Editing Ephrem the Syrian

{{Short description|Syriac saint, theologian and writer (c. 306 – 373)}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
|name            = Ephrem the Syrian
|image           = Ephrem the Syrian (mosaic in Nea Moni).jpg
|caption         = Mosaic in [[Nea Moni of Chios]] (11th century)
|titles          = {{ubl|Harp of the Spirit, Deacon, Confessor and Doctor of the Church; Venerable Father|Hymn Writer, Teacher of the Faith}}
|birth_date      = {{circa|306}}
|birth_place     = [[Nisibis]], [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Syria]], [[Roman Empire]]
|death_date      = 373
|death_place     = [[Edessa]], [[Osroene (Roman province)|Osroene]], [[Roman Empire]]
|feast_day       = {{Collapsible list
  |framestyle=border:none; padding:0; <!--as above-->
  |title=
  |1={{ubl|28 January ([[Church of the Byzantine Rite|Byzantine Christianity]])|7th Saturday before [[Easter]] ([[Syriac Orthodox Church]]) First Saturday of Great Lent (7 th Saturday before Qymtho Easter) ([[Indian Orthodox Church]])|የካቲት 4 ([[Ethiopian Christianity]]) (translocation of relics)|June 9 ([[Catholic Church]], [[Church of England]])|June 18 ([[Maronite Church]]; pre-1969 Roman Calendar)|ሐምሌ 15 ([[Ethiopian Christianity]])|[[Epip 15 (Coptic Orthodox liturgics)|Epip 15]] ([[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christianity]])}}}}
|beatified_date  =
|beatified_place =
|beatified_by    =
|canonized_date  =
|canonized_place =
|canonized_by    = [[Pre-congregation|Pre-Congregation]]
|major_shrine    =
|attributes      = Vine and scroll, deacon's [[vestments]] and [[thurible]]; with [[Basil of Caesarea|Saint Basil the Great]]; composing hymns with a [[lyre]]
|patronage       = Spiritual directors and spiritual leaders
|issues          =
|suppressed_date =
|venerated_in    = {{ubl|[[Catholic Church]]|[[Eastern Orthodox Church]]|[[Church of the East]]|[[Oriental Orthodox Churches]]|[[Anglican Communion]]}}
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'''Ephrem the Syrian'''{{efn|{{langx|syc|ܡܪܝ ܐܦܪܝܡ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ|Mār ʾAp̄rêm Sūryāyā}}, {{IPA|syc|mɑr ʔafˈrem surˈjɑjɑ}}; {{langx|grc-x-koine|Ἐφραὶμ ὁ Σύρος|Efrém o Sýros}}; {{langx|la|Ephraem Syrus}}; {{langx|am|ቅዱስ ኤፍሬም ሶርያዊ}}}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|f|r|əm|,_|ˈ|ɛ|f|r|əm}}; {{circa|306 – 373}}), also known as '''Saint Ephrem''', '''Saint Ephraim''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|f|r|i|əm}}), '''Ephrem of Edessa''' or  '''Aprem of Nisibis''', (Syriac: <big>ܡܪܝ ܐܦܪܝܡ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ</big> — ''Mâr Aphrêm Sûryâyâ)'' was a prominent [[Christian theology|Christian theologian]] and [[Christian literature|writer]] who is revered as one of the most notable [[hymnographers]] of [[Eastern Christianity]]. He was born in [[Nisibis]], served as a [[deacon]] and later lived in [[Edessa]].{{sfn|Brock|1992a|p=}}{{sfn|Brock|1999a|p=}}

Ephrem is venerated as a [[Christian saint|saint]] by all traditional Churches. He is especially revered in [[Syriac Christianity]], both in [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac tradition]] and [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac tradition]], and also counted as a Holy and Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted monk) in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], especially in the Slovak tradition. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church in 1920. Ephrem is also credited as the founder of the [[School of Nisibis]], which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the [[Church of the East]].

Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns, poems, and sermons in verse, as well as prose [[exegesis]]. These were works of practical theology for the edification of the [[Christian Church|Church]] in troubled times. His performance practice of all-women choirs singing his madrāšê (teaching hymns) was particularly notable, and from it emerged the Syriac Christian tradition of "deaconess" choir members. Ephrem's works were so popular that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of [[pseudepigrapha]]l works in his name. He has been called the most significant of all the fathers of the [[Syriac language|Syriac]]-speaking church tradition, the next most famous after him being [[Jacob of Serugh]] and [[Narsai]].{{sfn|Parry|1999|p=180}}{{Sfn|Brock|2009|p=21}}

==Life==
Ephrem was born around the year 306 in the city of [[Nisibis]] (modern [[Nusaybin]], [[Turkey]]), in the Roman province of [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]], that was [[Peace of Nisibis (299)|recently]] acquired by the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Karim|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Possekel|1999|p=1}}{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=11}}{{sfn|Russell|2005|p=179-235}} Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later [[hagiographer]]s wrote that his father was a pagan priest.{{sfn|Brock|1992a|p=16}} In those days, religious culture in the region of Nisibis included local [[polytheism]], [[Judaism]] and several varieties of the [[Early Christianity]]. Most of the population spoke the [[Aramaic language]], while [[Classical Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] were languages of administration. The city had a complex ethnic composition, consisting of "Assyrians, Arabs, Greeks, Jews, Parthians, Romans, and Iranians".{{sfn|McVey|1989|p=5}}
[[File:Mar Jacob Church, Nisibis.jpg|thumb|Newly excavated [[Church of Saint Jacob of Nisibis]], where Ephrem taught and ministered]]
[[File:Nisibis Church interior.jpg|thumb|The interior of the Church of [[Jacob of Nisibis|Saint Jacob]] in [[Nisibis]]]]
[[Jacob of Nisibis|Jacob]], the second [[bishop]] of Nisibis,{{sfn|Russell|2005|p=220-222}} was appointed in 308, and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community. Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the [[First Council of Nicea]] in 325. Ephrem was baptized as a youth and almost certainly became a [[Members of the Covenant|son of the covenant]], an unusual form of Assyrian proto-[[monasticism]]. Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac ''malp̄ānâ'', a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians). He was ordained as a [[deacon]] either at his baptism or later.{{sfn|Parry|1999|p=180-181}} He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office. In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a "herdsman" ({{lang|syr|ܥܠܢܐ}}, '''allānâ''), to his bishop as the "shepherd" ({{lang|syr|ܪܥܝܐ}}, ''rā'yâ''), and to his community as a 'fold' ({{lang|syr|ܕܝܪܐ}}, ''dayrâ''). Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the [[School of Nisibis]], which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the [[Church of the East]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-07-28 |title=Monastic Life in the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch - Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728080135/http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/library/articles/monastic-life-in-the-syrian-orthodox-church-of-antioch |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=web.archive.org}}</ref>

