Editing Empirical research

{{short description|Research using empirical evidence}}
{{distinguish|Evidence-based research}}
[[File:Центр камфокальной микроскопии.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|A scientist gathering data for her research]]
'''Empirical research''' is [[research]] using [[empirical evidence]]. It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect [[observation]] or [[experience]]. [[Empiricism]] values some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed [[quantitative research|quantitatively]] or [[qualitative research|qualitatively]]. [[quantification (science)|Quantifying]] the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called [[data]]). Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions that cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the [[social science]]s and in education.

In some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question (e.g., "Does listening to vocal music during the learning of a word list have an effect on later memory for these words?") which is tested through experimentation. Usually, the researcher has a certain [[theory]] regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this theory, statements or [[hypotheses]] will be proposed (e.g., "Listening to vocal music has a negative effect on learning a word list."). From these hypotheses, predictions about specific events are derived (e.g., "People who study a word list while listening to vocal music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word list in silence."). These predictions can then be tested with a suitable [[experiment]]. Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not,<ref>Goodwin, C. J. (2005). ''Research in Psychology: Methods and Design.'' USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</ref> or may need to be modified and then subjected to further testing.

== History ==
The experimental method has evolved over the ages, with many scientists contributing to its foundation and development. In ancient times, Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, relied on observation and rational inference in their studies. Aristotle, for example, rejected exclusive reliance on logical deduction, emphasizing the importance of observation in understanding nature.

During the Middle Ages, Muslim scientists significantly advanced the experimental method. Jabir ibn Hayyan, known as the father of chemistry, introduced experimental methodology into chemistry and developed chemical processes such as crystallization, calcination, and distillation. He also discovered important acids like sulfuric and nitric acid, expanding the possibilities of chemical experiments. The famous optics scientist Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) was among the first to rely on experimentation in studying light and vision. In his book ''[[Book of Optics]]'', he employed a scientific method based on observation, experimentation, and mathematical proof, making him a pioneer of the modern scientific method.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Tbakhi |last2=Amr |date=2007 |first1=Abdelghani |first2=Samir S. |issn=0256-4947 |issue=6 |journal=Annals of Saudi Medicine |pages=464–467 |pmid=18059131 |title=Ibn Al-Haytham: father of modern optics |volume=27 |pmc=6074172 |doi=10.5144/0256-4947.2007.464}}<!-- auto-translated from Arabic by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

These scientific approaches were transmitted to Europe through translations, influencing the development of modern scientific methodology. European scientists, such as Francis Bacon, were inspired by the works of Muslim scholars in refining the experimental method. The researcher [[Robert Briffault]], in his book ''Making of Humanity'', states:

''"It was under their successors at Oxford School (that is, successors to the Muslims of Spain) that Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Arabic Sciences. Neither Roger Bacon nor later namesake has any title to be credited with having introduced the experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more than one of apostles of Muslim Science and Method to Christian Europe".<ref>Robert Briffault. (1919). Making of Humanity. (pp. 200) London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.</ref>''

==Terminology==
The term ''[[empirical]]'' was originally used to refer to certain [[ancient Greek]] practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the [[dogma]]tic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of [[Phenomenon|phenomena]] as perceived in experience. Later ''[[empiricism]]'' referred to a theory of [[knowledge]] in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically using the senses. In scientific use, the term ''empirical'' refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories and come to conclusions.

==Usage==
The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the [[Sense|human senses]]) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to [[calibrate]] his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. In other words, it describes the research that has not taken place before and their results.

In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned [[research design]]s for the collection of [[Empirical evidence|empirical data]], and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of [[research design]]. Several typologies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley.<ref>Campbell, D. & Stanley, J. (1963). ''Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.</ref> They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among [[Pre-experimental Science|pre-experimental]], [[experimental design|experimental]], and [[quasi-experimental design|quasi-experimental]] designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in [[educational research]].

=== Scientific research ===
Accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in [[Scientific method|scientific]] studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research. [[statistics|Statistical]] formulas such as regression, [[uncertainty coefficient]], t-test, [[Chi-squared test|chi square]], and various types of [[Analysis of variance|ANOVA]] (analyses of variance) are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions. If empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research [[hypothesis]] is supported. If not, the null hypothesis is supported (or, more accurately, not rejected), meaning no effect of the [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variable]](s) was observed on the [[Dependent and independent variables|dependent variable]](s).

