Editing Falisci

{{Short description|Ancient Italic people}}
{{Other uses|Faliscan (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Iron Age Italy.png|thumb|300px|Map of early Italic and surrounding languages.]]
[[File:Carte Falisques 450avJC.png|thumb|250px|Map c. 450 BC]]
[[File:Monte Soratte visto da Civita Castellana.JPG|thumb|300px|View from the general vicinity of Falerii to Monte Soratte on the southern border.]]

The '''Falisci'''{{efn|Falisci is the ancient Roman [[exonym]].}} were an [[Italic peoples|Italic tribe]] who lived in what is now northern [[Lazio]], on the Etruscan side of the [[Tiber River]].<ref name="Holland1925">{{cite book|author=Louise Adams Holland|title=The Faliscans in prehistoric times|url=https://archive.org/details/MN40034ucmf_1|year=1925|publisher=American Academy in Rome}}</ref>  They spoke an [[Italic languages|Italic]] language, [[Faliscan language|Faliscan]], closely related to [[Latin]]. Originally a sovereign state, politically and socially they supported the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], joining the Etruscan League. This conviction and affiliation led to their ultimate near destruction and total subjugation by [[Rome]].

Only one instance of their own [[endonym]] has been found to date: an inscription from Falerii Novi from the late 2nd century AD refers to the ''{{lang|xfa|falesce quei in Sardinia sunt}}'', "the Faliscans who are in [[Sardinia]]", where ''{{lang|xfa|falesce}}'' is the nominative plural case. An Etruscan inscription calls them the ''{{lang|ett|feluskeś}}''. The Latin cannot be far different from the original name. The -sc- suffix is "distinctive of the Italic ethnonyms".{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=25–26}}

==Geography==
The Falisci resided in a region called by the Romans the ''{{lang|la|Ager Faliscus}}'', "Faliscan Country", located on the right bank of the [[Tiber River]] between and including Grotta Porciosa in the north and [[Capena]] in the south. The 1st-century Roman writer [[Pliny the Elder]] and the 1st-century BCE Latin poet [[Horace]] both state that the [[Monte Soratte]] was within Faliscan territory;<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]]. ''[[wikisource:Natural_History_(Rackham,_Jones,_&_Eichholz)|Naturalis historia]]''. [[wikisource:Natural_History_(Rackham,_Jones,_&_Eichholz)/Book_7|7.2.19]].</ref><ref>[[Horace]]. ''[[wikisource:Translation:Odes_(Horace)|Odes]]''. [[wikisource:Translation:Odes_(Horace)/Book_I/9|1.9.1]].</ref> it likely functioned as the border between Faliscan country and [[Capena|Capenate]] territory. The land between Monte Soratte and the Tiber is of unclear ownership; although nearly all the 4th-3rd century BCE inscriptions from the area east of Monte Soratte are Faliscan, most scholars consider the land to have been part of the ''ager Capenas''.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=20}} To the west, the corners of the roughly square area were on the slopes of the [[Monti Sabatini]] in the south and the [[Monti Cimini]] in the north. Pollen samples from [[Lake Bracciano]], Lake Monterosi and [[Lake Vico]] reveal that the montane forests, formed by oaks, were very dense until the 2nd century BC.{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=19}} According to the 1st-century BCE Roman historian [[Livy]], the forest by Monti Cimini was dangerous for foreigners as of the 4th-century BCE; he claims that "not a single trader had, up to that time, ventured through it."{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=19}}<ref>[[Livy]]. ''[[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City|Ab urbe condita]]''. [[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City/Book_9#36|9.36]].</ref>

The arable land was contained within an enclosure of volcanic highlands and the [[Tiber River]]. The northern border of the enclosure went along the ridge of the [[Monti Cimini]], the southern along the ridge connecting the [[Monti Sabatini]] and [[Monte Soratte]], the western along the highlands connecting the two large volcanic lakes. The inner slopes are drained by streams pointing at the Tiber, which collect into converging canyons and finally into the canyon of the Treja river, which empties into the Tiber. These streams required an extensive network of bridges.

Most of the through traffic went along the [[Via Tiburtina]] on the west bank of the river, which could only be crossed south of Capena or at Grotta Porciosa in the north. There the [[Via Flaminia]], earlier the [[Via Amerina]], led inland into the country of the [[Sabines]] via the valley of the Nar River. On the western side, the [[Via Cassia]] or its predecessor led to the coast over [[Sutri]] gap. The Falisci therefore prospered by being on a protected crossroad.