In 337, Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died. Seizing on this opportunity, [[Shapur II]] of Persia began a series of attacks into Roman North [[Mesopotamia]]. Nisibis was besieged in 338, 346 and 350. During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers. In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis. The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground. Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn that portrayed Nisibis as being like [[Noah's Ark]], floating to safety on the flood.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the [[baptistery]] of Nisibis. The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in 359. In that year, Shapur attacked again. The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported. [[Constantius II]] was unable to respond; the campaign of [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in 363 ended with his death in battle. His army elected [[Jovian (Emperor)|Jovian]] as the new emperor, and to rescue his army, he was forced to surrender Nisibis to Persia (also in 363) and to permit the expulsion of the entire Christian population.{{sfn|Russell|2005|p=215, 217, 223}} Ephrem declined being [[ordination|ordained]] a bishop by [[feigning madness]], because he regarded himself unworthy for it.<ref>{{cite web|page= Franciscan Media|title=Saint Ephrem|date=9 June 2022 |url=https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-of-the-day/saint-ephrem/|access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|page= The Orthodox Church in America|title=Venerable Ephraim the Syrian|url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2016/01/28/100328-venerable-ephraim-the-syrian|access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|page= The Divine Mercy|title=Harp of the Holy Spirit: St. Ephrem, Deacon and Doctor of the Church|url=https://www.thedivinemercy.org/articles/harp-holy-spirit-st-ephrem-deacon-and-doctor-church|access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref>

Ephrem, with the others, went first to Amida ([[Diyarbakır]]), eventually settling in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (Urhay, in Aramaic) in 363.{{sfn|Russell|2005|p=195-196}} Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the [[School of Edessa]]. [[Edessa]] had been an important center of the Aramaic-speaking world, and the birthplace of a specific [[Middle Aramaic]] dialect that came to be known as the [[Syriac language]].{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}} The city was rich with rivaling philosophies and religions. Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called "Palutians" in Edessa, after a former bishop. [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Marcionism|Marcionites]], [[Manichaeism|Manichees]], [[Bardaisan]]ites and various [[Gnosticism|gnostic sects]] proclaimed themselves as the true church. In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy. A later Syriac writer, [[Jacob of Serugh]], wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa. In 370 he visited Basil the Great at Caesarea, and then journeyed to the monks of Egypt. As he preached a [[panegyric]] on St. Basil, who died in 379, his own death must be placed at a later date.{{clarification needed|date=December 2024|reason=What is this trying to say? Roman panegyrics were read to the living, not the dead. Ephrem could easily have died before 379, when Basil was still alive. If the point is to say Ephrem was alive after 370, then just say that without bringing up 379.}} After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims. He died in 373.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schaff |first=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MAAQGjcjUWoC&dq=The+most+reliable+date+for+his+death+is+after+379+Ephrem&pg=PA189 |title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Second Series Volume IV Anthanasius |year=2007 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60206-514-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Darcy |first=Peter |date=2021-02-27 |title=St. Ephrem's Marvelous Sermon on the Cross of Christ |url=https://sacredwindows.com/st-ephrems-marvelous-sermon-on-the-cross-of-christ/ |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=Sacred Windows |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Writings and authorship==
Ephrem wrote exclusively in his native [[Aramaic language]], using the local Edessan (''Urhaya'') dialect, that later came to be known as the [[Classical Syriac]].{{sfn|Brock|1992a|p=16}}{{sfn|Brock|1999a|p=105}}[[File:Ephrem's Commentary on the Diatessaron.jpg|thumb|[[Parchment]] manuscript of the Ephrem's Commentary on the [[Diatessaron]]. Egypt, late 5th or early 6th century. [[Chester Beatty Library]]]]
=== Manuscripts ===
According to the Catalogues of Syriac Manuscripts in the [[British Library]] published by Forshall & Rosen (1839) and Wright (1870–72), there are "ninety or so manuscripts which contain works by or attributed to Ephraem."{{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=174}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[British Library]] manuscripts (mss.) containing works by or attributed to Ephrem the Syrian{{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=174}}
|-
! 5th century
! 6th century
! 7th century
! 8th century
! 9th century
! 10th century
! 11th century
! 12th century
! 13th century
|-
| 6 mss.
| 14 mss.
| 4 mss.
| 11 mss.
| 19 mss.
| 7 mss.
| 12 mss.
| 8 mss.
| 11 mss.
|}