The result of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never ''proof''. It can only ''support'' a hypothesis, ''reject'' it, or do neither. These methods yield only probabilities. Among scientific researchers, empirical ''evidence'' (as distinct from empirical ''research'') refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer. For example, a [[thermometer]] will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it. Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well [[Calibration|calibrated]] thermometer, is empirical evidence. By contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer. Following the previous example, observer A might truthfully report that a room is warm, while observer B might truthfully report that the same room is cool, though both observe the same reading on the thermometer. The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of personal (i.e., subjective) experience or time.
{{confusing|section|date=September 2024}}
The varying perception of empiricism and rationalism shows concern with the limit to which there is dependency on experience of sense as an effort of gaining knowledge. According to rationalism, there are a number of different ways in which sense experience is gained independently for the knowledge and concepts. According to empiricism, sense experience is considered as the main source of every piece of knowledge and the concepts. 
In general, rationalists are known for the development of their own views following two different way. First, the key argument can be placed that there are cases in which the content of knowledge or concepts end up outstripping the information. This outstripped information is provided by the sense experience (Hjørland, 2010, 2). Second, there is construction of accounts as to how reasoning helps in the provision of addition knowledge about a specific or broader scope. Empiricists are known to be presenting complementary senses related to thought. 

First, there is development of accounts of how there is provision of information by experience that is cited by rationalists. This is insofar for having it in the initial place. At times, empiricists tend to be opting skepticism as an option of rationalism. If experience is not helpful in the provision of knowledge or concept cited by rationalists, then they do not exist (Pearce, 2010, 35). Second, empiricists have a tendency of attacking the accounts of rationalists, while considering reasoning to be an important source of knowledge or concepts. 

The overall disagreement between empiricists and rationalists shows major concerns about how knowledge is gained with respect to the sources of knowledge and concepts. In some of the cases, disagreement on the point of gaining knowledge results in the provision of conflicting responses to other aspects as well. There might be a disagreement in the overall feature of warrant, while limiting the knowledge and thought. Empiricists are known for sharing the view that there is no existence of innate knowledge and rather that is derivation of knowledge out of experience. These experiences are either reasoned using the mind or sensed through the five senses human possess (Bernard, 2011, 5). On the other hand, rationalists are known to be sharing the view that there is existence of innate knowledge and this is different for the objects of innate knowledge being chosen. 

In order to follow rationalism, there must be adoption of one of the three claims related to the theory that are deduction or intuition, innate knowledge, and innate concept. The more there is removal of concept from mental operations and experience, there can be performance over experience with increased plausibility in being innate. Further ahead, empiricism in context with a specific subject provides a rejection of the corresponding version related to innate knowledge and deduction or intuition (Weiskopf, 2008, 16). Insofar as there is acknowledgement of concepts and knowledge within the area of subject, the knowledge has major dependence on experience through human senses.

==Empirical cycle==
[[Image:Empirical Cycle.svg|thumb|250px|Empirical cycle according to A.D. de Groot]]
[[Adriaan de Groot|A.D. de Groot]]'s empirical cycle:<ref name="Heitink-1999">Heitink, G. (1999). ''Practical Theology: History, Theory, Action Domains: Manual for Practical Theology.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, p. 233. {{ISBN|9780802842947}}</ref>
# [[Observation]]: The observation of a phenomenon and inquiry concerning its causes.
# [[Inductive reasoning|Induction]]: The formulation of hypotheses - generalized explanations for the phenomenon.
# [[Deductive reasoning|Deduction]]: The formulation of experiments that will test the hypotheses (i.e. confirm them if true, refute them if false). 
# [[Experiment|Testing]]: The procedures by which the hypotheses are tested and data are collected.
# [[Evaluation]]: The interpretation of the data and the formulation of a theory - an [[Abductive reasoning|abductive]] argument that presents the results of the experiment as the most reasonable explanation for the phenomenon.

== See also ==
* [[Case study]]
* [[Fact]]
* [[Field research]]
* [[Scientific method]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/empirical-research.html Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416092416/http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/empirical-research.html |date=2021-04-16 }}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Empirical Research}}
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Empiricism|Research]]
[[Category:Concepts in epistemology]]
[[Category:Epistemology of science]]