Editing Food irradiation

{{short description|Sterilization of food with ionizing radiations for enhanced preservation and longer shelflife}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}}
[[File:Radura international.svg|thumb|150px|right|The international [[Radura]] logo, used to show a food has been treated with ionizing radiation.]]
[[File:HD.6B.452 (11984638133).jpg|thumb|A portable, trailer-mounted food irradiation machine, {{circa|1968}}]]

'''Food irradiation''' (sometimes [[American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization)|American English:]] '''radurization;''' [[American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization)|British English:]] '''radurisation''') is the process of exposing food and [[food packaging]] to [[ionizing radiation]], such as from [[gamma ray]]s, [[x-ray]]s, or [[electron beam]]s.<ref name="fda">{{cite web |title=Food irradiation: What you need to know |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/food-irradiation-what-you-need-know |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=5 October 2020 |date=4 January 2018 |archive-date=September 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927201504/https://www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/food-irradiation-what-you-need-know |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="FI">{{cite book |author=WHO |title=Food Irradiation: A technique for preserving and improving the safety of food |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/38544 |year=1988 |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva, Switzerland |isbn=978-924-154240-1 |hdl=10665/38544 |access-date=October 5, 2020 |archive-date=October 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019194601/https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/38544 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="cfia">{{cite web|url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/information-for-consumers/fact-sheets/irradiation/eng/1332358607968/1332358680017|title=Food irradiation|publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency|date=31 October 2016|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=February 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201120618/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/information-for-consumers/fact-sheets/irradiation/eng/1332358607968/1332358680017|url-status=live}}</ref> Food [[irradiation]] improves food safety and extends product [[shelf life]] (preservation) by effectively destroying organisms responsible for spoilage and [[foodborne illness]], inhibits [[sprouting]] or [[ripening]], and is a means of controlling insects and invasive pests.<ref name="fda" /><ref name="cfia" />

In the United States, consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means.<ref name="Conley1992">{{cite journal |last=Conley |first=Susan Templin |date=Fall 1992 |title=What Do Consumers Think About Irradiated Foods? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHnGbTAzbysC |journal=FSIS Food Safety Review |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=11–15 |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=September 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922075121/https://books.google.com/books?id=GHnGbTAzbysC |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC), and [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) have performed studies that confirm irradiation to be safe.<ref name=fda/><ref name="JFDiehl" /><ref name="JSGHDI" /><ref name=WHO_Irr>World Health Organization. Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1994</ref><ref name="FDA1986" /> In order for a food to be irradiated in the U.S., the FDA will still require that the specific food be thoroughly tested for irradiation safety.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/resourcesforyou/consumers/ucm261680.htm|title=The FDA's position on irradiation|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]|access-date=March 8, 2019|archive-date=April 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423140212/https://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm261680.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Food irradiation is permitted in over 60 countries, and about 500,000 metric tons of food are  processed annually worldwide.<ref name="eurofins">{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofins.com/en/food-feed-testing/food-irradiation.aspx |title=Irradiation testing for correct labelling you can trust |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 2015 |publisher=[[Eurofins Scientific]] |access-date=February 9, 2015 |archive-date=April 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408013534/http://www.eurofins.com/en/food-feed-testing/food-irradiation.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The regulations for how food is to be irradiated, as well as the foods allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries of the European Union only dried herbs, spices, and seasonings can be processed with irradiation and only at a specific dose, while in Brazil all foods are allowed at any dose.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nucleus.iaea.org/CIR/CIR/FICDB.html |title=Food Irradiation Clearances |publisher=Nucleus.iaea.org |access-date=March 19, 2014 |archive-date=October 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017062325/http://nucleus.iaea.org/CIR/CIR/FICDB.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Irradiation-Position-ADA.htm |title=Food irradiation, Position of ADA |publisher=J Am Diet Assoc.  |access-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216174601/http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Irradiation-Position-ADA.htm |archive-date=February 16, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} retrieved November 15, 2007</ref><ref name="IMRP2006">{{cite conference|first1=C.M.|last1=Deeley|first2=M.|last2=Gao|first3=R.|last3=Hunter|first4=D.A.E.|last4=Ehlermann|title=Food Tutorial — The development of food irradiation in the Asia Pacific, the Americas and Europe|conference=International Meeting on Radiation Processing|location=Kuala Lumpur|date=2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726172416/http://www.iiaglobal.org/index.php?mact=News%2Ccntnt01%2Cdetail%2C0&cntnt01articleid=488&cntnt01detailtemplate=resourceCenter-publication-detail-template&cntnt01returnid=231&hl=en_US|archive-date=2011-07-26|url=http://www.iiaglobal.org/index.php?mact=News%2Ccntnt01%2Cdetail%2C0&cntnt01articleid=488&cntnt01detailtemplate=resourceCenter-publication-detail-template&cntnt01returnid=231&hl=en_US|access-date=February 18, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Kume2009">{{cite journal |last1=Kume |first1=Tamikazu |last2=Furuta |first2=Masakazu |last3=Todoriki |first3=Setsuko |last4=Uenoyama |first4=Naoki |last5=Kobayashi |first5=Yasuhiko |title=Status of food irradiation in the world |journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry |date=March 2009 |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=222–226 |doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2008.09.009 |bibcode=2009RaPC...78..222K }}</ref><ref name="Farkas2011">{{cite journal |last1=Farkas |first1=József |last2=Mohácsi-Farkas |first2=Csilla |title=History and future of food irradiation |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=March 2011 |volume=22 |issue=2–3 |pages=121–126 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2010.04.002 }}</ref>

