Editing Euphrates

{{Short description|River in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria}}
{{About|the river in Mesopotamia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox river
 | name                 = Euphrates
 | native_name          = 
 | native_name_lang     = 
 | name_other           = 
 | name_etymology       = from Akkadian Purattu, from Sumerian ''Burannu''
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
 | image                = The Euphrates River in Turkey, Rumkale (52031477798).jpg
 | image_size           = 300
 | image_caption        = The Euphrates in [[Gaziantep Province]], Turkey.
 | map                  = Tigr-euph.png
 | map_size             = 300
 | map_caption          = Map of the combined [[Tigris]]–Euphrates [[drainage basin]] (in yellow)
 | pushpin_map          = 
 | pushpin_map_size     = 300
 | pushpin_map_caption  = 
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
 | subdivision_type1    = Country
 | subdivision_name1    = [[Turkey]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]]
 | subdivision_type2   = Source region
 | subdivision_name2   = [[Armenian highlands]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Euphrates-River|title=Euphrates River &#124; Definition, Location, & Facts &#124; Britannica|access-date=12 April 2022|archive-date=24 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624111133/https://www.britannica.com/place/Euphrates-River|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | subdivision_type3    = 
 | subdivision_name3    = 
 | subdivision_type4    = Cities
 | subdivision_name4    = [[Birecik]], [[Raqqa]], [[Deir ez-Zor]], [[Mayadin]], [[Haditha]], [[Ramadi]], [[Habbaniyah]], [[Fallujah]], [[Kufa]], [[Samawah]], [[Nasiriyah]]
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
 | length               = Approx. {{convert|2800|km|mi|abbr=on}}
 | width_min            = 
 | width_avg            = 
 | width_max            = 
 | depth_min            = 
 | depth_avg            = 
 | depth_max            = 
 | discharge1_location  = [[Hīt]]
 | discharge1_min       = {{convert|58|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | discharge1_avg       = {{convert|356|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | discharge1_max       = {{convert|2514|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
 | source1              = [[Murat River]]
 | source1_location     = [[Çat]], Turkey
 | source1_coordinates  = {{Coord|39.729|41.223|format=dms|display=i}}
 | source1_elevation    = {{convert|3520|m|abbr=on}}
 | source2              = [[Karasu (Euphrates)|Karasu]]
 | source2_location     = [[Yakutiye]], Turkey
 | source2_coordinates  = {{Coord|40.190|41.507|format=dms|display=i}}
 | source2_elevation    = {{convert|3290|m|abbr=on}}
 | source_confluence    = 
 | source_confluence_location = [[Keban]], Turkey
 | source_confluence_coordinates = {{Coord|39.729|40.257|format=dms|display=i}}
 | source_confluence_elevation = {{convert|610|m|abbr=on}}
 | mouth                = [[Shatt al-Arab]]
 | mouth_location       = [[Al-Qurnah]], Iraq
 | mouth_coordinates    = {{coord|31|0|18|N|47|26|31|E|display=inline,title}}
 | mouth_elevation      = {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}}
 | progression          = [[Shatt al-Arab]] → [[Persian Gulf]]
 | river_system         = [[Tigris–Euphrates river system]]
 | basin_size           = Approx. {{convert|500000|km2|abbr=on}}
 | tributaries_left     = [[Balikh River|Balikh]], [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]]
 | tributaries_right    = [[Sajur River|Sajur]]
 | custom_label         = 
 | custom_data          = 
 | mapframe = yes | mapframe-wikidata=yes | mapframe-zoom=4 | mapframe-height=250 | mapframe-stroke-width=1.5
}}

The '''Euphrates''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Euphrates.ogg|juː|ˈ|f|r|eɪ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|yoo|FRAY|teez}}; see [[#Etymology|below]])<!--names in other languages go in the etymology section, not here--> is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of [[West Asia]]. [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Together]] with the [[Tigris]], it is one of the two defining rivers of [[Mesopotamia]] ({{literal translation|the land between the rivers}}). Originating in [[Turkey]], the Euphrates flows through [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] to join the Tigris in the [[Shatt al-Arab]] in [[Iraq]], which empties into the [[Persian Gulf]].

The Euphrates is the [[List of longest rivers of Asia|fifteenth-longest river]] in Asia and the longest in West Asia, at about {{convert|2780|km|mi|abbr=on}}, with a drainage area of {{convert|440000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} that covers six countries.