=== Hymns ===
Over four hundred [[hymn]]s attributed to Ephrem still exist.{{according to whom?|date=December 2024}} Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt.{{according to whom?|date=December 2024|reason=If hundreds of hymns are attributed to one single person, but the authorship of dozens if not hundreds of them has been widely questioned and even rejected, then that person's productivity is in doubt indeed.}} The church historian [[Sozomen]] credits Ephrem with having written three million verses.{{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=174}} Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early [[Rabbinic Judaism]], he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=St. Ephrem – The Deacon |url=https://www.the-deacon.com/2024/12/18/st-ephrem/ |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=www.the-deacon.com}}</ref>

The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (ܡܕܖ̈ܫܐ, ''madrāšê''). These hymns are full of rich, poetic imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies. The ''madrāšê'' are written in stanzas of [[syllabic verse]] and employ over fifty different metrical schemes. The form is defined by an [[antiphon]], or congregational [[refrain]] (ܥܘܢܝܬܐ, '''ûnîṯâ''), between each independent strophe (or verse), and the refrain's melody mimics that of the opening half of the strophe.{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=184}} Each ''madrāšâ'' had its ''qālâ'' (ܩܠܐ), a traditional tune identified by its opening line. All of these ''qālê'' are now lost. It seems that [[Bardaisan]] and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] composed ''madrāšê'', and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims.{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=184}}
[[File:George John Ephraim Triptychon fragment Sinai 14th century.jpg|thumb|Saints Ephrem (right) [[St. George|George]] (top) and [[St. John Damascene|John Damascene]] on a 14th-century triptych]]
The ''madrāšê'' are gathered into various hymn cycles. In the CSCO critical edition of Beck et al. (1955–1975), these have been given standardised names and abbreviations.{{sfn|McVey|1989|p=49}} By the year 2000, English translations had been published for the following:{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* 52 hymns ''On Virginity''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* 28 hymns ''On the Nativity''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* 15 hymns ''On Paradise''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* 4 hymns ''Against [Emperor Caesar] Julian''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* ''Carmina Nisibena'' or ''On Nisibis''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* ''On the Church''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* ''On Lent''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* ''On the Paschal Season''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
* ''Against Heresies''{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}
Some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the ''Carmina Nisibena'' is about Nisibis).{{cn|date=December 2024}} Bates (2000) remarked: "[Various] collections of Ephrem's hymns [...] appear to be randomly assembled by later editors and named for the subject of the first hymn in the collection only".{{sfn|Bates|2000|p=189}}

Particularly influential were his ''Hymns Against Heresies''.{{sfn|Griffith|1999|p=97-114}} Ephrem used these to warn his flock of the heresies that threatened to divide the early church. He lamented that the faithful were "tossed to and fro and carried around with every wind of doctrine, by the cunning of men, by their craftiness and deceitful wiles" (Eph 4:14).{{sfn|Mourachian|2007|p=30-31}} He devised hymns laden with doctrinal details to inoculate right-thinking Christians against heresies such as [[docetism]]. The ''Hymns Against Heresies'' employ colourful metaphors to describe the Incarnation of Christ as fully human and divine. Ephrem asserts that Christ's unity of humanity and divinity represents peace, perfection and salvation; in contrast, docetism and other heresies sought to divide or reduce Christ's nature and, in doing so, rend and devalue Christ's followers with their false teachings.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

==== Authenticity of hymns ''On Epiphany'' ====
The most complete, critical text of writings attributed to Ephrem was compiled between 1955 and 1979 by Dom Edmund Beck, OSB, as part of the ''Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium'' (CSCO).{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|pp=139–140}} Beck's 1959 critical edition of the madrashe (hymns) and mêmrê (homilies) memre attributed to Ephrem led to much scholarly debate on the authenticity of the madrashe known as ''On Epiphany'', as Ephrem was certainly not familiar with [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany as a feast celebrating Jesus' bapitism on 6 January]].{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|pp=139–140}} Unlike in Europe, where the [[Nativity of Jesus]] was celebrated on 25 December, but the baptism of Jesus would evolve into a separate feast called "Epiphany" on 6 January, there was only one Christian feast celebrated in winter in the time and place where Ephrem lived, namely the Nativity on 6 January, when baptism was also performed.{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|p=141}} A 1956 paper written by Beck himself therefore warned researchers not to base their reconstructions of Ephrem's baptismal theology on the contents of these madrashe, given the fact that many of the hymns presuppose that Epiphany and Nativity were two separate feasts celebrated two weeks apart, thereby challenging Ephrem's authorship.{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|pp=140–141}} While the oldest surviving manuscripts of Ephrem's hymns date to the 6th century and contain hymns on the Nativity that Beck thought were certainly authentic, the contested hymns ''On Epiphany'' are missing from them.{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|p=141}} They do not appear in manuscripts until much later, in the 9th century, suggesting that they were [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolated]].{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|p=141}} Scholars have largely accepted Beck's arguments that the collection as a whole was established after the 4th century, and that some hymns in them were not written by Ephrem, or at least not in the form that they have been preserved in, but that other hymns should nevertheless be considered authentic.{{sfn|Rouwhorst|2012|pp=141–142}}

=== Performance practices and gender ===
[[File:Ephrem miniature 16c.jpg|thumb|Ephrem the Syriac in a 16th-century Russian illustration]]
The relationship between Ephrem's compositions and femininity is shown again in documentation suggesting that the madrāšê were sung by all-women choirs with an accompanying lyre. These women's choirs were composed of members of the Daughters of the Covenant, an important institution in historical [[Syriac Christianity]], but they weren't always labeled as such.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ashbrook Harvey |first=Susan |date=June 28, 2018 |title=Revisiting the Daughters of the Covenant: Women's Choirs and Sacred Song in Ancient Syriac Christianity |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |volume=8 |issue=2}}</ref> Ephrem, like many Syriac liturgical poets, believed that women's voices were important to hear in the church as they were modeled after Mary, mother of Jesus, whose acceptance of God's call led to salvation for all through the birth of Jesus.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Ashbrook Harvey |first=Susan |date=2010 |title=Singing women's stories in Syriac tradition |journal=Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=171–183}}</ref> One variety of the madrāšê, the ''soghyatha'', was sung in a conversational style between male and female choirs.<ref name=":2" /> The women's choir would sing the role of biblical women, and the men's choir would sing the male role. Through the role of singing Ephrem's madrāšê, women's choirs were granted a role in worship.<ref name=":1" />