==Uses==
Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate pests and the risk of food-borne illnesses as well as prevent or slow spoilage and plant maturation or sprouting. Depending on the dose, some or all of the organisms, [[microorganism]]s, [[bacteria]], and [[virus]]es present are destroyed, slowed, or rendered incapable of reproduction. When targeting bacteria, most foods are irradiated to significantly reduce the number of active microbes, not to sterilize all microbes in the product. Irradiation cannot return spoiled or over-ripe food to a fresh state. If this food was processed by irradiation, further spoilage would cease and ripening would slow, yet the irradiation would not destroy the toxins or repair the texture, color, or taste of the food.<ref name="Loaharanu2">{{cite journal |last1=Loaharanu |first1=Paisan |year=1990 |title=Food irradiation: facts or fiction? |journal=IAEA Bulletin |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=44–48 |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull32-2/32205784448.pdf |access-date=July 25, 2022 |archive-date=August 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812075456/https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull32-2/32205784448.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Irradiation slows the speed at which enzymes change the food. By reducing or removing spoilage organisms and slowing ripening and sprouting (e.g. potato, onion, and garlic) irradiation is used to reduce the amount of food that goes bad between harvest and final use.<ref name="Loaharanu2" /> Shelf-stable products are created by irradiating foods in sealed packages, as irradiation reduces chance of spoilage, the packaging prevents re-contamination of the final product.<ref name="FI" /> Foods that can tolerate the higher doses of radiation required to do so can be [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilized]]. This is useful for people at high risk of infection in hospitals as well as situations where proper food storage is not feasible, such as rations for astronauts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Space and Food Nutrition—An Educator's Guide With Activities in Science and Mathematics |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/143163main_space.food_.and_.nutrition.pdf |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=NASA.gov |archive-date=March 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329180737/https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/143163main_space.food_.and_.nutrition.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Pests such as insects have been transported to new habitats through the trade in fresh produce and significantly affected agricultural production and the environment once they established themselves. To reduce this threat and enable trade across quarantine boundaries, food is irradiated using a technique called [[phytosanitary irradiation]].<ref>{{Cite journal| url=http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/88667| title=Phytosanitary irradiation: An overview| journal=Florida Entomologist| volume=99| issue=6| pages=1–13| date=2016-11-20| last1=Blackburn| first1=Carl M.| last2=Parker| first2=Andrew G.| last3=Hénon| first3=Yves M.| last4=Hallman| first4=Guy J.| access-date=February 1, 2017| archive-date=May 17, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517140606/http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/88667| url-status=dead}}</ref> Phytosanitary irradiation [[sterility (physiology)|sterilizes]] the pests preventing breeding by treating the produce with low doses of irradiation (less than 1000 Gy).<ref>{{cite journal | title=Australia export programmes for irradiated fresh produce to New Zealand| journal=Stewart Postharvest Review| volume=11| issue=3| pages=1–3| doi=10.2212/spr.2015.3.8| year=2015|last1=Murray Lynch And Kevin Nalder}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Diehl JF | date = 1995 | title = Safety of Irradiated Foods | publisher = Marcel Dekker | pages = 99 }}</ref> The higher doses required to destroy pests are not used due to either affecting the look or taste, or cannot be tolerated by fresh produce.<ref>Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, International Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization&nbsp;– IDIDAS&nbsp;– http://www-ididas.iaea.org/IDIDAS/default.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328020125/http://www-ididas.iaea.org/IDIDAS/default.htm |date=March 28, 2010 }} last visited November 16, 2007</ref>

==Process==
[[File:E-beam-x-ray-gamma-efficiency.jpg|200px|thumbnail|Efficiency illustration of the different radiation technologies (electron beam, X-ray, gamma rays)]]
{{further|Irradiation|Radiation chemistry|Induced radioactivity}}
The target material is exposed an external source of radiation. The radiation source supplies energetic particles or [[electromagnetic waves]]. These particles or waves collide with material in the target.  The higher the likelihood of these collisions over a distance are, the lower the [[penetration depth]] of the irradiation process is as the energy is more quickly depleted.

These collisions break [[chemical bonds]], creating short lived radicals (e.g. the [[hydroxyl radical]], the hydrogen atom and [[solvated electron]]s). These radicals cause further [[#Chemical changes|chemical changes]] by bonding with and or stripping particles from nearby molecules. When collisions occur in cells, [[cell division]] is often suppressed, halting or slowing the processes that cause the food to mature.

When the process damages [[DNA]] or [[RNA]], effective [[reproduction]] becomes unlikely halting the population growth of viruses and organisms.<ref name="FI"/> The distribution of the dose of radiation varies from the food surface and the interior as it is absorbed as it moves through food and depends on the energy and density of the food and the type of radiation used.<ref name=":024"/>

===Better quality===
Irradiation leaves a product with qualities (sensory and chemical) that are more similar to unprocessed food than any preservation method that can achieve a similar degree of preservation.<ref name="EPA-food-safety">{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/sources/food_safety.html |title=Radiation Protection-Food Safety |publisher=epa.gov |access-date=May 19, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906171333/http://www.epa.gov/radiation/sources/food_safety.html |archive-date=September 6, 2015 }}</ref>

===Not radioactive===
Irradiated food does not become radioactive; only particle energies that are incapable of causing significant [[induced radioactivity]] are used for food irradiation. In the United States this limit is 4 mega [[electron volt]]s (MEV) for [[electron beam]]s and [[x-ray]] sources—[[cobalt-60]] or [[caesium-137]] sources are never energetic enough to induce radioactivity.  Particles below this energy can never be energetic enough to modify the [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of the targeted atom in the food, regardless of how many particles hit the target material, and so radioactivity can not be induced.<ref name="EPA-food-safety"/>

===Dosimetry===
The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material([[Gray (unit)|Gy]] or [[Joule|J]]/[[Kilogram|kg]]). [[Dosimeter]]s are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to [[ionizing radiation]], change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose ([[dosimetry]]) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/pdf/TRS409_scr.pdf |title=Dosimetry for Food Irradiation, IAEA, Vienna, 2002, Technical Reports Series No. 409 |access-date=March 19, 2014 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220425/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/pdf/TRS409_scr.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>K. Mehta, Radiation Processing Dosimetry&nbsp;– A practical manual, 2006, GEX Corporation, Centennial, US</ref>

For purposes of legislation doses are divided into low (up to 1 kGy), medium (1 kGy to 10 kGy), and high-dose applications (above 10 kGy).<ref name=":3" /> High-dose applications are above those currently permitted in the US for commercial food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nucleus.iaea.org/ifa/|title=Irradiated Food Authorization Database (IFA)|access-date=March 19, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319174736/http://nucleus.iaea.org/ifa/|archive-date=March 19, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref> though these doses are approved for non commercial applications, such as sterilizing frozen meat for [[NASA]] [[astronauts]] (doses of 44 kGy)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/opa-fdir.html |title=U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. Office of Premarket Approval. ''Food Irradiation: The treatment of foods with ionizing radiation'' Kim M. Morehouse, PhD Published in ''Food Testing & Analysis'', June/July 1998 edition (Vol. 4, No. 3, Pages 9, 32, 35) |date=March 29, 2007 |access-date=March 19, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329051854/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/opa-fdir.html |archive-date=March 29, 2007 }}</ref> and food for hospital patients.