== Etymology ==
The term ''Euphrates'' derives from the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] ''Euphrátēs'' ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:Εὐφράτης#Ancient Greek|Εὐφρᾱ́της]]}}), adapted from {{langx|peo|𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢|translit=<sup>h</sup>Ufrātuš}},<ref>{{harvnb|Negev|Gibson|2001|p=169}}</ref> itself from {{langx|elx|𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖|translit=Úipratuiš}}. The Elamite name is ultimately derived from [[cuneiform]] 𒌓𒄒𒉣; read as ''Buranun'' in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and ''Purattu'' in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]; many cuneiform signs have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same. The Akkadian ''Purattu''<ref>{{harvnb|Woods|2005}}</ref> has been perpetuated in [[Semitic languages]] (cf. {{langx|ar|الفرات}} ''al-Furāt''; {{langx|syr|̇ܦܪܬ}} ''Pǝrāṯ'', {{langx|he|פְּרָת}} ''Pǝrāṯ'') and in other nearby languages of the time (cf. [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]] ''Puranti'', [[Subartu|Sabarian]] ''Uruttu''). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded [[substrate language]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Witzel |chapter=Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Substrates, Migrations and Trade |title=Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World |editor-first=Victor H. |editor-last=Mair |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |date=2006 |chapter-url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/C._ASIA_.pdf |access-date=19 February 2012 |archive-date=16 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916080936/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/C._ASIA_.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|Vyacheslav Ivanov]] suggest the proto-Sumerian ''*burudu'' "copper" (Sumerian ''urudu'') as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=PA616 |title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture |page=616 |first1=Thomas |last1=Gamkrelidze |first2=Vjaceslav |last2=V. Ivanov |year=1995 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9783110815030 |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909215916/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=PA616 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Euphrates is called ''Yeprat'' in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ({{lang|hy|Եփրատ}}), ''Perat'' in modern Hebrew ({{lang|he|פרת}}), {{lang|tr|Fırat}} in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and {{lang|ku|Firat}} in [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]. The [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] name is {{transliteration|myz|Praš}} ({{lang|myz|ࡐࡓࡀࡔ}}), and is often mentioned as {{transliteration|myz|Praš [[Ziwa (Aramaic)|Ziwa]]}} (pronounced {{transliteration|myz|Fraš Ziwa}}) in [[Mandaean scriptures]] such as the ''[[Ginza Rabba]]''.<ref name="GR Gelbert">{{cite book |url=https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/ |last1=Gelbert |first1=Carlos |title=Ginza Rba |year=2011 |publisher=Living Water Books |location=Sydney |isbn=9780958034630 |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316031021/https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Mandaean scriptures, the Euphrates is considered to be the earthly manifestation of the heavenly [[yardna]] or flowing river (similar to the [[Yazidi]] concept of [[Lalish]] being the earthly manifestation of its heavenly counterpart,<ref name="Nasoraia 2021">{{cite book|last=Nasoraia|first=Brikha H.S.|author-link=Brikha Nasoraia|title=The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought|publisher=Sterling|publication-place=New Delhi|year=2021|isbn=978-81-950824-1-4|oclc=1272858968}}</ref>  or the ‘Sacred House’ [[Kaaba]] in [[Mekka|Mecca]] being the earthly manifestation of the heavenly Al-Bayt Al-Mamur).<ref>{{Citation |last1=Manouchehri |first1=Faramarz Haj |title=al-Bayt al-Maʿmūr |date=2013-12-04 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/al-bayt-al-mamur-COM_000000116 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |access-date=2023-10-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |last2=Waley |first2=M. I.}}</ref>

The earliest references to the Euphrates come from [[cuneiform]] texts found in [[Shuruppak]] and pre-[[Sargon of Akkad|Sargonic]] [[Nippur]] in southern [[Iraq]] and date to the mid-[[3rd millennium BCE]]. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called ''Buranuna'' ([[logogram|logographic]]: UD.KIB.NUN). The name could also be written KIB.NUN.(NA) or <sup>d</sup>KIB.NUN, with the prefix "<sup>[[Dingir|d]]</sup>" indicating that the river was a [[divinity]]. In Sumerian, the name of the city of [[Sippar]] in modern-day Iraq was also written UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river.