=== Further writings ===
Ephrem also wrote verse homilies ({{lang|syr|ܡܐܡܖ̈ܐ}}, ''mêmrê''). These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê. The mêmrê were written in a heptosyllabic [[couplet]]s (pairs of lines of seven syllables each).{{cn|date=December 2024}}

The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work. He wrote a biblical commentary on the [[Diatessaron]] (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), the Syriac original of which was found in 1957. His ''Commentary on Genesis and Exodus'' is an exegesis of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] and [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]. Some fragments exist in Armenian of his commentaries on the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and [[Pauline Epistles]].{{cn|date=December 2024}}

He also wrote refutations against [[Bardaisan]], [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], [[Marcion of Sinope|Marcion]] and others.{{sfn|Mitchell|1912|p=}}{{sfn|Mitchell|Bevan|Burkitt|1921|p=}}

===Symbols and metaphors===
Ephrem's writings contain a rich variety of symbols and metaphors. Christopher Buck gives a summary of analysis of a selection of six key scenarios (the way, robe of glory, [[sons and daughters of the Covenant]], wedding feast, [[harrowing of hell]], [[Noah's Ark]]/Mariner) and six root metaphors (physician, medicine of life, mirror, pearl, [[Tree of life]], [[paradise]]).{{sfn|Buck|1999|p=77–109}}

=== Selected works ===
Boasting an extensive corpus, Ephrem's poems, hymns, prayers and prose has been incorporated deeply into every facet of the Syriac tradition, from the Liturgy of the Hours ([[Shehimo]]) to [[West Syriac Rite|Divine Liturgy]]. The following is a bedtime prayer, found in the [[Compline]] of the Shehimo for some weekdays.
[[File:Mor Ephrem icon.jpg|frame|Syriac Orthodox icon of Mor Ephrem]]
[[File:Ephräm der Syrer.jpg|thumb|461x461px|Portrait of Ephrem]]
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|Lord have mercy upon us, kindly accept our service

Sending from Thy treasu-ry, kindness, mercy – and pardon.

Grant me Oh Lord, while I stand, keeping vigil before Thee

Should I fall to slumber’s hand, guard thou me from – sinful sleep.

If I trespass while awake, by thy grace absolve me Lord

If I transgress – in my sleep, pardon with Thy – compa-ssion

By the Cross ( +) of Thy meekness, grant me, Lord, a restful sleep

Deliver me from – evil dreams, and from sinful thoughts, Oh Lord!

Through the night govern me, Lord Grant to me a – peaceful sleep;

Let not Evil- and his thoughts, should have domain – over me.

Grant to me Thy bright Angel, that he may guard – all my limbs;

Save me from un-holy lust, by Thy Body – that I ate.

While I lie and sleep in calm, may Thy blood be – my guardian;

Granting freedom – to my soul, which is but Thy – own image.

Thy hand shaped me, Oh my Lord, shadow me with – Thy right hand,

Thy mercy be a for-tress, shielding me Lord – all around.

While my body rests and sleeps, may Thy power – keep vigil;

Let my sleep in – Thy presence, pleasing like a sweet incense.

Let not evil touch my bed, by Thy mother’s prayer for me;

By Thy pleasing sacrifice, keep Satan from – hurting me.

Fulfill Thy word with me, Lord, and guard my life by Thy Cross ( + );

Waking I shall – praise Thy name, for Thou loved me – in weakness.

Grant Oh Lord, by Thy mercy, that I hear and – do Thy will;

Grant me an eve – full of peace, and a night of- righteous-ness.

Oh our Savior, Jesus Christ, who is indeed the true light;

Thy honor stays – in the light, worshipped by all – sons of light.

Jesus, Savior of the world, who stays and lives – in the light;

to Thee praise, on – us mercy, in this world and – that to come.

Praise to Thee Lord, praise to Thee, praise a thousand thousand fold;

Tens of thousands – we praise Thee, to Thee praise on – us mercy.

Praise to whom Watchers adore; and heavenly Angels serve

Lord of Watchers and Angels; accept our supplications

Praise to the One who is three; and to the three who are One.

Father, Son and Holy Ghost; who is the One and true God.<ref>{{Cite web |last=jesse.scaria |date=2020-03-28 |title=Hymn of Mor Ephrem - Sunday School Resources |url=https://resources.msossa.org/2020/03/28/hymn-of-mor-ephrem/ |access-date=2025-05-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>
|}

== Pseudepigraphy and misattributions ==
Ephrem's meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church. There is a huge corpus of Ephrem [[pseudepigraphy]] and legendary [[hagiography]] in many languages. Some of these compositions are in verse, often mimicking Ephrem's heptasyllabic couplets.{{cn|date=December 2024}} Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship. However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals.{{cn|date=December 2024}} Another one of the works attributed to Ephrem was the ''[[Cave of Treasures]]'', written in Syriac, but by a much later, unknown author, who lived at the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century.{{sfn|Toepel|2013|pp=531–584}}