The ratio of the maximum dose permitted at the outer edge (D<sub>max</sub>) to the minimum limit to achieve processing conditions (D<sub>min</sub>) determines the uniformity of dose distribution. This ratio determines how uniform the irradiation process is.<ref name=":024">{{Cite book|title=Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices|last=Fellows|first=P.J.}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Applications of food irradiation<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Xuetong|first=Fan|date=2018-05-29|title=Food Irradiation Research and Technology|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-8138-0209-1}}</ref>
|
|'''Application'''
|'''Dose (kGy)'''
|-
| rowspan="4" |Low dose (up to 1 kGy)
|Inhibit sprouting (potatoes, onions, yams, garlic)
|0.06 - 0.2
|-
|Delay in ripening (strawberries, potatoes)
|0.5 - 1.0
|-
|Prevent insect infestation (grains, cereals, coffee beans, spices, dried nuts, dried fruits, dried fish, mangoes, papayas)
|0.15 - 1.0
|-
|Parasite control and inactivation (tape worm, trichina)
|0.3 - 1.0
|-
| rowspan="4" |Medium dose (1 kGy to 10 kGy)
|Extend shelf-life of raw and fresh fish, seafood, fresh produce
|1.0 - 5.5
|-
|Extend shelf-life of refrigerated and frozen meat products
|4.5 - 7.0
|-
|Reduce risk of pathogenic and spoilage microbes (meat, seafood, spices, and poultry)
|1.0 - 7.0
|-
|Increased juice yield, reduction in cooking time of dried vegetables
|3.0 - 7.0
|-
| rowspan="4" |High dose (above 10 kGy)
|Enzymes (dehydrated)
|10.0
|-
|Sterilization of spices, dry vegetable seasonings
|30.0 max
|-
|Sterilization of packaging material
|10.0 - 25.0
|-
|Sterilization of foods ([[NASA]] and hospitals)
|44.0
|}

==Chemical changes==
As ionising radiation passes through food, it creates a trail of chemical transformations due to [[radiolysis]] effects. Irradiation does not make foods radioactive, change [[food chemistry]], compromise nutrient contents, or change the taste, texture, or appearance of food.<ref name=fda/><ref name="EFSA2011">{{Cite journal |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.1930|title=Scientific Opinion on the Chemical Safety of Irradiation of Food|journal=EFSA Journal|volume=9|issue=4|pages=1930|year=2011|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Food quality===
Assessed rigorously over several decades, irradiation in commercial amounts to treat food has no negative impact on the sensory qualities and nutrient content of foods.<ref name=fda/><ref name=cfia/>

==== Research on minimally processed vegetables ====
[[Watercress]] (''Nasturtium officinale'') is a rapidly growing aquatic or semi aquatic perennial plant. Because chemical agents do not provide efficient microbial reductions, watercress has been tested with gamma irradiation treatment in order to improve both safety and the shelf life of the product.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramos |first1=B. |last2=Miller |first2=F.A. |last3=Brandão |first3=T.R.S. |last4=Teixeira |first4=P. |last5=Silva |first5=C.L.M. |title=Fresh fruits and vegetables—An overview on applied methodologies to improve its quality and safety |journal=Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies |date=October 2013 |volume=20 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1016/j.ifset.2013.07.002 }}</ref> It is traditionally used on horticultural products to prevent sprouting and post-packaging contamination, delay post-harvest ripening, maturation and senescence.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Pinela |first1=José |last2=Barreira |first2=João C.M. |last3=Barros |first3=Lillian |last4=Verde |first4=Sandra Cabo |last5=Antonio |first5=Amilcar L. |last6=Carvalho |first6=Ana Maria |last7=Oliveira |first7=M. Beatriz P.P. |last8=Ferreira |first8=Isabel C.F.R. |title=Suitability of gamma irradiation for preserving fresh-cut watercress quality during cold storage |journal=Food Chemistry |date=September 2016 |volume=206 |pages=50–58 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.03.050 |pmid=27041297 |hdl=10198/13361 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Public Perceptions ====
Some who advocate against food irradiation argue the long-term health effects and safety of irradiated food cannot be scientifically proven, however there have been hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food performed since 1950.<ref name="JFDiehl">Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated foods, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.)</ref> Endpoints include subchronic and chronic changes in [[metabolism]], [[histopathology]], function of most [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], reproductive effects, growth, [[teratogenicity]], and [[mutagenicity]].<ref name="JFDiehl"/><ref name="JECFI">World Health Organization. Wholesomeness of irradiated food. Geneva, Technical Report Series No. 659, 1981</ref><ref name="JSGHDI">World Health Organization. High-Dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of Food Irradiated With Doses Above 10 kGy. Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. WHO Technical Report Series No. 890</ref><ref name="FDA1986">US Department of Health, and Human Services, Food, and Drug Administration Irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food. Federal Register 1986; 51:13376-13399</ref>

==Industrial process==
Up to the point where the food is processed by irradiation, the food is processed in the same way as all other food.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

=== Packaging ===
For some forms of treatment, packaging is used to ensure the food stuffs never come in contact with radioactive substances<ref name="sterigenics">{{Cite web| url = http://www.sterigenics.com/services/food_safety/food_irradiation__questions_answers.pdf |title=Food Irradiation: Questions & Answers|archive-date=18 November 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171118182506/http://www.sterigenics.com/services/food_safety/food_irradiation__questions_answers.pdf }}</ref> and prevent re-contamination of the final product.<ref name="FI" /> Food processors and manufacturers today struggle with using affordable, efficient packaging materials for irradiation-based processing. The implementation of irradiation on prepackaged foods has been found to impact foods by inducing specific chemical alterations to the food packaging material that migrates into the food. [[Cross-link]]ing in various plastics can lead to physical and chemical modifications that can increase the overall molecular weight. On the other hand, [[chain scission]] is fragmentation of polymer chains that leads to a [[molecular mass]] reduction.<ref name=fda/>

===Treatment===
To treat the food, it is exposed to a radioactive source for a set period of time to achieve a desired dose. Radiation may be emitted by a radioactive substance, or by X-ray and electron beam accelerators. Special precautions are taken to ensure the food stuffs never come in contact with the radioactive substances and that the personnel and the environment are protected from radiation exposure.<ref name="sterigenics"/>
Irradiation treatments are typically classified by dose (high, medium, and low), but are sometimes classified by the effects of the treatment<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.07.023|title=The RADURA-terminology and food irradiation|journal=Food Control|volume=20|issue=5|pages=526–528|year=2009|last1=Ehlermann|first1=Dieter A.E.}}</ref> ([[radappertization|radappertisation]], [[radicidation]] and [[radurization|radurisation]]). Food irradiation is sometimes referred to as "cold pasteurisation"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/458-300/458-300.html  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102010926/http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/458-300/458-300.html |archive-date=January 2, 2007 |title=Cold Pasteurization of Food By Irradiation |url-status=dead |access-date=June 1, 2016 |df=mdy-all |author1=Tim Roberts |date=August 1998 }}</ref> or "electronic pasteurisation"<ref>''See, e.g.,'' The Truth about Irradiated Meat, CONSUMER REPORTS 34-37 (August 2003).</ref> because ionising the food does not heat it to high temperatures during the process, and the effect is similar to [[Pasteurization|pasteurisation]]. The term "cold pasteurisation" is controversial because the term may be used to disguise the fact the food has been irradiated and pasteurisation and irradiation are fundamentally different processes.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

