropogenic changes to leaf litter input affect the fitness of a larval amphibian |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1631–1646 |doi=10.1111/fwb.12155 |bibcode=2013FrBio..58.1631S }}</ref> Lack of tannins in the American ash makes their leaves a good food source for the frogs, but also reduces its resistance to the [[Emerald ash borer#As an invasive species|ash borer]]. Species with higher leaf [[tannin]] levels (including maples and non-native ash species) are taking the place of native ash, thanks to their greater resistance to the ash borer. They produce much less suitable food for the tadpoles, resulting in poor survival rates and small frog sizes.<ref name="frogs"/>

Ash species native to North America also provide important habitat and food for various other creatures native to North America. This includes the larvae of multiple [[long-horn beetle]]s, as well as other insects including those in the genus ''[[Tropidosteptes]]'', [[lace bug]]s, [[aphid]]s, larvae of [[gall fly|gall flies]], and caterpillars. Birds are also interested in black, green, and white ash trees. The black ash alone supports [[wood duck]]s, [[wild turkey]], [[Northern cardinal|cardinals]], [[pine grosbeak]]s, [[cedar waxwing]]s, and [[yellow-bellied sapsucker]]s, with habitat and food (such as the sap being of interest to the sapsucker) among others. Many mammalian species from [[meadow vole]]s eating the seeds to [[white-tailed deer]] eating the foliage to [[silver-haired bat]]s nesting will also make use of ash trees.<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Ash|url=https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/black_ash.html|website=Illinois Wildflowers|publisher=Dr. John Hilty|access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=White Ash|url=https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/white_ash.html|website=Illinois Wildflowers|publisher=Dr. John Hilty|access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Green Ash|url=https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/green_ash.htm|website=Illinois Wildflowers|publisher=Dr. John Hilty|access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Red Ash|url=https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/red_ash.htm|website=Illinois Wildflowers|publisher=Dr. John Hilty|access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref>

Ash is used as a food plant by the [[Caterpillar|larvae]] of some [[Lepidoptera]] species ([[Butterfly|butterflies]] and [[moth]]s).

== Threats ==
[[File:Canker on Ash.JPG|thumb|left|upright|[[Canker]] on an ash tree in North Ayrshire, Scotland]]

=== North America ===
[[File:Agrilus planipennis 001.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.60|Emerald ash borer]]
The [[emerald ash borer]] (''Agrilus planipennis''), also called EAB, is a wood-boring [[beetle]] accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s. It has killed tens of millions of trees in 22 states in the United States<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emeraldashborer.info/about-eab.php |website=Emerald Ash Borer Information Network |title=About Emerald Ash Borer |first=Derek|last=Moy}}</ref> and adjacent [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]] in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America. Research is being conducted to determine whether three native Asian wasps that are natural predators of EAB could be used as a [[Biological pest control|biological control]] for the management of EAB populations in the United States. The public is being cautioned to avoid transporting unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Problem|url=http://www.dontmovefirewood.org/the-problem.html|work=Don't Move Firewood|access-date=14 October 2011}}</ref>