== Course ==
[[File:Plan, topographic representation of Babylon. The clay tablet depicts "Tu-ba", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon. The River Euphrates is represented by the water-lined band. Shamash Gate (Abul Shamash) is seen at the lower part.jpg|thumb|Plan, topographic representation of Babylon. The clay tablet depicts "Tu-ba", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon. The River Euphrates is represented by the water-lined band. 660-500 BCE. British Museum]]
The Euphrates is the longest river of [[West Asia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zarins|1997|p=287}}</ref> It emerges from the confluence of the [[Karasu (Euphrates)|Kara Su]] or Western Euphrates ({{convert|450|km}}) and the [[Murat River|Murat Su]] or Eastern Euphrates ({{convert|650|km}}) {{convert|10|km}} upstream from the town of [[Keban]] in southeastern Turkey.<ref name=neweden2006a71>{{harvnb|Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works|2006a|p=71}}</ref> Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the [[Tigris]] at {{convert|3000|km}}, of which {{convert|1230|km}} is in [[Turkey]], {{convert|710|km}} in [[Syria]] and {{convert|1060|km}} in Iraq.<ref name=daoudy63>{{harvnb|Daoudy|2005|p=63}}</ref><ref name=frenken65>{{harvnb|Frenken|2009|p=65}}</ref> The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova.<ref name=isaevmikhailova384>{{harvnb|Isaev|Mikhailova|2009|p=384}}</ref> The length of the [[Shatt al-Arab]], which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the [[Persian Gulf]], is given by various sources as {{convert|145|–|195|km}}.<ref name=isaevmikhailova388>{{harvnb|Isaev|Mikhailova|2009|p=388}}</ref>

Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from [[Lake Van]] at elevations of {{convert|3290|m}} and {{convert|3520|m}} [[Above mean sea level|amsl]], respectively.<ref name=mutin2>{{harvnb|Mutin|2003|p=2}}</ref> At the location of the [[Keban Dam]], the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of {{convert|693|m}} amsl. From Keban to the Syrian–Turkish border, the river drops another {{convert|368|m}} over a distance of less than {{convert|600|km}}. Once the Euphrates enters the [[Upper Mesopotamia]]n plains, its [[Grade (slope)|grade]] drops significantly; within Syria the river falls {{convert|163|m}} while over the last stretch between [[Hīt]] and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only {{convert|55|m}}.<ref name=neweden2006a71/><ref name=bilen100>{{harvnb|Bilen|1994|p=100}}</ref>

=== Discharge===
The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. [[Discharge (hydrology)|Discharge]] in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn.<ref name=isaevmikhailova384/><ref name=neweden2006a91>{{harvnb|Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works|2006a|p=91}}</ref> The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as {{convert|20.9|km3}} at Keban, {{convert|36.6|km3}} at [[Hīt]] and {{convert|21.5|km3}} at [[Hindiya]].<ref name=isaevmikhailova385>{{harvnb|Isaev|Mikhailova|2009|p=385}}</ref> However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at [[Birecik]], just north of the Syro–Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of {{convert|15.3|km3}} in 1961 to a high of {{convert|42.7|km3}} in 1963.<ref name=kolars47>{{harvnb|Kolars|1994|p=47}}</ref>

The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to {{convert|356|m3}} per second ({{convert|11.2|km3}} per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was {{convert|7510|m3}} per second, while after 1990 it is only {{convert|2514|m3}} per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from {{convert|55|m3}} per second before 1990 to {{convert|58|m3}} per second afterward.<ref name=isaevmikhailova386>{{harvnb|Isaev|Mikhailova|2009|p=386}}</ref><ref name=neweden2006a94>{{harvnb|Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works|2006a|p=94}}</ref>

=== Tributaries ===
[[File:Murat 05.jpg|right|thumb|View of the [[Murat River]]|alt=A river flowing through a wide valley]]
In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the [[Sajur River|Sajur]], the [[Balikh River|Balikh]] and the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]]. These rivers rise in the foothills of the [[Taurus Mountains]] along the Syro–Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near [[Gaziantep]] and draining the plain around [[Manbij]] before emptying into the [[reservoir]] of the [[Tishrin Dam]]. The Balikh receives most of its water from a [[Karst topography|karstic]] spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of [[Raqqa]]. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around [[Ras al-Ayn, al-Hasakah|Ra's al-'Ayn]], from where the Khabur flows southeast past [[Al-Hasakah]], where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near [[Busayrah]]. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.<ref name=hillel95>{{harvnb|Hillel|1994|p=95}}</ref><ref name=holezaitchik>{{harvnb|Hole|Zaitchik|2007}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Length
! Watershed size
! Discharge
! Bank
|-
|[[Karasu (Euphrates)|Kara Su]]
| {{convert|450|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|22000|km2|abbr=on}}
|
| Confluence
|-
|[[Murat River]]
| {{convert|650|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|40000|km2|abbr=on}}
|
| Confluence
|-
|[[Sajur River]]
| {{convert|108|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|2042|km2|abbr=on}}
| 4.1 m<sup>3</sup>/s (145 cu ft/s)
| Right
|-
|[[Balikh River]]
| {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|14400|km2|abbr=on}}
| 6 m<sup>3</sup>/s (212 cu ft/s)
|Left
|-
|[[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]]
| {{convert|486|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|37081|km2|abbr=on}}
| 45 m<sup>3</sup>/s (1,600 cu ft/s)
|Left
|}