The primary urban center in Faliscan territory was the city of [[Falerii]], now the modern settlement of [[Civita Castellana]]. Falerii was situated at the conjunction of several small rivers from [[Monti Sabatini]] and the larger [[Treia]] river. Following the Roman conquest of 241 BCE, the city of Falerii was destroyed and the inhabitants were moved to the less defensible position of [[Falerii Novi]].{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=20}} Another major city mentioned in ancient literature is [[Fescennia|Fescennium]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Some Excursions into Vergil's Faliscan Country: In Search of Fescennium |author=[[Bertha Tilly]] |journal=Vergilius |issue=23 |date=1977 |pages=39–49 |jstor=41591774 }}</ref> which is said by Festus to be the origin site of the [[Weddings in ancient Rome|Roman wedding]] tradition known as the [[Fescennine Verses|Fescennine verses]].{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=21}} Other Faliscan cities unmentioned by the ancient sources include [[Corchiano]], [[Vignanello]], [[Gallese]] and Grotta Porciosa.{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=20–24}}

==History==
The Falisci, often allied with the Etruscans, resisted [[ancient Rome|Rome]] for a long time. They were allied with [[Veii]] when it was defeated in 396 BC. In the aftermath, Falerii was occupied by the victorious Romans.{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=38-9}} When, in 358, [[Tarquinia]] rebelled, the Falisci again took arms against Rome, but were again crushed c. 351 BC. This time an alliance was signed between the contenders, and a Roman garrison was settled in Falerii.{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=39-40}}

The Falisci took advantage of the [[First Punic War]] to declare their independence, but their revolt ended in 241 BC with the death of 15,000 Falisci{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=41-2}} and the destruction of Falerii; the survivors were moved to a new city, ''[[Falerii Novi]]''.{{sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=42-4}}

==Culture==
[[File:Faliscan red-figure flagon attributed to the Fluid group Antikensammlung Würzburg L 813.jpg|thumb|Faliscan red-figure flagon, attributed to the Fluid group c. 350/25 BC; now Antikensammlung Würzburg, inventory number L 813]]
It is unclear precisely how the Faliscans saw themselves and what characteristics they believed separated them from neighboring cultures. The only instance of the Falisci referring to their own ethnicity comes from a 2nd-century Latin inscription from Falerii Novi describing Faliscans in [[Sardinia]]: "''falesce·quei·in·Sardinia·sunt''."{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|pp=25-26}} Ancient Roman authors sometimes equate the Falisci and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]]; the 4th-century Latin writer [[Servius the Grammarian]] calls the city of Falerii a Tuscan city and Livy calls the Falisci an Etruscan people.<ref>[[Livy]]. ''[[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City|Ab urbe condita]].'' [[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City/Book_5#8|5.8.5]]''.''</ref><ref>[[Servius the Grammarian|Maurus Servius Honoratus]]. ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3Dpr In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii].'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D7%3Acommline%3D607 A.7.607].</ref> The 1st-century BCE historian [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysus of Halicarnassus]] claimed that Faliscan culture developed from earlier, supposedly [[Pelasgians|Pelasgian]], inhabitants of the region.<ref name=":1">[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]. ''[[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft|Roman antiquities]]''. [[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft|1.21.1-2]].</ref> However, the 1st-century BCE geographer [[Strabo]] notes that the Falisci differed from the Etruscans in numerous ways: "Some say that the inhabitants of Falerii are not Etruscans, but Faliscans, a distinct people; and some, too, that the Faliscans are a ''[[polis]]'' with a distinct tongue."<ref>[[Strabo]]. ''[[iarchive:Strabo08Geography17AndIndex/Strabo 01 Geography 1-2|Geographica]]''. [[iarchive:Strabo08Geography17AndIndex/Strabo 02 Geography 3-5|5.2.9]].</ref>{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=24}}

Dionysius describes Faliscan weaponry in his works, stating that their [[Spear|spears]] and [[Buckler|bucklers]] resembled [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|Greek equipment]] used in [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. Dionysius likely intended this description to further support his proposed connection between Argos and the Falisci. He further claims that whenever the Faliscan army left their borders, they sent unarmed holy men ahead of the rest of the army carrying the terms of peace.<ref name=":2">[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]. ''[[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft|Roman antiquities]]''. [[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft/page/66|1.21.1]].</ref> [[Cato the Elder]], a 3rd-century BCE Roman politician, mentions a type of [[cattle]]-stall called the ''praesepe Faliscum'',<ref>[[Cato the Elder]]. ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/home.html De Agricultura]''. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/A*.html 4.1].</ref> although such a device was possibly not exclusive to the ''ager Faliscus''.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=27}}