Damage occurs when emerald ash borer larvae feed on the inner bark, [[phloem]], inside branches and tree trunks. Feeding on the phloem prevents nutrients and water transportation. If the ash is attacked, the branches can die and eventually the whole tree can as well.<ref>{{cite report |title=Emerald Ash Borer and Your Woodland |series=Extension Bulletin E-2943 |url=http://www.emeraldashborer.info/documents/E-2943.pdf |publisher=Michigan State University Extension |date=September 2007}}</ref> Ways to detect emerald ash borer infestation include seeing bark peeling off, vertical cracks in the bark, seeing galleries within the tree that contain powdery substance, and D-shaped exit holes on the branches or trunk. Not all of these may be present, but any of these warning signs could be an indication of possible infestation.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://emeraldashborerinsouthdakota.sd.gov/PDF/How-To-Identify-an-Ash-Tree-Infested-by-EAB_06-2001-2018.pdf |title=How to Identify an Ash Tree Infested by Emerald Ash Borer |publisher=SDSU Extension |last=Ball |first=John |date=April 2018}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
The European ash, ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]'', has been affected by the [[fungus]] ''[[Hymenoscyphus fraxineus]]'', causing [[ash dieback]]<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kowalski T |date=2006 |title=Chalara fraxinea sp. nov. associated with dieback of ash (Fraxinus excelsior) in Poland |journal=Forest Pathology |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=264–270|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0329.2006.00453.x }}</ref> in a large number of trees since the mid-1990s, particularly in eastern and northern Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Halmschlager E, Kirisits T |year=2008 |url=http://www.bspp.org.uk/publications/new-disease-reports/july2008/2008-25.asp |title=First report of the ash dieback pathogen Chalara fraxinea on Fraxinus excelsior in Austria |journal=New Disease Reports |volume=17 |pages=20 |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929053106/http://www.bspp.org.uk/publications/new-disease-reports/july2008/2008-25.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ogris N, Hauptman T, Jurc D |year=2009 |url=http://www.bspp.org.uk/publications/new-disease-reports/ndr.php?id=019015 |title=Chalara fraxinea causing common ash dieback newly reported in Slovenia |journal=New Disease Reports |volume=19 |pages=15 |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-date=9 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109042759/http://www.bspp.org.uk/publications/new-disease-reports/ndr.php?id=019015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The disease has infected about 90% of Denmark's ash trees.<ref name=bbc-20121025>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-20079657 |title='Ash dieback' fungus Chalara fraxinea in UK countryside |work=BBC |date=25 October 2012 |access-date=25 October 2012}}</ref> At the end of October 2012 in the UK, the [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra)]]  reported that ash dieback had been discovered in mature woodland in [[Suffolk]]; previous occurrences had been on young trees imported from Europe.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-20079657 BBC News 'Ash dieback' fungus, ''Chalara fraxinea'' found in UK countryside. Retrieved 25 October 2012].</ref> In 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |last=Marshall |first=Claire |date=23 March 2016 |title=Ash tree set for extinction in Europe |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35876621}}</ref>

== Uses ==

Ash is a [[hardwood]] and is dense (within 20% of 670&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> for ''[[Fraxinus americana]]'',<ref name="NicheTimbersWhite">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/north-american-hardwood/ash/ |title=White Ash |publisher=Niche Timbers |access-date=22 February 2010}}</ref> and higher at 710&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> for ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]''<ref name="NicheTimbersEuropean">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/native-hardwood/ash/ |title=Ash |publisher=Niche Timbers |access-date=22 February 2010}}</ref>), [[Toughness|tough]] and very [[Strength of materials|strong]] but [[Elasticity (physics)|elastic]], extensively used for making [[bow (weapon)|bows]], [[tool]] handles, [[baseball bat]]s, [[hurley (stick)|hurleys]], and other uses demanding high strength and [[Resilience (materials science)|resilience]].

[[File:Flamed Quartersawn Ash Guitar Top.jpg|thumb|left|5/16" thick flame figure [[quartersawn]] ash guitar top, unmilled]]

Ash is a [[tonewood]] commonly used in the manufacture of [[electric guitar]]s.<ref name="fender.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.fender.com/articles/tech-talk/ash-vs-alder-whats-the-diff | title=Ash vs. Alder: What's the Difference? }}</ref> It exhibits a pronounced bright tone with a scooped midrange.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://neaera.com/best-wood-for-electric-guitars/#Bright_sound_and_Fender_twang_Ash | title=Best wood for electric guitars &#124; Full guide matching wood & tone | date=16 September 2022 }}</ref> It is lightweight, easy to work and sand,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timberblogger.com/ash-wood-properties-and-its-advantages-and-disadvantages/ | title=Ash Wood &#124; Its Advantages and Disadvantages | date=26 March 2021 }}</ref> accepts glue, [[Wood stain|stain]], paint and [[Wood finishing|finish]] very well and is inexpensive. All this has made it a favourite of large factories mass-producing instruments. The Fender musical instrument company has been continuously and uninterruptedly using Ash to make electric guitars since 1956.<ref name="fender.com"/> [[Swamp ash]] is used a lot in guitar building because of its figure. It is a choice of [[Tonewood|material]] for [[electric guitar]] bodies<ref>[https://www.commercialforestproducts.com/good-swamp-ash/ SWAMP ASH Lumber Guide: 8/4 Lightweight Guitar Wood 2020] 15 December 2018 ''www.commercialforestproducts.com'', accessed 27 September 2020</ref> and, less commonly, for [[acoustic guitar]] bodies, known for its bright, cutting edge and sustaining quality. Some [[Fender Stratocaster]]s and [[Fender Telecaster|Telecasters]] are made of ash, (such as [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s Telecaster on the ''[[Born to Run]]'' album cover), as an alternative to alder.

Ash is also used for making [[drum shell]]s.