=== Greek Ephrem ===
{{Quote box
 |quote  = "It is a mark of Ephraem's enormous reputation that such an extensive corpus of works in Greek was gathered under his name. Where no Syriac original has survived, the question of authenticity arises. (...) The Greek works may not be so much translations as adaptations in the spirit of Ephraem using his favourite images. A widely held judgment is that the corpus is 'sporadically authentic'."
 |width  = 20%
 |align = right
 |source = – T.S. Pattie (1990){{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=175}}
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}}
There is a very large number of works by "Ephrem" extant in Greek. In the literature this material is often referred to as "Greek Ephrem", or ''Ephraem Graecus'' ("Ephrem the Greek", as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian), as if it was by a single author. This is not the case, but the term is used for convenience. Some texts are in fact Greek translations of genuine works by Ephrem, but most are not.{{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=175}} Ephrem is attributed with writing [[hagiography|hagiographies]] such as ''[[The Life of Saint Mary the Harlot]]'' (extant in Greek and Latin), though this credit is called into question.{{sfn|Brock|Harvey|1998|p=}} The best known of these writings is the ''[[Prayer of Saint Ephrem]]'', which is recited at every service during [[Great Lent]] and other fasting periods in [[Eastern Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hostetler |first=Bob |date=2023-01-25 |title=Pray the Lenten Prayer of St. Ephrem |url=https://guideposts.org/prayer/holiday-prayers/pray-the-lenten-prayer-of-st-ephrem/#:~:text=The%20St.,-Ephrem%20Prayer&text=Ephrem%20prayer:,and%20love%20to%20Thy%20servant. |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=Guideposts |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Passage |first=The Inside |date=2020-02-14 |title=Meditating on the prayer of St. Ephrem the Syrian during Lent |url=https://akinsidepassage.org/2020/02/13/meditating-on-the-prayer-of-st-ephrem-the-syrian-during-lent/ |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=The Inside Passage |language=en}}</ref>

There has been very little critical examination of any of these works. They were edited uncritically by Assemani, and there is also a modern Greek edition by Phrantzolas.<ref>A list of works with links to the Greek text can be found online [https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/ephraim-graecus-works/ here].</ref> Amongst scholars, there is a broad consensus that the Greek corpus attributed to Ephrem is only 'sporadically authentic'.{{sfn|Pattie|1990|p=175}}

=== Latin Ephrem and other languages ===
There are also works by "Ephrem" in [[Latin]], [[Slavonic language|Slavonic]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. "Ephrem Latinus" is the term given to Latin translations of "Ephrem Graecus". None is by Ephrem the Syrian. "Pseudo-Ephrem Latinus" is the name given to Latin works under the name of Ephrem which are imitations of the style of Ephrem Latinus. One example is the ''[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Ephraem]]'', extant in one Latin and one Syriac version.{{cn|date=December 2024}} Also attributed to Ephrem are the ''Parenesis'' or "precepts", found in the 10th-century [[Rila fragments]] and the early 13th-century ''[[Kyiv Caves Patericon]]'', translated into [[Old Church Slavonic]].{{cn|date=December 2024}}

==Veneration as a saint==
[[File:Icône Ephrem le Syrien.jpg|thumb|Contemporary Romanian icon (2005)]]
Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate. One of the earlier "modifications" is the statement that Ephrem's father was a pagan priest of Abnil or Abizal. However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Venerable Ephraim the Syrian|url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2018/01/28/100328-venerable-ephraim-the-syrian|access-date=2020-09-18|website=www.oca.org}}</ref>

Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in [[Eastern Christianity]]. In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted monk). His [[feast day]] is celebrated on 28 January and on the Saturday of the Venerable Fathers ([[Cheesefare]] Saturday), which is the Saturday before the beginning of [[Great Lent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ЕФРЕМ СИРИН |url=https://www.pravenc.ru/text/376984.html#part_34 |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=www.pravenc.ru}}</ref>

On 5 October 1920, Pope [[Benedict XV]] proclaimed Ephrem a [[Doctor of the Church]] ("Doctor of the Syrians").<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xv/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xv_enc_05101920_principi-apostolorum-petro_en.html PRINCIPI APOSTOLORUM PETRO] at Vatican.va</ref>

The most popular title for Ephrem is ''Harp of the Spirit'' (Syriac: {{lang|syr|ܟܢܪܐ ܕܪܘܚܐ}}, ''Kenārâ d-Rûḥâ''). He is also referred to as the Deacon of Edessa, the Sun of the Syrians and a Pillar of the Church.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05498a.htm New Advent] at newadvent.org</ref>

His Roman Catholic feast day of 9 June conforms to his date of death. For 48 years (1920–1969), it was on 18 June, and this date is still observed in the Extraordinary Form.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ephrem|url=https://santosepulcro.co.il/en/saints/st-ephrem/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=santosepulcro.co.il}}</ref>

Ephrem is honored with a [[feast day]] on the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)|liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA)]] on June 10.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2018 |date=2018 |publisher=Church Publishing |isbn=978-1-64065-235-4 |page=12 |url=https://extranet.generalconvention.org/staff/files/download/27226 |access-date=8 May 2022}}</ref>

Ephrem is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Commemoration (observance)|commemoration]] on [[June 9|9 June]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-03-27|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>