== Drainage basin ==
[[File:Tigre et Euphrate.jpg|right|thumb|French map from the 17th century showing the Euphrates and the [[Tigris]]|alt=Refer to caption]]
{{further|Tigris–Euphrates river system}}
The [[drainage basin]]s of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of {{convert|22000|km2}} and {{convert|40000|km2}}, respectively.<ref name=neweden2006a71/> Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low {{convert|233000|km2}} to a high {{convert|766000|km2}}.<ref name=isaevmikhailova384/> Recent estimates put the basin area at {{convert|388000|km2}},<ref name=neweden2006a71/> {{convert|444000|km2}}<ref name=daoudy63/><ref name=shahin251>{{harvnb|Shahin|2007|p=251}}</ref> and {{convert|579314|km2}}.<ref name=partow4>{{harvnb|Partow|2001|p=4}}</ref> The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent.<ref name=daoudy63/><ref name=frenken65/> Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively.<ref name=isaevmikhailova384/> Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within [[Saudi Arabia]], while a small part falls inside the borders of [[Kuwait]].<ref name=daoudy63/><ref name=frenken65/> Finally, some sources also include [[Jordan]] in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert ({{convert|220|km2}}) drains toward the east rather than to the west.<ref name=isaevmikhailova384/><ref name=frenken63>{{harvnb|Frenken|2009|p=63}}</ref>

== Climate change ==
In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-21 |title=Why Is The Euphrates River Drying Up And What Does It Mean? |url=https://www.iflscience.com/why-is-the-euphrates-river-drying-up-and-what-does-it-mean-69923 |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=IFLScience |language=en}}</ref>

== Natural history ==
{{See also|Mesopotamian Marshes}}
[[File:Rafetus euphraticus (29056605113).jpg|thumb|''[[Rafetus euphraticus]]'']]
The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct [[vegetation]] zones. Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a [[deserts and xeric shrublands|xeric woodland]]. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various [[oak]]s, [[pistacia|pistachio trees]], and ''[[Rosaceae]]'' (rose/plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and ''Rosaceae''. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including [[einkorn wheat]], [[emmer]], [[oat]] and [[rye]].<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|Hillman|Legge|2000|pp=52–58}}</ref>

South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-[[steppe]] vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by [[Artemisia herba-alba|white wormwood]] (''Artemisia herba-alba'') and [[Amaranthaceae]]. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of [[sheep]] and [[goat]] [[pastoralism]] by its inhabitants.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|Hillman|Legge|2000|pp=63–65}}</ref> Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true [[desert]]. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of ''Chenopodiaceae'' or ''[[Poa|Poa sinaica]]''. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a [[riparian zone|riverine forest]]. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the [[Platanus orientalis|Oriental plane]], the [[Populus|Euphrates poplar]], the [[Tamarix|tamarisk]], the [[Fraxinus|ash]] and various wetland plants.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|Hillman|Legge|2000|pp=69–71}}</ref>

Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of the [[Cyprinidae]] are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total.<ref name=coad>{{harvnb|Coad|1996}}</ref> Among the Cyprinids, the [[mangar (fish)|mangar]] has good [[recreational fishing]] qualities, leading the British to nickname it the "Tigris salmon." The [[Euphrates softshell turtle]] is an endangered [[Trionychidae|soft-shelled turtle]] that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.<ref>{{harvnb|Gray|1864|pp=81–82}}</ref><ref name=navalintelligencedivision203205>{{harvnb|Naval Intelligence Division|1944|pp=203–205}}</ref>