=== Pottery ===
The Faliscans earned large quantities of [[Black-figure pottery|black]] and [[red-figure pottery]] from trade with the [[Attic Greek|Attic]] parts of Greece and immigration of Attic artisans.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=566}}{{Sfn|Pola|2018|p=635}}{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=89}} By the 4th-century BCE, the red-figure style became the predominant type of pottery in the ''ager Faliscus''.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=566}} During this same century, the city of Falerii experienced significant artistic development; 4th-century BCE pottery from Falerii demonstrates standardized design and highly technical craftsmanship.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=83}} [[Vincent Jolviet]] studied Faliscan tombs and divided Faliscan red-figure pottery into two categories: the "Style ancien," which comprises pottery produced around 380 BCE, and the "Style récent," consisting of pottery made from 340-280 BCE.{{Sfn|Verreyke|2002|p=44}} The ancient Faliscan style contained distinctly Faliscan characteristics such as the decorations under the handles, although it remained strongly influenced by its Attic origins. In contrast, the recent style shows greater evidence of technical differences from Attic pottery: decorations in the recent style were painted without relief-lines, using thin, rushed, and watery paint lines instead.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=90}} Late Faliscan pottery contained [[Volute|volutes]], tongue-decorations on the shoulders, and [[Palmette|palmettes]] beneath the handles. Dionysian imagery,{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=90}} such as depictions of [[Satyr|satyrs]] and [[Maenad|maenads]] alongside birds, also became staples of late Faliscan pottery. Winged figures were used to fill up blank spaces easily, expediting the production process.{{Sfn|Verreyke|2002|p=46}}

=== Social structure ===
The exact political mechanisms underpinning Faliscan society remain unclear due to limited archaeological evidence. Middle Faliscan inscriptions mention the political position of ''efiles'', a term that may have emerged as a [[calque]] on the Latin word ''[[Aedile|aedilis]].'' Late Faliscan inscriptions from Falerii Novi (dated to after the Roman conquest) mention a ''cuestod'' ([[quaestor]]), a [[Roman censor|censor]], several ''duouiri'' ([[Duumviri]]), and a ''pretod'' ([[praetor]]) that served a—possibly local—[[Roman Senate|senate]]. The term ''rex'', meaning "king," appears on the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' in a Middle Faliscan text. It is possible that this position performed religious duties, similar to the Roman ''[[Rex Sacrorum|Rex sacrorum]]''. The title appears at the end of the ''cursus'', indicating that these magistrates may have served for a limited duration of time or served periodically. Another possible explanation for this placement is that the office was not a part of the traditional Roman ''cursus honorum''.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=30}}

The usage of [[patronymic]] instead of [[matronymic]] [[Filiation|filiations]] indicates that Faliscan society may have been somewhat [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]].{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=28}} There are several examples of Faliscan praenomina which are seemingly unique to Faliscan culture or are rare outside of the ''ager Faliscus''; the names ''Iuna'' and ''Volta'' are included within this category, they are especially unique as they are masculine names with the ending -''a''. Other names such as ''Gaius'' and ''Gaia'' are much more common in Faliscan inscriptions than in other cultures. Instances of double [[Nomen gentilicium|gentillicum]] are found in a Middle Faliscan inscription containing the name ''uel[ · ]uisni · olna'' and in a Middle or Late Faliscan text containing the name ''m · tito · tulio · uoltilio · hescuna.'' In Etruscan culture, this naming convention was used to mark an individual as a [[freedman]]. One Middle Faliscan inscription from Falerii mentions a freedwoman named ''loụṛia'' who was inhumed in the same ''loculus'' as the freeborn ''fasies : c[ai]sia''.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=29}}