==== Gamma irradiation ====
Gamma irradiation is produced from the radioisotopes [[cobalt-60]] and [[caesium-137]], which are produced by neutron irradiation of [[cobalt-59]] (the only stable isotope of cobalt) and as a nuclear [[fission product]], respectively.<ref name=":3" /> Cobalt-60 is the most common source of [[Gamma ray|gamma rays]] for food irradiation in commercial scale facilities as it is water-insoluble and hence has little risk of environmental contamination by leakage into the water systems.<ref name=":3" /> As for transportation of the radiation source, cobalt-60 is transported in special trucks that prevent release of radiation and meet standards mentioned in the Regulations for Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials of the International Atomic Energy Act.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://foodirradiation.org/PDF/FIPA%20QandA.pdf|title=Food Irradiation Q and A|publisher=Food Irradiation Processing Alliance|date=2018-05-29|access-date=May 20, 2018|archive-date=November 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115232907/http://foodirradiation.org/PDF/FIPA%20QandA.pdf|url-status=usurped}}</ref> The special trucks must meet high safety standards and pass extensive tests to be approved to ship radiation sources. Conversely, caesium-137 is water-soluble and poses a risk of environmental contamination. Insufficient quantities are available for large-scale commercial use as the vast majority of Caesium-137 produced in nuclear reactors is not extracted from [[spent nuclear fuel]]. An incident where water-soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission|NRC]] intervention<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1989/in89082.html|title=Information Notice No. 89-82: RECENT SAFETY-RELATED INCIDENTS AT LARGE IRRADIATORS|publisher=Nrc.gov|access-date=March 19, 2014|archive-date=June 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195340/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1989/in89082.html|url-status=live}}</ref> has led to near elimination of this radioisotope.
[[File:Cobalt 60 stored under water when not in use.jpg|thumb|Cobalt-60 stored in Gamma Irradiation machine]]
Gamma irradiation is widely used due to its high penetration depth and dose uniformity, allowing for large-scale applications with high throughput.<ref name=":3" /> Additionally, gamma irradiation is significantly less expensive than using an X-ray source. In most designs, the radioisotope, contained in stainless steel pencils, is stored in a water-filled storage pool which absorbs the radiation energy when not in use. For treatment, the source is lifted out of the storage tank, and product contained in totes is passed around the pencils to achieve required processing.<ref name=":3" />

Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes to hours depending on dose. Low-dose applications such as disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.01/lb and US$0.08/lb while higher-dose applications can cost as much as US$0.20/lb.<ref name="ozone"/>

==== Electron beam ====
{{See also|Electron beam processing}}
Treatment of electron beams is created as a result of high energy electrons in an [[Electron accelerator|accelerator]] that generates electrons accelerated to 99% the speed of light.<ref name=":3" /> This system uses electrical energy and can be powered on and off. The high power correlates with a higher throughput and lower unit cost, but electron beams have low dose uniformity and a penetration depth of centimeters.<ref name=":3" /> Therefore, electron beam treatment works for products that have low thickness.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
==== X-ray ====
[[X-ray|X-rays]] are produced by bombardment of dense target material with high-energy accelerated electrons (this process is known as [[bremsstrahlung]]-conversion), giving rise to a continuous energy spectrum.<ref name=":3" /> Heavy metals, such as [[tantalum]] and [[tungsten]], are used because of their high atomic numbers and high melting temperatures. Tantalum is usually preferred over tungsten for industrial, large-area, high-power targets because it is more workable than the latter and has a higher threshold energy for induced reactions.<ref>{{cite conference|url=http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/097/41097063.pdf|title=Radiation Processing with High-energy X-rays|conference=International Nuclear Atlantic Conference|date=2009|first1=Marshall R.|last1=Cleland|first2=Frédéric|last2=Stichelbaut|access-date=May 20, 2018|archive-date=July 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712154713/http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/097/41097063.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>  Like electron beams, X-rays do not require the use of radioactive materials and can be turned off when not in use. X-rays have high penetration depths and high dose uniformity but they are a very expensive source of irradiation as only 8% of the incident energy is converted into X-rays.<ref name=":3" />

==== UV-C ====
[[UV-C]] does not penetrate as deeply as other methods. As such, its direct antimicrobial effect is limited to the surface only. Its DNA damage effect produces [[cyclobutane]]-type [[pyrimidine dimer]]s. Besides the direct effects, UV-C also [[induced resistance|induces resistance]] even against pathogens not yet [[inoculation|inoculated]]. Some of this induced resistance is understood, being the result of temporary inactivation of self-degradation enzymes like [[polygalacturonase]] and increased expression of enzymes associated with [[cell wall]] repair.<ref name="Civello-et-al-2007">{{cite book |editor=Troncoso-Rojas, Rosalba |editor2=Tiznado-Hernández, Martín E |editor3=González-León, Alberto |title=Recent advances in alternative postharvest technologies to control fungal diseases in fruits & vegetables |chapter=UV-C technology to control postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables | year=2007 | isbn=978-81-7895-244-4 | oclc=181155001 | page= | s2cid=82390211 | last1=Civello | first1=P. | last2=Vicente | first2=Ariel R. | last3=Martínez | first3=G. | last4=Troncoso-Rojas | first4=R. | last5=Tiznado-Hernández | first5=M. | last6=González-León | first6=A.}} [[CAB Direct (database)|CABD]] [http://www.cabi.org/cabdirect/abstract/20073244868 20073244868]{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. [[AGRIS]] id [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US201300122523 US201300122523]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref>

===Cost===
Irradiation is a capital-intensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1&nbsp;million to $5&nbsp;million. In the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a radiation source, hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5&nbsp;acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs.<ref name="ozone">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html |title=The Use of Irradiation for Post-Harvest and Quarantine Commodity Control &#124; Ozone Depletion – Regulatory Programs &#124; U.S. EPA |access-date=March 19, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421093513/http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html |archive-date=April 21, 2006 }}</ref><ref name=":2">(Kunstadt et al., USDA 1989)</ref> Perishable food items, like fruits, vegetables and meats would still require to be handled in the [[cold chain]], so all other supply chain costs remain the same. Food manufacturers have not embraced food irradiation because the market does not support the increased price of irradiated foods, and because of potential consumer backlash due to irradiated foods.<ref name="NYT_P.O.">Martin, Andrew. [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/02/business/02irradiate.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1261545694-KGCNC1z9SSW95acAk0gz0g Spinach and Peanuts, With a Dash of Radiation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210913/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/02/business/02irradiate.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1261545694-KGCNC1z9SSW95acAk0gz0g |date=June 13, 2018 }} ''[[The New York Times]].'' February 1, 2009.</ref>

The cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, the food's tolerance of radiation, handling conditions, i.e., packaging and stacking requirements, construction costs, financing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation.<ref>(Forsythe and Evangel 1993, USDA 1989)</ref>

== State of the industry ==
Irradiation has been approved by many countries. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, food irradiation has existed for decades.<ref name=fda/><ref name=cfia/> Food irradiation is used commercially and volumes are in general increasing at a slow rate, even in the European Union where all member countries allow the irradiation of dried herbs spices and vegetable seasonings, but only a few allow other foods to be sold as irradiated.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/reports_en| title=Annual Reports - Food Safety - European Commission| date=2016-10-17| access-date=May 20, 2018| archive-date=August 17, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225849/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/reports_en| url-status=live}}</ref>

Although there are some consumers who choose not to purchase irradiated food, a sufficient market has existed for retailers to have continuously stocked irradiated products for years.<ref name="StewartPR">{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=P. B. |last2=Hénon |first2=Y. M. |date=September 2015 |title=Consumer response to irradiated food: purchase versus perception |url=http://www.foodirradiation.org/pages/Stewart/Roberts.pdf |url-status=usurped |journal=Stewart Postharvest Review |volume=11 (3:5) |issn=1745-9656 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214195256/http://www.foodirradiation.org/pages/Stewart/Roberts.pdf |archive-date=February 14, 2017 |access-date=May 20, 2018}}</ref> When labelled irradiated food is offered for retail sale, consumers buy and re-purchase it, indicating a market for irradiated foods, although there is a continuing need for [[consumer education]].<ref name="StewartPR" /><ref name=foods2016/>

Food scientists have concluded that any fresh or frozen food undergoing irradiation at specified doses is safe to consume, with some 60 countries using irradiation to maintain quality in their food supply.<ref name=fda/><ref name="JECFI"/><ref name="JSGHDI"/><ref name="foods2016">{{cite journal | last1=Maherani | first1=Behnoush | last2=Hossain | first2=Farah | last3=Criado | first3=Paula | last4=Ben-Fadhel | first4=Yosra | last5=Salmieri | first5=Stephane | last6=Lacroix | first6=Monique | title=World market development and consumer acceptance of irradiation technology | journal=Foods | volume=5 | issue=4 | date=2016-11-24 | issn=2304-8158 | pmid=28231173 | pmc=5302430 | doi=10.3390/foods5040079 | page=79| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Munir">{{cite journal | last1=Munir | first1=Muhammad Tanveer | last2=Federighi | first2=Michel | title=Control of foodborne biological hazards by ionizing radiations | journal=Foods | volume=9 | issue=7 | date=2020-07-03 | issn=2304-8158 | pmid=32635407 | pmc=7404640 | doi=10.3390/foods9070878 | page=878| doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Radurisation risks ==
The following risks can be mentioned:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grupen |first1=Claus |title=Introduction to Radiation Protection |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-02586-0_13 |publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg |access-date=26 June 2023 |pages=223–224 |language=English |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-02586-0_13 |date=19 February 2010 |isbn=9783642025860 |archive-date=June 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626140102/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-02586-0_13 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* As with any sterilisation method, a very small proportion of germs may survive the process, and cause a fraction of the irradiated products to spoil anyway. The risk comes from the false sense of security.
* As mentioned above, the treatment only preserves the freshness of the product at the moment it reaches the factory. If it has already lost some of its qualities, this will not be restored, and may even be hidden by the packaging.
* While the purpose of the irradiation is to degrade the DNA/RNA of contaminating germs, a small proportion of the nutrient load is also degraded in the process. In particular, vitamins, whole proteins and aromatic molecules.
* The irradiation creates highly reactive [[Radical (chemistry)|radicals]], which would cause problems if the food is consumed immediately after being irradiated.

==Standards and regulations==
The [[Codex Alimentarius]] represents the global standard for irradiation of food, in particular under the WTO-agreement. Regardless of treatment source, all processing facilities must adhere to safety standards set by the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), Codex Code of Practice for the Radiation Processing of Food, [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]] (NRC), and the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO).<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Peter|date=December 2016|title=Food Irradiation: Standards, regulations, and world-wide trade|journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry|volume=129|pages=30–34|doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2016.06.005|bibcode=2016RaPC..129...30R}}</ref> More specifically, ISO 14470 and ISO 9001 provide in-depth information regarding safety in irradiation facilities.<ref name=":4" />

All commercial irradiation facilities contain safety systems which are designed to prevent exposure of personnel to radiation. The radiation source is constantly shielded by water, concrete, or metal. Irradiation facilities are designed with overlapping layers of protection, interlocks, and safeguards to prevent accidental radiation exposure.<ref name=":5" /> Meltdowns are unlikely to occur due to low heat production from sources used.<ref name=":5" />

===Labeling===
[[File:Radura-Symbol.svg|thumb|150px|right|The Radura symbol, as required by U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations to show a food has been treated with ionizing radiation.]]
The provisions of the Codex Alimentarius are that any "first generation" product must be labeled "irradiated" as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient does not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is optional; several countries use a graphical version that differs from the Codex-version. The suggested rules for labeling is published at CODEX-STAN&nbsp;– 1 (2005),<ref name="CX-label">{{cite web |url=http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/32/CXS_001e.pdf |title=''GENERAL STANDARD FOR THE LABELLING OF PREPACKAGED FOODS''. CODEX STAN 1-1985. |access-date=March 19, 2014 |archive-date=April 6, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406113402/http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/32/CXS_001e.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and includes the usage of the Radura symbol for all products that contain irradiated foods. The Radura symbol is not a designator of quality. The amount of pathogens remaining is based upon dose and the original content and the dose applied can vary on a product by product basis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=179&showFR=1 |title=CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 |publisher=Accessdata.fda.gov |access-date=March 19, 2014 |archive-date=March 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328023736/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=179&showFR=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The European Union follows the Codex's provision to label irradiated ingredients down to the last molecule of irradiated food. The [[European Union]] does not provide for the use of the Radura logo and relies exclusively on labeling by the appropriate phrases in the respective languages of the Member States. The European Union enforces its irradiation labeling laws by requiring its member countries to perform tests on a cross section of food items in the market-place and to report to the European Commission. The results are published annually on EUR-Lex.<ref name="FDA">{{cite web| url = https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/reports_en| title = Reports from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on food and food ingredients treated with ionising radiation| access-date = May 20, 2018| archive-date = August 17, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225849/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/reports_en| url-status = live}}</ref>