[[File:Ash_Table_by_Ben_Barclay.jpg|thumb|right|Ash coffee table]]
Woodworkers generally consider ash a "poor cousin" to the other major open pore wood, oak, but it is useful in any furniture application. Ash [[Wood veneer|veneers]] are extensively used in office furniture. Ash is not used much outdoors due to the [[Wood#Heartwood and sapwood|heartwood]] having a low durability to ground contact, meaning it will typically perish within five years. The ''F. japonica'' species is favored as a material for making baseball bats by Japanese sporting-goods manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitsuwa-tiger.com/batmuseum/process.html|title=美津和タイガー/野球博物館/バットのできるまで |trans-title=Mitsuwa Tiger / Baseball Hall / Bat |website=www.mitsuwa-tiger.com}}</ref>

Its robust structure, good looks, and flexibility combine to make ash ideal for staircases. Ash stairs are extremely hard-wearing, which is particularly important for treads. Due to its elasticity, ash can also be steamed and bent to produce curved stair parts such as volutes (curled sections of handrail) and intricately shaped balusters. However, a reduction in the supply of healthy trees, especially in Europe, is making ash an increasingly expensive option.

Ash was commonly used for the structural members of the bodies of cars made by carriage builders. Early cars had frames which were intended to flex as part of the suspension system  to simplify construction. The [[Morgan Motor Company]] of Great Britain still manufactures sports cars with frames made from ash. It was also widely used by early aviation pioneers for aircraft construction.

It [[firewood|lights and burns]] easily, so is used for starting fires and [[barbecue]]s, and is usable for maintaining a fire, though it produces only a moderate heat. The two most economically important species for wood production are white ash, in eastern North America, and European ash in Europe. The green ash (''[[Fraxinus pennsylvanica|F. pennsylvanica]]'') is widely planted as a street tree in the United States. The inner bark of the blue ash (''[[Fraxinus quadrangulata|F. quadrangulata]]'') has been used as a source for blue [[dye]].

In Sicily, Italy,  sugars are obtained by evaporating the sap of the [[manna ash]], extracted by making small cuts in the bark. The manna ash, native to southern Europe and southwest Asia, produces a blue-green sap, which has medicinal value as a mild laxative, demulcent, and weak expectorant. The young seedpods, also known as "keys", are edible for human consumption. In Britain, they are traditionally pickled with vinegar, sugar and spices.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/blog/2021/06/foraging-in-june/ | title=Foraging in June | date=24 June 2021 }}</ref>

== Mythology and folklore <span class="anchor" id="Cultural aspects"></span> ==
In [[Greek mythology]], the [[Meliae]] are [[nymph]]s associated with the ash, perhaps specifically of the manna ash (''[[Fraxinus ornus]]''), as [[dryad]]s were nymphs associated with the [[oak]]. They appear in [[Hesiod]]'s ''Theogony,'' which states that they were born when drops of Ouranos's blood fell on the earth (Gaia).

In [[Norse mythology]], a vast, evergreen ash tree [[Yggdrasil]] ("the steed ([[gallows]]) of [[Odin]]"), watered by three magical springs, serves as [[axis mundi]], sustaining the nine worlds of the [[cosmos]] in its roots and branches. ''[[Ask and Embla|Askr]]'', the first man in Norse myth, literally means 'ash'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|author-link=Rudolf Simek|translator=Angela Hall |title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology |year=2007 |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|D.S. Brewer]]|isbn=978-0-85991-513-7}}</ref>

In [[Italian folklore]], an ash stake could be used to kill a [[vampire]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Del Lao|first=Nero|title=Perpetuum Mobile: Il Segreto per non Morire |year=2013 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=978-1-49313-8388}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Æ]], the letter ash

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fraxinus|''Fraxinus''}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [https://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity/herbarium/trees/Fraxinus_comparison01.htm Cofrin  Center for Biodiversity Herbarium, University of Wisconsin, Trees of Wisconsin, ''Fraxinus'' comparison chart]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234542/https://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity/herbarium/trees/Fraxinus_comparison01.htm |date=17 October 2014 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Julian J. N. |title=Green/red and white ashes (''Fraxinus'' sect. ''Melioides'') of east-central North America: Taxonomic concepts and polyploidy |journal=Phytoneuron |date=2017 |volume=2017-28 |pages=1–36 |url=http://www.phytoneuron.net/2017Phytoneuron/28PhytoN-Fraxinus.pdf |access-date=8 January 2022 |issn=2153-733X}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q128887}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fraxinus| ]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Oleaceae genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Trees]]