=== Literature ===
[[File:Camille livre le maître d'école de Faléries à ses écoliers - Nicolas Poussin - Louvre.jpg|thumb|228x228px|Painting of the Faliscan schoolmaster by 17th-century French painter [[Nicolas Poussin]]]]
Faliscan impasto pottery from the 7th-century BCE sometimes bear the signatures of their creators, a mark that possibly signified that the works were commissioned by individuals of high social-standing. Inscriptions such as those found on pottery, alongside the numerous other examples of Faliscan writing, suggest that some segments of the population were [[Literacy|literate]]. Although, levels of literacy amongst the Faliscan people likely varied significantly between different social classes.{{Sfn|Biella|2024|p=331}} The 1st-century BCE Roman historian [[Livy]] provides information on Faliscan schooling practices; he states that, like the Greeks, they placed several boys under the tutorship of one man who functioned as both the teacher and companion of the children. Livy recites a specific incidence of a well-educated schoolmaster who was entrusted with teaching the children of the local leaders. According to Livy, this man took his students outside the walls of the city of Falerii for play and exercise. During the war with the Romans, the teacher was said by Livy to have taken the students further and further from the walls each day, until he saw the opportunity to flee to the Roman camp with the children and surrendered them to the Roman general [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camillus]]. Livy states that Camillus refused to accept the hostages, instead declaring that Falerii shall be conquered through Roman bravery and strategy; Camillus is said to have given the children rods and instructed them to lead the schoolmaster back to the city whilst beating him. Livy concluded by stating that the local Faliscan magistrates were so impressed by this display of Roman virtue, that they voluntarily surrendered themselves believing that they would live better under the Romans than their own laws.{{Sfn|Kraus|2021|pp=150-151}}<ref>[[Livy]]. ''[[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City|Ab urbe condita]]''. [[wikisource:From_the_Founding_of_the_City/Book_5#27|5.27]].</ref> There is some evidence of a distinctly Faliscan literature; the Fescennine verses are attributed to the Faliscans and the ''metrum Faliscum'' (Faliscan [[Metre (poetry)|meter]]) may also have been created by the Falisci, although the ''metrum Faliscum'' is attributed to an unknown author named Serenus by the 2nd-century [[Latin grammar|Latin grammarian]] [[Terentianus]].<ref>[[Terentianus]]''. [https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost02/Terentianus/ter_gra0.html De metris]''. [https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost02/Terentianus/ter_gra3.html 6.385.1992].</ref> Servius states that several laws in the [[Twelve Tables]] derive from the Faliscans, however no original Faliscan laws have survived.<ref name=":0">[[Servius the Grammarian|Maurus Servius Honoratus]]. ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3Dpr In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii].'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Serv.+A.+7.695&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053 A.7.695.]</ref>

=== Funerary practices ===
Possibly the most uniquely Faliscan aspect of Faliscan material culture was their funerary rites. During the beginning of the 8th-century BCE, around the earliest periods of Faliscan history, they [[Cremation|cremated]] their dead and stored the [[Ash|ashes]] in stone [[Cist|cists]]. By the last quarter of the 8th-century BCE, burial became more common for upper-class women while cremation remained common for upper-class men.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=853}} Throughout the rest of the century, Faliscan burial practices evolved towards inhumation in trench or pit tombs and then the usage of [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]]. Sarcophagi were replaced with wooden caskets typically made from a hollowed [[Trunk (botany)|tree trunk]] by the end of the century.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=853}} [[Loculus (architecture)|Loculi]]—a specific type of burial [[Niche (architecture)|niche]]—began to be incorporated into Faliscan funerary sites around this time, becoming grave sites themselves by the end of the century.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Turfa|2014|p=45}} Loculus tombs can be divided into two distinct categories depending upon the number of loculi: the [[Narce]] type, containing one loculus, and the Montarano type, containing two. Another loculus tomb discovered in the Celle necropolis uniquely does not contain two loculi placed on opposite walls, but instead on adjacent walls in an L-shaped formation.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=564}}{{Sfn|Tabolli|Turfa|2014|p=49}} In the first quarter of the 7th-century BCE, the Faliscans began to use [[Rock-cut tomb|rock-cut]] [[Chamber tomb|chamber tombs]].{{Sfn|Biella|2024|p=332}}{{Sfn|Turfa|2013|p=263}} In the northern and southern regions of Faliscan territory, it is common for the chamber tombs to be carved around a [[pilaster]]. Faliscan chamber tombs often contain multiple loculi closed with [[Tile|tiles]], a layout unlike other contemporary cultures.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=564}}

In Narce, a 2.8 by 1.55 [[Metre|meter]] Faliscan sarcophagus was uncovered buried within a 1.45-meter-deep hole in 2012. The sarcophagus was contained inside a recess at the bottom of a trench filled with [[sand]]. At the long ends of the sarcophagus, a layer of compacted [[tufa]] fragments held the coffin in place. It was enclosed with a layer of irregularly placed rocks, which are then placed beneath separate layers of [[coal]] mixed with [[clay]] underneath a layer of sand and [[pozzolana]]. The final layer, covering all previous strata, consists of large tufa blocks mixed with clay. On the bottom of the sarcophagus, a drainage channel roughly shaped like the letter "Y" ending in a circular hole likely functioned to remove [[slurry]] and natural [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] [[Liquefaction|liquified]] as part of the process of [[decomposition]]. This drainage system potentially motivated the unique sloped position of the sarcophagus; the placement on a slope allowed the fluids the flow out of the tomb. Collectively, these practices served to protect the tomb from damage and to preserve the body; in particular, the drainage of fluids helped to delay the rotting of the corpse and possibly to ritualistically purify the body. The grave goods were likely stolen prior to excavation, although remnants of a cup and a bronze [[fusiform]] [[pendant]] were uncovered.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2013|pp=|p=18}}