The US defines irradiated foods as foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the consequences that may result from the use of the food. Therefore, food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement in the US. All irradiated foods must include a prominent Radura symbol followed in addition to the statement "treated with irradiation" or "treated by irradiation.<ref name=":2" /> Bulk foods must be individually labeled with the symbol and statement or, alternatively, the Radura and statement should be located next to the sale container.<ref name=fda/>

=== Packaging ===
Under section 409 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, irradiation of prepackaged foods requires premarket approval for not only the irradiation source for a specific food but also for the food packaging material. Approved packaging materials include various plastic films, yet does not cover a variety of polymers and adhesive based materials that have been found to meet specific standards. The lack of packaging material approval limits manufacturers production and expansion of irradiated prepackaged foods.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices.|last=Fellows|first=P.J.|publisher=Elsevier|year=2018|isbn=9780081019078|pages=279–280}}</ref>

Approved materials by FDA for Irradiation according to 21 CFR 179.45:<ref name=":3" />
{| class="wikitable"
|Material
|Paper (kraft)
|Paper (glassine)
|Paperboard
|Cellophane (coated)
|Polyolefin film
|Polyestyrene film
|Nylon-6
|Vegetable Parchment
|Nylon 11
|-
|Irradiation (kGy)
|.05
|10
|10
|10
|10
|10
|10
|60
|60
|}

===Food safety===
In 2003, the Codex Alimentarius removed any upper dose limit for food irradiation as well as clearances for specific foods, declaring that all are safe to irradiate. Countries such as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex without any reservation or restriction.

Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry, as well as procedures to relate the measured dose to the effects achieved and to report and document such results, are maintained by the [[American Society for Testing and Materials]] (ASTM international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards.<ref>(see Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 12.02, West Conshohocken, PA, US)</ref>

All of the rules involved in processing food are applied to all foods before they are irradiated.

====United States====
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the agency responsible for regulation of radiation sources in the United States.<ref name=fda/> Irradiation, as defined by the FDA is a "[[food additive]]" as opposed to a food process and therefore falls under the food additive regulations. Each food approved for irradiation has specific guidelines in terms of minimum and maximum dosage as determined safe by the FDA.<ref name=fda/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=179&showFR=1&subpartNode=21:3.0.1.1.10.2 | title=CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 | access-date=July 25, 2022 | archive-date=October 25, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025182753/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfCFR/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=179&showFR=1&subpartNode=21:3.0.1.1.10.2 | url-status=live }}</ref> Packaging materials containing the food processed by irradiation must also undergo approval. The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) amends these rules for use with meat, poultry, and fresh fruit.<ref>USDA/FSIS and USDA/APHIS, various final rules on pork, poultry and fresh fruits: Fed.Reg. 51:1769–1771 (1986); 54:387-393 (1989); 57:43588-43600 (1992); and others more</ref>

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has approved the use of low-level irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit flies and seed weevils. Under bilateral agreements that allows less-developed countries to earn income through food exports agreements are made to allow them to irradiate fruits and vegetables at low doses to kill insects, so that the food can avoid quarantine.

The [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] and the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture Cotton Annex|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] have approved irradiation of the following foods and purposes:
* Packaged refrigerated or frozen red meat<ref>anon.,[http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus2.shtml Is this technology being used in other countries?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105014642/http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus2.shtml|date=November 5, 2007}} retrieved on November 15, 2007</ref> — to control pathogens (E. Coli O157:H7 and Salmonella) and to extend shelf life<ref name="FMI">{{cite web|url=http://www.fmi.org/docs/media-backgrounder/irradiation.pdf|title=Food Irradiation-FMI Background|date=February 5, 2003|publisher=Food Marketing Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714161809/http://www.fmi.org/docs/media-backgrounder/irradiation.pdf|archive-date=July 14, 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=June 2, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* Packaged poultry — control pathogens (Salmonella and Camplylobacter)<ref name="FMI" />
* Fresh fruits, vegetables, and grains — to control insects and inhibit growth, ripening and sprouting<ref name="FMI" />
* Pork — to control trichinosis<ref name="FMI" />
* Herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus1.shtml |title=Are Irradiated Foods in the Supermarket? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=7 May 2000 |website=Center for Consumer Research |publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105002735/http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus1.shtml |archive-date=5 November 2007 |access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> — to control insects and microorganisms<ref name="FMI" />
* Dry or dehydrated enzyme preparations — to control insects and microorganisms<ref name="FMI" />
* White potatoes — to inhibit sprout development<ref name="FMI" />
* Wheat and wheat flour — to control insects<ref name="FMI" />
* Loose or bagged fresh iceberg lettuce and spinach<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm093651.htm|title=Irradiation: A safe measure for safer iceberg lettuce and spinach|date=August 22, 2008|publisher=US FDA|access-date=December 31, 2009|archive-date=January 12, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112072232/http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm093651.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Crustaceans (lobster, shrimp, and crab)<ref name=fda/>
* Shellfish (oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops)<ref name=fda/>

====European Union====
European law stipulates that all member countries must allow the sale of irradiated dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings.<ref name="EUregulation">EU: Food Irradiation&nbsp;– Community Legislation https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/legislation_en {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106104500/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/biosafety/irradiation/legislation_en |date=January 6, 2021 }}</ref> However, these Directives allow Member States to maintain previous clearances food categories the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) had previously approved (the approval body is now the European Food Safety Authority). Presently, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Netherlands, and Poland allow the sale of many different types of irradiated foods.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52009XC1124(02) |title=''List of Member States' authorisations of food and food ingredients which may be treated with ionizing radiation.'' (2009-11-24) |access-date=2021-01-04 |archive-date=December 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224163343/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52009XC1124(02) |url-status=live }}</ref> Before individual items in an approved class can be added to the approved list, studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. It also states that irradiation shall not be used "as a substitute for hygiene or health practices or good manufacturing or agricultural practice". These Directives only control food irradiation for food retail and their conditions and controls are not applicable to the irradiation of food for patients requiring sterile diets. In 2021 the most common food items irradiated were frog legs at 65.1%, poultry 20.6% and dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetables seasoning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foodsafetynews.com/2021/03/eu-food-irradiation-report-shows-continued-decline/|title=EU food irradiation report shows continued decline|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=March 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324142126/https://www.foodsafetynews.com/2021/03/eu-food-irradiation-report-shows-continued-decline/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to the [[European Single Market]], any food, even if irradiated, must be allowed to be marketed in any other member state even if a general ban of food irradiation prevails, under the condition that the food has been irradiated legally in the state of origin.