==Translations==
* ''Sancti Patris Nostri Ephraem Syri opera omnia quae exstant'' (3 vol), by [[Peter Ambarach]] Rome, 1737–1743.
* E. Beck, ''Des heiligen Ephraem des Syrers Hymen De Nativitate (Epiphania)'', CSCO 186/187, Leuven 1959, 144–191 (131–177). (in German).
** French translation based on the edition of Beck: ''Ephrem le Syrien. Hymnes sur l'Êpiphanie. Hymnes baptismales de l'Orient syrien. Introduction, traduction du texte syriaque, notes et index par François Cassingena'', o.s.b ., ''Spiritualité orientale'', no 70, Abbaye de Bellefontaine, Bégrolles-en-Mauges 1997.
* Ephrem the Syrian ''Hymns'', introduced by John Meyendorff, translated by Kathleen E. McVey. (New York: Paulist Press, 1989) {{ISBN|0-8091-3093-9}}
* St. Ephrem ''Hymns on Paradise'', translated by Sebastian Brock (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1990). {{ISBN|0-88141-076-4}}
* ''Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of'' Chester Beatty ''Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes'', translated by Carmel McCarthy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
* St. Ephrem the Syrian ''Commentary on Genesis, Commentary on Exodus, Homily on our Lord, Letter to Publius'', translated by Edward G. Mathews Jr., and Joseph P. Amar. Ed. by Kathleen McVey. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1994). {{ISBN|978-0-8132-1421-4}}
* St. Ephrem the Syrian ''The Hymns on Faith'', translated by Jeffrey Wickes. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2015). {{ISBN|978-0-8132-2735-1}}
* San Efrén de Nísibis ''Himnos de Navidad y Epifanía'', by Efrem Yildiz Sadak Madrid, 2016 (in Spanish). {{ISBN|978-84-285-5235-6}}
* Saint Ephraim the Syrian ''Eschatological Hymns and Homilies'', translated by M.F. Toal and Henry Burgess, amended. (Florence, AZ: SAGOM Press, 2019). {{ISBN|978-1-9456-9907-8}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Syriac Christianity]]
* [[Syriac literature]]
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Syria (region)]]
* [[Prayer of Saint Ephrem]]
* [[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus]]
* [[Light of Christ]]
* [[Church of Saint Jacob of Nisibis]]
* [[Narsai]]
* [[Jacob of Serugh]]