==== Burial goods ====
Faliscan [[grave goods|funerary goods]] varied depending upon the social status of the deceased; the graves of elites had more ostentatious collections of objects while the graves of lower-class persons stored few offerings.{{Sfn|Turfa|2013|p=270}} One of the most common burial items in Faliscan society was a type of Etruscan [[vase]] called a ''[[holmos]]''; the number of ''holmoi'' in a grave is often equivalent to the number of burials.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=565}} In many circumstances, the grave goods of Faliscan burials were heavily influenced by the material culture of nearby pre-Roman societies. For instance, a [[bronze]] bowl with a [[cuneiform]] inscription was found in a grave in Falerii.{{Sfn|Biella|2024|p=332}} [[Trade route|Trade routes]] connecting various civilizations from across the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] likely brought material goods from various distinct cultures to the ''ager Faliscus''. It is likely that these trade routes, in particular commercial routes with the Etruscans, are responsible for the numerous foreign objects found in Faliscan burials.{{Sfn|Biella|2024|p=333}} During the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, the Faliscans traded with the [[Attic Greek|Attic]] parts of Greece, resulting in large quantities of black and red-figure pottery appearing in Faliscan sites.{{Sfn|Tabolli|Neri|2017|p=566}}

Adult Faliscans were buried with grave goods reflecting their role within society; men were often buried with spears and [[Sword|swords]] on the left side of their corpse while women were often buried with tools for [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] or [[weaving]] such as [[Spindle whorl|spindle whorls]], wooden [[Spindle (stationery)|spindles]], a weaving comb pendant, and [[Distaff|distaffs]]. Bronze distaffs occupy the same position in the tombs of women as weaponry occupies in the graves of men. These distaffs were often ornately decorated with [[inlay]] of amber and [[gold]]. They likely did not serve a utilitarian function for spinning like regular distaffs; instead, they probably served a ceremonial purpose.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=857}} [[Linen]] is mentioned as a characteristic feature of the Faliscan people by the 1st-century CE Roman writer [[Silius Italicus]].{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=857}}<ref>[[Silius Italicus]]. ''[[iarchive:punicasi01siliuoft|Punica]]''. [[iarchive:punicasi01siliuoft/page/184|4.223]].</ref> Although weapons such as swords and spears are most often found in male graves, ritual [[Axe|axes]] have been uncovered in female graves. In one burial, a 30–40-year-old woman was buried with a miniature axe covering her [[forehead]]. This grave good likely reflected the significance of women or priestesses for religious [[sacrifice]]; it possibly reflects a more specific connection between women and the division of the meat of sacrificed animals.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=857}} 

The graves of female [[Adolescence|adolescents]] or children uniquely contain smaller, scaled down burial goods that lack any reference to work-related activities and are sometimes connected to childhood play; they also usually, although not always, lack any reference to the funerary [[symposium]]. It was common for the clothing of young girls to be covered in metal plates sometimes adorned with [[Swastika|swastikas]]. Within a Faliscan tomb on the slopes of [[Monte Greco]] are the bodies of a mother and daughter, both buried in a trench tomb. Both women wore [[Jewellery|jewelry]], although mother has larger amounts of jewelry and the highest-quality jewelry.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=855}} The mother was buried with [[amber]] pendants that possibly functioned to protect [[fertility]], one of which depicts a woman with their bare hands grasping their belly and the other portrays a [[monkey]].{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=856}} Another, likely fertility-related, pendant from a tomb in [[Pizzo Piede]] depicts a woman placing both her hands on her [[Hip|hips]], drawing attention to the [[Pubis (bone)|pubis]]. This same tomb contains a two-wheeled [[chariot]] as a grave good, possibly symbolic of the wedding and funeral rituals as well as the journey into the [[afterlife]].{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=859}}

Archaeological analysis of a cremated Faliscan woman from Narce, who either had recently given birth or was in the late stages of [[pregnancy]], revealed that a [[necklace]] of [[Glass casting|glass paste]] and [[amber]] [[Bead|beads]] was placed inside the ''[[Olla (Roman pot)|olla]]'' following the cremation. Beads placed next to objects relating to the mother are similarly found in other structures identified as the graves of infants or female children.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=854}} Amber is common throughout upper-class Faliscan graves in Narce, likely reflecting a high demand for exotic products. However, amber decorations and full-sized [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulae]] are primarily found in the graves of women over 30. The material was used to make complex necklaces, embellish tools or the parts of clothing, and—primarily in Narce—to make figurines. Amber figurines are almost exclusively found in female graves, although male graves sometimes contain several amber beads or some amber in fibulae.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=856}}