Furthermore, imports into the EC are possible from third countries if the irradiation facility had been inspected and approved by the EC and the treatment is legal within the EC or some Member state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32002D0840 |title=''Commission Decision of 23 October 2004 adopting the list of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation of foods.'' |access-date=2021-01-04 |archive-date=November 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130210240/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32002D0840 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2002/840 |title=Consolidated text (with amendments): ''Commission Decision of 23 October 2002 adopting the list of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation of foods '' |access-date=2021-01-04 |archive-date=April 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417094649/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2002/840 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Australia====
In Australia, following cat deaths<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Child G, Foster DJ, Fougere BJ, Milan JM, Rozmanec M | title = Ataxia and paralysis in cats in Australia associated with exposure to an imported gamma-irradiated commercial dry pet food | journal = Australian Veterinary Journal | volume = 87 | issue = 9 | pages = 349–51 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19703134 | doi = 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2009.00475.x }}</ref> after irradiated cat food consumption and producer's voluntary recall,<ref>{{cite web | title = Origen Cat Food | url = https://www.ava.com.au/sites/default/files/documents/Other/Orijen_Australia_Consumer_Release.pdf | date = 26 November 2008 | publisher = Champion Pet Foods | access-date = December 30, 2022 | archive-date = April 21, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180421084622/http://www.ava.com.au/sites/default/files/documents/Other/Orijen_Australia_Consumer_Release.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> cat food irradiation was banned.<ref>{{cite web | first = Kelly | last = Burke | name-list-style = vanc | title = Cat-food irradiation banned as pet theory proved | url = https://www.smh.com.au/national/catfood-irradiation-banned-as-pet-theory-proved-20090529-bq8h.html | work = The Sidney Morning Herald | date = 30 May 2009 | access-date = December 30, 2022 | archive-date = December 30, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221230174241/https://www.smh.com.au/national/catfood-irradiation-banned-as-pet-theory-proved-20090529-bq8h.html | url-status = live }}</ref>

===Nuclear safety and security===
Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this risk. There have been radiation-related accidents, deaths, and injury at such facilities, many of them caused by operators overriding the safety related interlocks.<ref name="SanSalvador">{{Cite web |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub847_web.pdf |title=''The Radiological Accident in San Salvador'' |access-date=July 26, 2022 |archive-date=May 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521215111/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub847_web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Soreq">{{Cite web |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf |title=''The Radiological Accident in Soreq'' |access-date=May 23, 2007 |archive-date=November 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121031827/https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub925_web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Nesvizh">{{Cite web |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1010_web.pdf |title=''The Radiological Accident at the Irradiation Facility in Nesvizh'' |access-date=July 26, 2022 |archive-date=March 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309070122/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1010_web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In a radiation processing facility, radiation specific concerns are supervised by special authorities, while "Ordinary" occupational safety regulations are handled much like other businesses.

The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency]] and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The regulators enforce a safety culture that mandates that all incidents that occur are documented and thoroughly analyzed to determine the cause and improvement potential. Such incidents are studied by personnel at multiple facilities, and improvements are mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design.

In the US the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the safety of the processing facility, and the [[United States Department of Transportation]] (DOT) regulates the safe transport of the radioactive sources.

== Origin of the word "Radurisation" ==
The word "radurisation" is derived from radura, combining the initial letters of the word "radiation" with the stem of "durus", the Latin word for hard, lasting.<ref name="radura">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.07.023 |title=The RADURA-terminology and food irradiation |journal=Food Control |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=526–528 |year=2009 | vauthors = Ehlermann DA }}</ref>