The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict [[lion]] and bull hunts in fertile landscapes.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomason|2001}}</ref> Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like [[gazelle]], [[onager]] and the now-extinct [[Arabian ostrich]] lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the [[wild boar]]. Carnivorous species include the [[wolf]], the [[golden jackal]], the [[red fox]], the [[leopard]] and the lion. The [[Syrian brown bear]] can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of [[Eurasian beaver]] has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of [[Tell Abu Hureyra]] in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|Hillman|Legge|2000|pp=85–91}}</ref>

== River ==
{{Main|List of dams and reservoirs in Iraq|l1=Dams in Iraq|Tabqa Dam|Southeastern Anatolia Project}}
[[File:Bassin Tigre Euphrate.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map (in French) showing the locations of dams and barrages built in the [[Syria|Syro]]–[[Turkey|Turkish]] part of the Euphrates basin|alt=Refer to caption]]

The [[Hindiya Barrage]] on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer [[William Willcocks]] and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system.<ref name=kliot>{{harvnb|Kliot|1994|p=117}}</ref> The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the [[Ramadi Barrage]] and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the [[Depression (geology)|depression]] that is now [[Lake Habbaniyah]]. Iraq's largest dam on the Euphrates is the [[Haditha Dam]]; a {{convert|9|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} [[embankment dam|earth-fill dam]] creating [[Lake Qadisiyah]].<ref name=neweden2006b2021>{{harvnb|Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works|2006b|pp=20–21}}</ref> Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The [[Tabqa Dam]] in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense [[Southeastern Anatolia Project]], in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the [[Freedom Dam]] and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the [[Halabiye Dam]] – between Raqqa and [[Deir ez-Zor]].<ref name=jamous>{{harvnb|Jamous|2009}}</ref> The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam and its reservoir ([[Lake Assad]]) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that {{convert|640000|ha|sqmi}} should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only {{convert|100000|–|124000|ha|sqmi}} had been realized.<ref name=Elhadj>{{harvnb|Elhadj|2008}}</ref><ref name=mutin4>{{harvnb|Mutin|2003|p=4}}</ref> Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.<ref name=mutin5>{{harvnb|Mutin|2003|p=5}}</ref>

With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (''{{langx|tr|Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi}}'', or ''GAP'') in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces.<ref name=kolarsmitchell19>{{harvnb|Kolars|Mitchell|1991|p=17}}</ref> GAP affects a total area of {{convert|75000|km2}} and approximately 7&nbsp;million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to {{convert|1700000|ha|sqmi}} of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey.<ref name=jongerden138>{{harvnb|Jongerden|2010|p=138}}</ref> C. {{convert|910000|ha|sqmi}} of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin.<ref name=aquastat62>{{harvnb|Frenken|2009|p=62}}</ref> By far the largest dam in GAP is the [[Atatürk Dam]], located c. {{convert|55|km}} northwest of [[Şanlıurfa]]. This {{convert|184|and|1820|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of {{convert|48.7|km3}}, the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates.<ref name=isaevmikhailova383384>{{harvnb|Isaev|Mikhailova|2009|pp=383–384}}</ref> Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the [[World Bank]] has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.<ref name=jongerden139>{{harvnb|Jongerden|2010|p=139}}</ref>

Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, [[Lake Tharthar]], and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the [[Shatt al-Hayy]], the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called "Third River;" constructed between 1953 and 1992. This {{convert|565|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of [[Baghdad]] to prevent [[Soil salinity#Salinity due to irrigation|soil salinization]] from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.<ref name=kolars53>{{harvnb|Kolars|1994|p=53}}</ref><ref name=daoudy127>{{harvnb|Daoudy|2005|p=127}}</ref><ref name=hillel100>{{harvnb|Hillel|1994|p=100}}</ref>

=== Environmental and social effects ===
{{See also|Environmental impact of reservoirs}}
[[File:KebanDam.JPG|right|thumb|[[Keban Dam]] in [[Turkey]], the first dam on the Euphrates after it emerges from the confluence of the [[Karasu (Euphrates)|Kara Su]] and the [[Murat River|Murat Su]]|alt=A large dam with water outlets in a mountainous landscape]]
[[File:CaberKalesi.jpg|right|thumb|[[Qal'at Ja'bar]] in [[Syria]], once perched on a hilltop overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding of [[Lake Assad]]|alt=A large ruinous castle with concentric walls and towers located on an island that is connected to the shore by a causeway]]
The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people.<ref name=casestudygap10>{{harvnb|Sahan|Zogg|Mason|Gilli|2001|p=10}}</ref> A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient.<ref name=casestudygap11>{{harvnb|Sahan|Zogg|Mason|Gilli|2001|p=11}}</ref> The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "[[Kurds in Syria#Arab cordon|Arab belt]]" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.<ref name=anonymous11>{{harvnb|Anonymous|2009|p=11}}</ref><ref name=mcdowall475>{{harvnb|McDowall|2004|p=475}}</ref><ref name=hillel107>{{harvnb|Hillel|1994|p=107}}</ref>

Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased [[evaporation]]; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at {{convert|2|km3}} in Turkey, {{convert|1|km3}} in Syria and {{convert|5|km3}} in Iraq.<ref name=hillel103>{{harvnb|Hillel|1994|p=103}}</ref> Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields.<ref name=aquastat212>{{harvnb|Frenken|2009|p=212}}</ref> The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water.<ref name=rahihalihan>{{harvnb|Rahi|Halihan|2009}}</ref> The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile [[Mesopotamian Marshes]] and on freshwater fish [[habitat]]s in Iraq.<ref name=jawad>{{harvnb|Jawad|2003}}</ref><ref name=muir>{{harvnb|Muir|2009}}</ref>

The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many [[archaeological site]]s and other places of cultural significance.<ref>{{harvnb|McClellan|1997}}</ref> Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered [[cultural heritage]] as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of [[Zeugma, Commagene|Zeugma]] with its unique [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[mosaic]]s by the reservoir of the [[Birecik Dam]] has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press.<ref name=tanaka>{{harvnb|Tanaka|2007}}</ref><ref name=steele5253>{{harvnb|Steele|2005|pp=52–53}}</ref> The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by [[UNESCO]] to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the [[Natufian culture|Natufian]] to the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include [[Mureybet]], [[Emar]] and Abu Hureyra.<ref name=bounni>{{harvnb|Bounni|1979}}</ref> A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] site of [[Jerf el Ahmar]].<ref>{{harvnb|del Olmo Lete|Montero Fenollós|1999}}</ref> An [[Archaeological field survey|archaeological survey]] and [[Rescue archaeology|rescue excavations]] were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq.<ref name=abdulamir>{{harvnb|Abdul-Amir|1988}}</ref> Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for [[Archaeological looting in Iraq|looting]], which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 invasion]].<ref name=garcianavarro>{{harvnb|Garcia-Navarro|2009}}</ref>

== Religion ==
=== Islam ===
In Islamic tradition, a [[hadith]] of [[Muhammad]] states that the Last Hour will not occur until the Euphrates River uncovers a mountain of gold, over which people will fight. Ninety-nine out of every one hundred individuals engaged in this conflict will perish, with each person hoping to be the one who secures the treasure. The hadith also advises that whoever finds this gold should refrain from taking any of it. This event is considered one of the minor signs of the approaching Day of Judgment.<ref>[https://www.iium.edu.my/deed/hadith/muslim/041_smt.html Sahih Muslim, Book 041: 6918 & 6920]</ref>

=== Christianity ===
In the [[Christian Bible]], the Euphrates River is mentioned in [[Revelation 16#Verse 12|Revelation 16:12]], in the final book of the [[New Testament]]. The author, [[John of Patmos]], writes about the Euphrates river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the [[Second Coming|Second Coming of Jesus Christ.]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|Revelation|16:12}}</ref>

The river Phrath mentioned in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hosseinizadeh | first1 = Abdol Majid | title = The Four Rivers of Eden in Judaism and Islam | journal = Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies | date = 15 December 2012 | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–47 | issn = 2232-1950 | eissn = 2232-1969 | doi = 10.11136/jqh.1210.02.03 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>

== History ==
{{further|History of Mesopotamia|History of Iraq}}
[[File:20151228-Euphrates 9283.jpg|thumb|A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq]]

=== Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods ===
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the [[Fertile Crescent]]. [[Acheulean]] stone [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] have been found in the Sajur basin and in the [[El Kowm (archaeological site)|El Kowm oasis]] in the central [[Syrian steppe]]; the latter together with remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' that were dated to 450,000 years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Muhesen|2002|p=102}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schmid|Rentzel|Renault-Miskovsky|Muhesen|1997}}</ref> In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by [[hunter-gatherer]]s but later by some of the earliest [[farmer]]s, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and [[Nevalı Çori]] became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward.<ref name=sagonazimansky4954>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2009|pp=49–54}}</ref> In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where [[rainfed agriculture]] was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.<ref name=akkermansschwartz74>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=74}}</ref> Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of [[pottery]] in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area.<ref name=akkermansschwartz110>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=110}}</ref> Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including [[Tell es Sawwan|Tell es-Sawwan]].<ref name=helbaek>{{harvnb|Helbaek|1972}}</ref> During the 5th millennium BCE, or late [[Ubaid period]], northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over {{convert|10|ha}}.<ref name=akkermansschwartz163166>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|pp=163–166}}</ref> In Iraq, sites like [[Eridu]] and [[Ur]] were already occupied during the Ubaid period.<ref>{{harvnb|Oates|1960}}</ref> Clay boat models found at [[Tell Mashnaqa]] along the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period.<ref name=akkermansschwartz167168>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|pp=167–168}}</ref> The [[Uruk period]], roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly [[urbanism|urban]] settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like [[Nagar, Syria|Tell Brak]] and [[Uruk]] grew to over {{convert|100|ha}} in size and displayed monumental architecture.<ref>{{harvnb|Ur|Karsgaard|Oates|2007}}</ref> The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and [[cylinder seal|sealings]] far into Turkey and [[Iran]] has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. [[Habuba Kabira]] on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.<ref name=akkermansschwartz203>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=203}}</ref><ref name=vandemieroop3839>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|pp=38–39}}</ref>

=== Ancient history ===
<!-- deleted file removed [[File:The ancient city of Mari.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] during the 3rd–2nd millennia BCE|alt=A wide valley with a meandering river and a straight canal branching off and flowing through a circular city with two concentric city walls, surrounded by agricultural fields]]-->
During the [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] (3600–3100 BCE) and [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic periods]] (3100–2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including [[Sumero-Akkadian]] sites like [[Sippar]], Uruk, [[Adab (city)|Adab]] and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], were organized in competing [[city-state]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|1981}}</ref> Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from [[remote sensing]] imagery.<ref>{{harvnb|Hritz|Wilkinson|2006}}</ref> A similar development took place in [[Upper Mesopotamia]], [[Subartu]] and [[Assyria]], although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like [[Ebla]], [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] and [[Tell Leilan]] grew to prominence for the first time during this period.<ref name=akkermansschwartz233>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=233}}</ref>

Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the [[Akkadian Empire]] (2335–2154 BC) and [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ur III]] empires, which controlled – either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria.<ref name=vandemieroop63>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=63}}</ref> Following their collapse, the [[Old Assyrian Empire]] (1975–1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like [[Isin]], [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Larsa]] before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of [[Babylonia]] under [[Hammurabi]] in the early to mid 18th century BCE.<ref name=vandemieroop111>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=111}}</ref>

In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between [[Kassites|Kassite]] Babylon in the south and [[Mitanni]], Assyria and the [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]] in the north, with the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians.<ref name=vandemieroop132>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=132}}</ref> Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=vandemieroop241>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=241}}</ref>

In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived [[Median Empire]] (612–546 BC) and equally brief [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] (612–539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (539–333 BC).<ref name=vandemieroop270>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=270}}</ref> The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by [[Alexander the Great]], who defeated the last king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.<ref name=vandemieroop286>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|p=287}}</ref>

Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the [[Seleucid Empire]] (312–150 BC), [[Parthian Empire]] (150–226 AD) (during which several [[Neo-Assyrian]] states such as [[Adiabene]] came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the [[Roman Empire]], its succeeding [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]] (226–638 AD), until the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquest]] of the mid 7th century AD. The [[Battle of Karbala]] took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD.

In the north, the river served as a border between [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Greater Armenia]] (331 BC–428 AD) and [[Lesser Armenia]] (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC).

=== Modern era ===
{{See also|Water politics in the Middle East}}
[[File:Baghdad Railway Euphrates wooden bridge.jpg|thumb|right|Wooden bridge carrying the [[Baghdad Railway]] over the Euphrates, {{Circa|1900}}–1910|alt=Refer to caption]]
After [[World War I]], the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]], when the [[Ottoman Empire]] was [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]]. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, [[France]] for its [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syrian mandate]] and the [[United Kingdom]] for its [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia|mandate of Iraq]]) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation.<ref>{{citation |url=http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne |title=Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne |publisher=World War I Document Archive |access-date=19 December 2010 |archive-date=12 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112221242/http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne |url-status=live }}</ref> An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.<ref name=geopolicity1112>{{harvnb|Geopolicity|2010|pp=11–12}}</ref>