Faliscan burial goods contain evidence for Faliscan fashion styles and [[cosmetics]], Figures depicting heads of women found in female—likely high-class—burials that potentially served as wedding gifts, also provide archaeologists with depictions of Faliscan [[Hairstyle|hairstyles]]; they suggest that Faliscan women may have used a [[Snood (headgear)|snood]] to cover their hear. Further evidence for this piece of headgear derives from a mid-4th-century BCE tomb in [[Coste di Manone]]; the tomb contains a female skeleton with the remains of hair and fabric, possibly once a component of a snood [[Embroidery|embroidered]] with a purple or blue thread.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=860}} Women are also found buried with [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]] goods such as—from the 6th-century BCE onwards—bronze [[Mirror|mirrors]]. One [[Ceramic glaze|glazed]] black cup from the 3rd-century BCE, contains evidence of a red powder possibly used as [[lipstick]] or a [[Rouge (cosmetics)|rouge]].{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=859}} Ancient Faliscan women may have used cylindrical cases to store cosmetic products. Evidence for this is found in a Faliscan [[krater]] made in the mid-4th-century BCE, although the usage of these objects for this purpose was likely not as common as in other regions such as [[Latium]].{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=860}} The Faliscans had a tradition of decorating the [[Urn|cinerary urns]] of women with clothing and garments. Funerary ''ollae'' belonging to women from the [[Tufi]] necropolis were richly ornamented with clothing designs, one urn was wrapped in a belt that likely symbolically represented the body of the deceased. In Narce, the necks of cinerary urns were covered in fibulae and pendants.{{Sfn|Brolli|Tabolli|2016|p=857}}

=== Religion ===
Several Faliscan deities are attested in Faliscan writings. The "[[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] inscription," a Faliscan text dated to the 7th or 6th centuries BCE mentioning the name of the goddess Ceres,{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=34}} reads "''ceres ⁝ farme[    ]tom ⁝ louf[    ]rui[    ]m: [     ]kad''." The name "''ceres''" is closely connected to the word "''far''," meaning [[grain]]; Ceres, an agricultural goddess, is closely connected to grain in [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]]. It is also possible that the inscription mentions the name ''loụfir'', potentially referring to the god [[Liber]]—a Roman [[viticulture]] deity—in connection to the Faliscan word ''uinom'', meaning wine.{{Sfn|Joseph|Klein|1981|p=293}} However, this interpretation of the text is rejected as "epigraphically impossible" by the Faliscan scholar Gabriël Bakkum.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=209}}