== Historical timeline ==
* 1895 [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] discovers X-rays ("[[bremsstrahlung]]", from German for radiation produced by deceleration)
* 1896 [[Antoine Henri Becquerel]] discovers natural radioactivity; Minck proposes the therapeutic use<ref>Minck, F. (1896) Zur Frage über die Einwirkung der Röntgen'schen Strahlen auf Bacterien und ihre eventuelle therapeutische Verwendbarkeit. Münchener Medicinische Wochenschrift 43 (5), 101-102.</ref>
* 1904 Samuel Prescott describes the bactericide effects [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prescott |first1=S. C. |title=The Effect of Radium Rays on the Colon Bacillus, the Diphtheria Bacillus and Yeast |journal=Science |date=19 August 1904 |volume=20 |issue=503 |pages=246–248 |doi=10.1126/science.20.503.246.c |pmid=17797891 |jstor=1631163 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2042740 }}</ref>
* 1906 Appleby & Banks: UK patent to use radioactive isotopes to irradiate particulate food in a flowing bed<ref>Appleby, J. and Banks, A. J. Improvements in or relating to the treatment of food, more especially cereals and their products. British patent GB 1609 (January 4, 1906).</ref>
* 1918 Gillett: U.S. Patent to use X-rays for the preservation of food<ref>D.C. Gillet, Apparatus for preserving organic materials by the use of x-rays, US Patent No. 1,275,417 (August 13, 1918)</ref>
* 1921 Schwartz describes the elimination of Trichinella from food<ref>{{cite journal | author = Schwartz B | year = 1921 | title = Effect of X-rays on Trichinae | journal = Journal of Agricultural Research | volume = 20 | pages = 845–854 }}</ref>
* 1930 Wuest: French patent on food irradiation<ref>O. Wüst, Procédé pour la conservation d'aliments en tous genres, Brevet d'invention no.701302 (July 17, 1930)</ref>
* 1943 MIT becomes active in the field of food preservation for the U.S. Army<ref>Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Von Marcus Karel, Daryl B. Lund, CRC Press, 2003 {{ISBN|0-8247-4063-7}}, S. 462 ff.</ref>
* 1951 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission begins to co-ordinate national research activities
* 1958 World first commercial food irradiation (spices) at Stuttgart, Germany<ref name="maurer">K.F. Maurer, Zur Keimfreimachung von Gewürzen, Ernährungswirtschaft 5(1958) nr.1, 45–47</ref>
* 1963 FDA approves food irradiation. NASA begins irradiating astronaut food items to prevent food borne illness during space missions.
* 1970 Establishment of the International Food Irradiation Project (IFIP), headquarters at the Federal Research Centre for Food Preservation, Karlsruhe, Germany
* 1980 [[FAO]]/[[IAEA]]/[[WHO]] Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation recommends the clearance generally up to 10 kGy "overall average dose"<ref name="JECFI"/>
* 1981/1983 End of IFIP after reaching its goals
* 1983 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: any food at a maximum "overall average dose" of 10 kGy
* 1984 International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) becomes the successor of IFIP
* 1986 January People's Republic of China opens their first food irradiation facility in Shanghai<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wedekind |first1=Lothar H. |year=1986 |title=China's move to food irradiation |journal=IAEA Bulletin |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=53–57 |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/28205715357.pdf |access-date=July 25, 2022 |archive-date=November 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116201905/https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/28205715357.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1994 India approves irradiation of spices, potato and onion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Arun |last2=Madhusoodanan |first2=P. |title=Techno-commercial aspects of food irradiation in India |journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry |date=1 August 2012 |volume=81 |issue=8 |pages=1208–1210 |doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2011.11.033 |bibcode=2012RaPC...81.1208S }}</ref>
* 1997 FAO/IAEA/WHO Joint Study Group on High-Dose Irradiation recommends to lift any upper dose limit<ref name="JSGHDI"/>
* 1998 The European Union's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) voted in favour of eight categories of irradiation applications<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out15_en.html Scientific Committee on Food. 15.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516195055/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out15_en.html |date=May 16, 2014 }}</ref>
* 1999 The European Union adopts [[Directives (European Union)|Directives]] 1999/2/EC (framework Directive)<ref>{{cite web| url = https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31999L0002| title = Directive 1999/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning foods and food ingredients treated with ionising radiation| date = February 22, 1999| access-date = January 4, 2021| archive-date = November 18, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211118204112/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31999L0002| url-status = live}}</ref> and 1999/3/EC (implementing Directive)<ref>{{cite web| url = https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31999L0003| title = Directive 1999/3/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999 on the establishment of a Community list of foods and food ingredients treated with ionising radiation| date = February 22, 1999| access-date = January 4, 2021| archive-date = October 13, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211013195847/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31999L0003| url-status = live}}</ref> limiting irradiation a positive list whose sole content is one of the eight categories approved by the SCF, but allowing the individual states to give clearances for any food previously approved by the SCF.
* 2000 Germany leads a veto on a measure to provide a final draft for the positive list.
* 2003 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: no longer any upper dose limit
* 2003 The SCF adopts a "revised opinion" that recommends against the cancellation of the upper dose limit.<ref name="SCF Revision">[http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out193_en.pdf Scientific Committee on Food. Revised opinion #193.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903171911/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out193_en.pdf |date=September 3, 2014 }}</ref>
* 2004 ICGFI ends
* 2011 The successor to the SCF, [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA), reexamines the SCF's list and makes further recommendations for inclusion.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Statement summarising the Conclusions and Recommendations from the Opinions on the Safety of Irradiation of Food adopted by the BIOHAZ and CEF Panels|author=European Food Safety Authority|journal=EFSA Journal|volume=9|issue=4|year=2011|page=2107|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2107|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food|Technology}}
* ''[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]''
* [[Food labeling regulations]]
* [[Food and cooking hygiene]]
* [[Irradiated mail]]
* [[Chemical sterilization]]
* [[Radappertization]]
* [[Radicidation]]
* [[Radura]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[World Health Organization]] publications:
** Safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated food, WHO, Geneva, 1994
** High-dose irradiation: Wholesomeness of food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy, WHO, Geneva, 1999, Technical Report Series No. 890
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316042916/http://www.iaea.org/programmes/nafa/d5/public/foodirradiation.pdf |title=Facts about Food Irradiation, A series of Fact Sheets from the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), 1999, IAEA, Vienna, Austria |date=2006-03-16}}
* Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated foods, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.)
* Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster, 1996 (2. ed.)
* Urbain, W.M., Food irradiation, Academic Press, Orlando, 1986
* Molins, R. (ed.), Food irradiation&nbsp;– Principles and applications, Wiley Interscience, N.Y., 2001
* Sommers, C.H. and Fan, X. (eds.), Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, 2006
* ''The Food That Would Last Forever : Understanding the Dangers of Food Irradiation'', by Gary Gibbs, Garden City Park, N.Y. : Avery Pub. Group, c1993
* anon., Food Irradiation: Available Research Indicates That Benefits Outweigh Risks, RCED-00-217, August 24, 2000, Government Accountability Office, United States General Accounting Office, Resources, Community, and Economic Development Division, Washington, D.C. 20548 [https://web.archive.org/web/20101020010135/http://www.gao.gov/archive/2000/rc00217.pdf "Food Irradiation"]
* {{cite journal |last1=Farkas |first1=József |last2=Mohácsi-Farkas |first2=Csilla |title=History and future of food irradiation |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=March 2011 |volume=22 |issue=2–3 |pages=121–126 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2010.04.002 }}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429191849/http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf |title=WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds, 2003 |date=2013-04-29}}
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-irradiation/evaluation-significance-2-dodecylcyclobutanone-other-alkylcyclobutanones.html Evaluation of the Significance of 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and other Alkylcyclobutanones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802214224/https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-irradiation/evaluation-significance-2-dodecylcyclobutanone-other-alkylcyclobutanones.html |date=August 2, 2017 }}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikibooks}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Codex Alimentarius]]
** {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926234544/http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/16/CXS_106_2003e.pdf |title=Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods (CAC/STAN 106-1983, rev.1 2003) |date=2007-09-26}}
** [http://www.travelfoodblog.com/ Codex Alimentarius Recommended International Code of Practice Code for Radiation Processing of Foods (CAC/RCP 19-1979, rev.2&nbsp;– 2003)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005045002/http://www.travelfoodblog.com/ |date=October 5, 2021 }}
** [http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/32/CXS_001e.pdf General Standard for the Labelling of Prepacked Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406113402/http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/32/CXS_001e.pdf |date=April 6, 2011 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140228163613/http://www.fipa.us/ Food Irradiation Processing Alliance] FIPA represents the irradiation service industry, manufacturers of food irradiators and suppliers of cobalt-60 sources.
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304002948/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/opairrad.html |title=Irradiation of Food and Food Packaging |date=2009-03-04}}, [[Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition]] (US Government)
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316042916/http://www.iaea.org/programmes/nafa/d5/public/foodirradiation.pdf |title=Facts about Food Irradiation |date=2006-03-16}}, a series of 14 fact sheets, International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1991
* [http://www.bfa-ernaehrung.de/Bfe-Englisch/Information/irradiat.htm Bibliography on Food Irradiation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503073021/http://www.bfa-ernaehrung.de/Bfe-Englisch/Information/irradiat.htm |date=May 3, 2006 }}, Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Food, [[Karlsruhe|Karlsruhe, Germany]]
* [https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/diif/Pages/Interactive-Map.aspx IAEA interactive map of irradiation facilities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420141754/https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/diif/Pages/Interactive-Map.aspx |date=April 20, 2021 }}
* {{cite web |title=Department of Food Science Food Irradiation: To Zap or not to Zap? |url= https://fbns.ncsu.edu//extension_program/documents/foodsafety_irradiation.pdf |access-date=12 January 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907210551/http://fbns.ncsu.edu//extension_program/documents/foodsafety_irradiation.pdf | first=Kevin M. | last=Keener | publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] | archive-date=2015-09-07}}

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{{Consumer Food Safety}}

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