[[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq (1921–1958).svg|thumb|left|upright|Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the world]]
The river featured on the [[coat of arms of Iraq]] from 1932 to 1959.
[[File:Euphrates River (1).JPG|thumb|Euphrates near [[Kahta]]]]

Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates – the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from {{convert|15.3|km3}} in 1973 to {{convert|9.4|km3}} in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=shapland117118>{{harvnb|Shapland|1997|pp=117–118}}</ref><ref name=kaya>{{harvnb|Kaya|1998}}</ref> A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's hydroelectricity production.<ref name=kolars49>{{harvnb|Kolars|1994|p=49}}</ref> In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least {{convert|500|m3}} per second, or {{convert|16|km3}} per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries.<ref name=daoudy169-170>{{harvnb|Daoudy|2005|pp=169–170}}</ref> Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey.<ref name=geopolicity1112/><ref name=kaya/><ref name=daoudy1720>{{harvnb|Daoudy|2005|pp=172}}</ref> In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect.<ref name=geopolicity16>{{harvnb|Geopolicity|2010|p=16}}</ref>
On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/19970|title=A new Turkish aggression against Syria: Ankara suspends pumping Euphrates' water|work=[[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al Akhbar]]|date=30 May 2014|first=Suhaib|last=Anjarini|access-date=20 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616180412/https://english.al-akhbar.com/node/19970|archive-date=16 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of {{convert|500|m3}} of water per second at the Turkish–Syrian border.<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuCd0blQ2V0| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/wuCd0blQ2V0| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|title=Eupherates of Syria Cut Off by Turkey|date=30 May 2014|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[File:Euphrates River.jpg|thumb|Euphrates in Iraq, 2005]]During the [[Syrian civil war]] and the [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)|Iraqi Civil War]], much of the Euphrates was controlled by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in [[Syria]] at the [[Battle of Baghuz Fawqani|Battle of Baghouz]] and in Iraq in the [[2017 Western Iraq campaign|Western Iraq offensive]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pearce |first=Fred |date=2014-08-25 |title=Mideast Water Wars: In Iraq, A Battle for Control of Water |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/mideast_water_wars_in_iraq_a_battle_for_control_of_water |url-status=live |access-date=7 February 2020 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926122552/https://e360.yale.edu/features/mideast_water_wars_in_iraq_a_battle_for_control_of_water }}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{see also|List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River}}
Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large [[hydropower]] stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of [[Aleppo]], {{convert|75|km}} to the west of the river valley.<ref name=shapland110>{{harvnb|Shapland|1997|p=110}}</ref> The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry.<ref>{{harvnb|Krouma|2006}}</ref> Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Hara|2004|p=3}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Armenian highlands]]
** [[Mountains of Ararat]]
* [[Zagros Mountains]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Citations ===
{{refbegin|30em}}

*{{citation |title=Archaeological Survey of Ancient Settlements and Irrigation Systems in the Middle Euphrates Region of Mesopotamia |last=Abdul-Amir |first=Sabah Jasim |year=1988 |publisher=University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor |type=PhD thesis |oclc=615058488 }}
*{{citation |title=Heartland of Cities. Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates |last=Adams |first=Robert McC. |author-link=Robert McCormick Adams, Jr. |year=1981 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-00544-5 }}
*{{citation |title=The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC) |last1=Akkermans |first1=Peter M. M. G. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Glenn M. |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-79666-0 }}
*{{citation |title=Group Denial. Repression of Kurdish Political and Cultural Rights in Syria |last=Anonymous |year=2009 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |location=New York |oclc=472433635 |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1109webwcover_0.pdf |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803114417/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1109webwcover_0.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{citation |last=Bilen | first=Özden |editor-first=Asit K.| editor-last=Biswas |title=International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |pages=95–116 |chapter=Prospects for Technical Cooperation in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin |isbn=978-0-19-854862-1}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*[https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,river%20map&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=tlevel,include,online_resources,2&mfacet=topic,include,Euphrates%20River,3&lang=en_US&offset=0&came_from=sort Old maps of the Euphrates], from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The [[National Library of Israel]]
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Iraq topics}}
{{Rivers of Syria}}
{{Rivers of Turkey}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Euphrates| ]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Iraq]]
[[Category:Rivers of Kurdistan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Turkey]]
[[Category:Sites along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Torah places]]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan]]
[[Category:Landforms of Şanlıurfa Province]]
[[Category:Upper Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers in Mandaeism]]