According to the 1st-century BCE Roman writer [[Ovid]], Faliscan culture heavily emphasized the worship of the goddess [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]]: Ovid refers to the Faliscans as "''Iunonicolae''" in his poem ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]''.<ref>[[Ovid]]. ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0547%3Abook%3D1 Fasti]''. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0547%3Abook%3D6 6.49].</ref> Ovid described a Faliscan temple of Juno he visited, stating that it resembled [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] structures and reached placed in a clearing surrounded by dark woods reached via a steep road.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=84}} Another sanctuary at Falerii likely dedicated to Juno contains votive offerings such as axes, spear heads, and a bronze statuette depicting a warrior.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=86}} Dionysius believed that the Faliscan civilization originated from [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], citing the supposed similarities between the temple of Juno in Falerii and the temple of [[Hera]] at Argos.<ref>[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]]. ''[[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft|Roman antiquities]]''. [[iarchive:romanantiquities01dionuoft/page/66|1.21.2]].</ref> Dionysius and Ovid both state that the cult of Juno at Falerii continued into their lifetime.<ref>[[Ovid]]. ''[https://sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/lboo/ Ars Amatoria]''. [https://sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/lboo/lboo55.htm 3.13].</ref> Archaeological evidence corroborates this narrative; ancient Roman inscriptions suggest that the cult of [[Quiritis|Juno Curritis]] was active during the reign of [[Trajan|Emperor Trajan]] ({{Reign|98|117}}).<ref>{{CIL|11|3100}}</ref><ref>{{CIL|11|3125}}</ref> However, the religious practices of the cult under Roman occupation may not accurately reflect the traditional Faliscan practices.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=32}}[[File:Faliscan inscription on a bronze plate from Santa Maria di Falleri.svg|thumb|311x311px|Latin inscription in the Faliscan alphabet mentioning the name ''Menerua'', meaning [[Minerva]].]]Various Roman authors mention another popular Faliscan cult called the ''[[Hirpi Sorani]]'' who were said to have conducted ceremonies at Monte Sorratte. This ritual is entirely unmentioned in the epigraphical record, save for one inscription possibly containing the word ''sorex'' ("priest") that is potentially connected to this practice.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=33}} Roman authors largely connect the ''Hirpi Sorani'' to the god [[Apollo]], an account that is supported by Faliscan inscriptions mentioning cult sites of Apollo.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=33}} The Faliscans may have worshipped a deity unique to their culture called ''Titus Mercus'', a god possibly related to Oscan [[Mercus]] or the Roman [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]. [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] is possibly attested in a broken Middle Faliscan inscription reading "''[...]s pater''." The inscription can be restored as something resembling "dies pater," an archaic name for Jupiter.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=203}} Further evidence for Jupiter worship in Faliscan culture comes a statue possibly depicting Jupiter found in a temple in [[Civita Castellana]].{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=93}} [[Minerva]] is attested for in the same Middle Faliscan text, which contains the word "''menerua''."{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=204}} Ovid proposes that the goddess Minerva earned the [[epithet]] ''Capta'' due to an ''[[evocatio]]'' from the Faliscans.<ref>[[Ovid]]. ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0547%3Abook%3D1 Fasti]''. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0547%3Abook%3D3 3.843-844].</ref> Italian archaeologist [[Mario Torelli]] argued that the Roman cult of Minerva Capta predated the conquest of the Faliscans and that the ''evocatio'' merely referred to the capture of the Faliscan statue of Minerva.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=84}} Similarly, the Roman writers [[Macrobius]] and Servius both claim that the cult of [[Janus Quadrifrons|Janus Quadrifons]] was brought to Rome after the conquest of the ''ager Faliscus''.<ref>[[Servius the Grammarian|Maurus Servius Honoratus]]. ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3Dpr In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii].'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D7%3Acommline%3D607 A.7.607].</ref><ref>[[Macrobius]]. ''[https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL510/2011/volume.xml Saturnalia]''. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/macrobius-saturnalia/2011/pb_LCL510.97.xml 1.9.13].</ref>{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=34}} 

Faliscan legends and tales are almost exclusively attested on through artwork depicting mythological scenes, often events from [[Etruscan religion|Etruscan mythology]]. However, one Middle Faliscan inscription mentions the name ''canumede'', implying that the Faliscans shared the story of [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] with other cultures.{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=35}} Ganymede is possibly depicted in a headless statue of a naked young boy holding an ''[[oenochoe]]'' found in a Faliscan temple. If this statue does portray Ganymede, then it possibly indicates that the deity was involved in ceremonial [[Rite of passage|rites of passage]] for young men in the city.{{Sfn|Harari|2010|p=94}} Few Faliscan religious positions are described in the sources; one inscription mentions a ''[[haruspex]]'', another mentions a ''rex'' possibly connected to the Rex sacrorum, and Servius claims the ''[[Fetial|fetiales]]'' priesthood originated from the Faliscans.<ref name=":0" /> Two Faliscan festivals, the ''Struppearia'' and ''decimatrus'' are described by the 2nd-century Roman grammarian [[Sextus Pompeius Festus|Festus]].{{Sfn|Bakkum|2009|p=34}} According to Dionysius, holy women had an important religious function at the temple of Juno in Falerii; he writes that an unmarried girl, called the "''canephorus''" or the "basket-bearer," performed the initial sacrificial rites and that an [[Ensemble (musical theatre)|ensemble]] of virgins sung songs in praise of the goddess.<ref name=":2" />  

===Language===
{{Main|Faliscan language}}
The Faliscan language, attested by the 7th century BC is an [[Indo-European]] language. Together with [[Latin]], it forms the [[Latino-Faliscan languages]] group of the Italic languages. It seems probable that the language persisted, being gradually permeated with Latin, until at least 150 BC.{{sfn|Conway|1911}}