{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Amar|first=Joseph Phillip|title=A Metrical Homily on Holy Mar Ephrem by Mar Jacob of Sarug: Critical Edition of the Syriac Text, Translation and Introduction|journal=Patrologia Orientalis|year=1995|volume=47|number=1|pages=1–76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyvZAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Azéma|editor-first=Yvan|title=Théodoret de Cyr: Correspondance|year=1965|volume=3|location=Paris|publisher=Editions du Cerf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82xIAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Bates |first=J. Barrington |date=June 2000 |title=Songs and Prayers Like Incense: The Hymns of Ephrem the Syrian |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42612097 |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=170–192 |jstor=42612097 }}
* {{cite book|last=Biesen|first=Kees den|title=Simple and bold : Ephrem's art of symbolic thought|year=2006|publisher=Gorgias Press|location=Piscataway, N.J.|isbn=1-59333-397-8|edition=1st }}
* {{cite book|last=Bou Mansour|first=Tanios|title=La pensée symbolique de saint Ephrem le Syrien|year=1988|publisher=Bibliothèque de l'Université Saint Esprit XVI|location=Kaslik, Lebanon}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature|journal=ARAM Periodical|year=1989|volume=1|number=1|pages=11–23|url=https://www.aramsociety.org/periodical/published-papers}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=The Luminous Eye: The Spiritual World Vision of Saint Ephrem|year=1992a|orig-year=1985|edition=2nd revised|location=Kalamazoo|publisher=Cistercian Publications|isbn=9780879075248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQgLAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Studies in Syriac Christianity: History, Literature, and Theology|year=1992b|location=Aldershot|publisher=Variorum|isbn=9780860783053|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hp_YAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=Eusebius and Syriac Christianity|title=Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism|year=1992c|location=Detroit|publisher=Wayne State University Press|pages=212–234|isbn=0814323618|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=The Transmission of Ephrem's madrashe in the Syriac Liturgical Tradition|journal=Studia Patristica|year=1997|volume=33|pages=490–505|isbn=9789068318685|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfVOuifv6xIC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=From Ephrem to Romanos: Interactions Between Syriac and Greek in Late Antiquity|year=1999a|location=Aldershot|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=9780860788003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jB8LAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=St. Ephrem in the Eyes of Later Syriac Liturgical Tradition|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=1999b|volume=2|number=1|pages=5–25|doi=10.31826/hug-2010-020103|s2cid=212688898|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol2/HV2N1Brock.pdf|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Greek Words in Ephrem and Narsai: A Comparative Sampling|journal=ARAM Periodical|year=2000|volume=12|number=1–2|pages=439–449|doi=10.2143/ARAM.12.0.504480|url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=5d351657dda01}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=The Changing Faces of St Ephrem as Read in the West|title=Abba: The Tradition of Orthodoxy in the West|year=2003|location=Crestwood|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|pages=65–80|isbn=9780881412482|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlpsmkb1q2oC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=Ephrem and the Syriac Tradition|title=The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature|year=2004|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=362–372|isbn=9780521460835|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aepYpUVf9OkC}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=Sebastian |date=2009 |title=A Guide to Narsai's Homilies |url=https://hugoye.bethmardutho.org/article/hv12n1brock |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=21–40}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=The Armenian Translation of the Syriac Life of St Ephrem and Its Syriac Source|title=Reflections on Armenia and the Christian Orient|year=2017|location=Yerevan|publisher=Ankyunacar|pages=119–130|isbn=9789939850306|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5k1swEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Brock|first1=Sebastian P.|author-link1=Sebastian P. Brock|last2=Harvey|first2=Susan A.|author-link2=Susan Ashbrook Harvey|title=Holy Women of the Syrian Orient|year=1998|orig-year=1987|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520213661|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h68wDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Buck|first=Christopher G.|title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith|year=1999|location=New York|publisher=State University of New York Press|url=https://bahai-library.com/pdf/b/buck_paradise_paradigm.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Butts|first=Aaron M.|chapter=Syriac Language|title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage|year=2011|location=Piscataway, NJ|publisher=Gorgias Press|pages=390–391|chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Syriac-Language}}
* {{Cite book|last=Butts|first=Aaron M.|chapter=The Classical Syriac Language|title=The Syriac World|year=2019|location=London|publisher=Routledge|pages=222–242|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/26842432}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Chatonnet |first1=Françoise Briquel |title=The Syriac World: In Search of a Forgotten Christianity |last2=Debié |first2=Muriel |date=2023 |publisher=Yale University Press}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Debié|first=Muriel|title=Syriac Historiography and Identity Formation|journal=Church History and Religious Culture|year=2009|volume=89|number=1–3|pages=93–114|doi=10.1163/187124109X408014|url=https://www.academia.edu/474647}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|chapter=Ephraem, the Deacon of Edessa, and the Church of the Empire|title=Diakonia: Studies in Honor of Robert T. Meyer|year=1986|location=Washington|publisher=CUA Press|pages=25–52|isbn=9780813205960|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlEQAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=Ephraem the Syrian's Hymns Against Julian: Meditations on History and Imperial Power|journal=Vigiliae Christianae|year=1987|volume=41|number=3|pages=238–266|doi=10.2307/1583993|jstor=1583993|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1583993}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=Images of Ephraem: The Syrian Holy Man and His Church|journal=Traditio|year=1990|volume=45|pages=7–33|doi=10.1017/S0362152900012666|jstor=27831238|s2cid=151782759|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27831238}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=Faith Adoring the Mystery: Reading the Bible with St. Ephraem the Syrian|year=1997|location=Milwaukee|publisher=Marquette University Press|isbn=9780874625776|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9n0WAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=A Spiritual Father for the Whole Church: The Universal Appeal of St. Ephraem the Syrian|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=1998|volume=1|number=2|pages=197–220|doi=10.31826/hug-2010-010113|s2cid=212688360|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol1/HV1N2Griffith.pdf|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|chapter=Setting Right the Church of Syria: Saint Ephraem's Hymns against Heresies|title=The Limits of Ancient Christianity: Essays on Late Antique Thought and Culture|year=1999|location=Ann Arbor|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=97–114|isbn=0472109979|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJgZ9pCoop0C&pg=PA97}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=Christianity in Edessa and the Syriac-Speaking World: Mani, Bar Daysan, and Ephraem, the Struggle for Allegiance on the Aramean Frontier|journal=Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies|year=2002|volume=2|pages=5–20|doi=10.31826/jcsss-2009-020104|s2cid=166480216|url=http://www.syriacstudies.com/2018/11/29/christianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith|access-date=2020-11-26|archive-date=2018-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211205946/http://www.syriacstudies.com/2018/11/29/christianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|title=St. Ephraem, Bar Daysān and the Clash of Madrāshê in Aram: Readings in St. Ephraem's Hymni contra Haereses|journal=The Harp: A Review of Syriac and Oriental Studies|year=2006|volume=21|pages=447–472|doi=10.31826/9781463233105-026|url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463233105-026}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney H.|author-link=Sidney H. Griffith|chapter=Denominationalism in Fourth-Century Syria: Readings in Saint Ephraem's Hymns against Heresies, Madrāshê 22–24|title=The Garb of Being: Embodiment and the Pursuit of Holiness in Late Ancient Christianity|year=2020|location=New York|publisher=Fordham University Press|pages=79–100|isbn=9780823287024|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=le11wgEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Hansbury|first=Mary (trans.)|title=Hymns of St. Ephrem the Syrian|year=2006|publisher=SLG Press|location=Oxford|edition=1.}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Healey|first=John F.|title=The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=2007|volume=10|number=2|pages=115–127|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Horn |first=Cornelia |title=Presbeia Theothokou: The Intercessory Role of Mary across Times and Places in Byzantium (4th-9th Century) |chapter=Ancient Syriac Sources on Mary's Role as Intercessor |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press |edition=1 |year=2015 |pages=153–176 |isbn=978-3-7001-7602-2 |jstor=j.ctv8pzdqp.13 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8pzdqp.13 |access-date=11 December 2024}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Koonammakkal|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Koonammakkal|title=The Theology of Divine Names in the Genuine Works of Ephrem|year=1991|asin=B001OIJ75Q|publisher=University of Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0H7ztgAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lipiński|first=Edward|author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist)|title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion|year=2000|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9789042908598|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=McVey|editor-first=Kathleen E.|title=Ephrem the Syrian: Hymns|year=1989|location=New York|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=9780809130931|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJUelxbOxPIC}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Messo|first=Johny|author-link=Johny Messo|title=The Origin of the Terms Syria(n) and Suryoyo: Once Again|journal=Parole de l'Orient|year=2011|volume=36|pages=111–125|url=https://www.academia.edu/35435499}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Millar|first=Fergus|author-link=Fergus Millar|title=Greek and Syriac in Edessa: From Ephrem to Rabbula (CE 363-435)|journal=Semitica et Classica|year=2011|volume=4|pages=99–114|doi=10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508|url=https://doi.org/10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508}}
* {{Cite book|last=Minov|first=Sergey|chapter=The Cave of Treasures and the Formation of Syriac Christian Identity in Late Antique Mesopotamia: Between Tradition and Innovation|title=Between Personal and Institutional Religion: Self, Doctrine, and Practice in Late Antique Eastern Christianity|year=2013|location=Brepols|publisher=Turnhout|pages=155–194|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/6264897}}
* {{Cite book|last=Minov|first=Sergey|title=Memory and Identity in the Syriac Cave of Treasures: Rewriting the Bible in Sasanian Iran|year=2020|location=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004445512|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AsOEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Mourachian|first=Mark|title=Hymns Against Heresies: Comments on St. Ephrem the Syrian|journal=Sophia|year=2007|volume=37|issue=2|pages=}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Mitchell|editor-first=Charles W.|title=S. Ephraim's Prose Refutations of Mani, Marcion, and Bardaisan|year=1912|volume=1|location=London|publisher=Text and Translation Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkJIAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Mitchell|editor-first1=Charles W.|editor-last2=Bevan|editor-first2=Anthony A.|editor-link2=Anthony Ashley Bevan|editor-last3=Burkitt|editor-first3=Francis C.|editor-link3=Francis Crawford Burkitt|title=S. Ephraim's Prose Refutations of Mani, Marcion, and Bardaisan|year=1921|volume=2|location=London|publisher=Text and Translation Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2VIAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Andrew N.|title=Paradise Restored|journal=Oriens Christianus|year=2003|volume=87|pages=1–46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OV3YAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Parry|editor-first1=Ken|title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity|year=1999|location=Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1002/9781405166584|isbn=9781405166584|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781405166584 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Pattie |first=T. S. |title=Ephraem's 'On Repentance' and the Translation of the Greek Text into Other Languages |journal=The British Library Journal |publisher=British Library |volume=16 |issue=2 |year=1990 |issn=0305-5167 |jstor=42554306 |pages=174–186 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/42554306 |access-date=11 December 2024}}
* {{Cite book|last=Possekel|first=Ute|title=Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian|year=1999|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9789042907591|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ3gGQuJUS4C}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Rompay|first=Lucas van|title=Past and Present Perceptions of Syriac Literary Tradition|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=2000|volume=3|number=1|pages=71–103|doi=10.31826/hug-2010-030105|s2cid=212688244|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol3/HV3N1VanRompay.pdf|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Rompay|first=Lucas van|title=Mallpânâ dilan Suryâyâ Ephrem in the Works of Philoxenus of Mabbog: Respect and Distance|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=2004|volume=7|number=1|pages=83–105|doi=10.31826/hug-2011-070107|s2cid=212688667|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol7/HV7N1VanRompay.pdf|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rouwhorst |first=Gerard |title=Le Noyau le Plus Ancien des Hymnes de la Collection 'Sur L'Epiphanie' et la Question de Leur Authenticité |journal=Vigiliae Christianae |publisher=BRILL |volume=66 |issue=2 |year=2012 |issn=0042-6032 |jstor=41480525 |pages=139–159 |doi=10.1163/157007211X586106 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41480525 |access-date=11 December 2024}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Milka|title=The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity|journal=Journal of Jewish Studies|year=1998|volume=49|issue=2|pages=306–333|doi=10.18647/2120/JJS-1998|url=https://www.academia.edu/16441972}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Russell|first=Paul S.|title=Nisibis as the Background to the Life of Ephrem the Syrian|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=2005|volume=8|number=2|pages=179–235|doi=10.31826/hug-2011-080113|s2cid=212688633|url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol8/HV8N2Russell.pdf|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ruzer|first=Serge|chapter=Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors|title=The Language Environment of First Century Judaea|year=2014|location=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|pages=182–205|isbn=9789004264410|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Simmons|first=Ernest|title=The Fathers and Doctors of the Church|year=1959|location=Milwaukee|publisher=Bruce Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnU9AAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Toepel|first=Alexander|chapter=The Cave of Treasures: A new Translation and Introduction|title=Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Noncanonical Scriptures|year=2013|volume=1|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|pages=531–584|isbn=9780802827395|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kCbpAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Wickes|first=Jeffrey|title=Mapping the Literary Landscape of Ephrem's Theology of Divine Names|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|year=2015|volume=69|pages=1–14|jstor=26497707|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26497707}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=Philip|editor3-first=Abraham|editor3-last=Kalakudi|editor2-first=Rev. Jacob|editor2-last=Thekeparampil|editor1-first=Geevarghese|editor1-last=Panicker|title=Syrian Identity in the Cave of Treasures|journal=The Harp|year=2007|volume=22|pages=131–140|doi=10.31826/9781463233112-010|isbn=9781463233112|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9781463233112/10.31826/9781463233112-010.xml}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Philip|chapter=Syriac and the Syrians|title=The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|year=2012|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=170–194|isbn=9780190277536|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEYSDAAAQBAJ}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ephraem Syrus}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081114142254/http://sor.cua.edu/Personage/MEphrem/ ''Margonitho'': Mor Ephrem the Syrian]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041205111118/http://www.anastasis.org.uk/ephrem.htm ''Anastasis'' article]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041204212800/http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No2/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 1]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041204213801/http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol2No1/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 2]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.theandros.com/ephraem.html |title=St. Ephraem 'Faith Adoring the Mystery' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613183654/http://www.theandros.com/ephraem.html |archive-date=2008-06-13}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071201111050/http://www.zenit.org/article-21141?l=english Benedict XVI on St. Ephrem and his role in history]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_235b.html Lewis E 235b Grammatical treatise (Ad correctionem eorum qui virtuose vivunt) at OPenn]

{{Syriacs}}
{{Catholic saints}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ephrem The Syrian}}
[[Category:306 births]]
[[Category:373 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian mystics]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:4th-century Romans]]
[[Category:4th-century theologians]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Arameans]]
[[Category:Authorship debates]]
[[Category:Christian anti-Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:Hymnographers]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:Patristic mystics]]
[[Category:Syrian Christian saints]]
[[Category:Syrian Christian mystics]]
[[Category:Syriac writers]]
[[Category:Writers of late antiquity]]