==See also==
* [[Etruria]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Sources==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Falisci
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* {{cite book |first=Gabriël CLM |last=Bakkum |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vUvIWIQMDokC |title=The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship |location=Amsterdam |language=en |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |volume=Part I |series=Thesis, University of Amsterdam |year=2009}}
* {{Citation |last=Biella |first=Maria |title=The Oxford Handbook of Pre-Roman Italy (1000--49 BCE) |date=February 22, 2024 |editor-last=Mauiro |editor-first=Marco |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/56001 |chapter=The Faliscans and the Capenates |pages=330–341 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/56001/chapter/441008084 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199987894.013.56|isbn=978-0-19-998789-4 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Brolli |first1=Maria |title=A special sarcophagus for a Faliscan Wake |url=https://www.academia.edu/2367995|journal=Etruscan News|year=2013|last2=Tabolli|first2=Jacopo}}
* {{Citation |last1=Brolli |first1=Maria |title=Women in Antiquity |date=August 23, 2016 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315621425 |chapter=The Ager Faliscus and its women |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315621425-68/ager-faliscus-women-maria-anna-de-lucia-brolli-jacopo-tabolli |edition=1st |publication-place=[[London]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-131-562-142-5 |last2=Tabolli |first2=Jacopo|doi=10.4324/9781315621425-68 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Maurizio |year=2010 |title=The Imagery of the Etrusco-Faliscan Pantheon |url=https://www.academia.edu/1481470 }}
*{{EB1911 |wstitle=Falisci |volume=10 |page=148 |first=Robert Seymour |last=Conway |author-link=Robert Seymour Conway}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Joseph |first1=Lionel S. |last2=Klein |first2=Jared S. |date=1981 |title=A New Restoration in the Faliscan Ceres-Inscription with Notes on Latin Molere and Its Italic Cognates |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/311178 |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |volume=85 |pages=293–300 |doi=10.2307/311178 |jstor=311178 |issn=0073-0688}}
* {{Citation |last=Kraus |first=Christina Shuttleworth |title=Livy's Faliscan Schoolmaster |date=2021-01-08 |work=Usages of the Past in Roman Historiography |pages=146–168 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004445086/BP000019.xml?rskey=m70xva&result=1 |access-date=2024-09-01 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-44508-6}}
* {{Citation |last1=Tabolli |first1=Jacopo |title=The Faliscans and the Capenates |date=2017-11-20 |pages=559–578 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781614513001-029 |access-date=2024-08-28 |publisher=De Gruyter |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781614513001-029 |isbn=978-1-61451-300-1 |last2=Neri |first2=Sara}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Tabolli |first1=Jacopo |last2=Turfa |first2=Jean MacIntosh |date=2014-05-31 |title=Discovered Anew: A Faliscan Tomb-Group from Falerii-Celle in Philadelphia |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/etst-2014-0009/html |journal=Etruscan Studies |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=28–62 |doi=10.1515/etst-2014-0009 |issn=2163-8217}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Pola |first=Angela |date=2018 |title=The Adonis Painter: A Faliscan Red-Figure Painter and His Group |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26600545 |journal=Archeologia Classica |volume=69 |pages=635–656 |jstor=26600545 |issn=0391-8165}}
*{{Cite book |last=Turfa |first=Jean |url=https://archive.org/details/the-etruscan-world |title=The Etruscan World |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-113-405-523-4 |year=2013}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Verreyke |first=Hélène |date=2002-01-01 |title=The Faliscan Red-Figured Stamnos of Ghent University |url=https://www.academia.edu/121468124 |journal=Bulletin Antieke Beschaving|volume=77 |pages=43–48 |doi=10.2143/BAB.77.0.94 }}
==Further reading==
* Carlucci, Claudia. ''Villa Giulia Museum: The Antiquities of the Faliscans''. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider, 1998.
*{{Citation |last1=De Lucia Brolli |first1=Maria Anna |title=The Faliscans and the Etruscans |work=The Etruscan World |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203526965.ch14 |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-52696-5 |last2=Tabolli |first2=Jacopo|date=2011 |doi=10.4324/9780203526965.ch14 }}
* Holland, Louise Adams. ''The Faliscans in Prehistoric Times''. Rome: American Academy in Rome, 1925.
* Potter, T. W. ''A Faliscan Town in South Etruria: Excavations at Narce 1966-71''. London: British School at Rome, 1976.
*{{Cite book |title=The Oxford handbook of pre-Roman Italy (1000-49 BCE) |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-998789-4 |editor-last=Maiuro |editor-first=Marco |series=Oxford handbooks series |location=New York |editor-last2=Botsford Johnson |editor-first2=Jane}}
**{{Citation |last=van Heems |first=Gilles |title=The Latinization of Pre-Roman Italy |date=2024-02-22 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Pre-Roman Italy (1000--49 BCE) |pages=622–636 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199987894.013.37 |access-date=2024-05-29 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199987894.013.37 |isbn=978-0-19-998789-4}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Falisci| ]]
[[Category:Italic peoples]]