Editing Emotional intelligence

{{Short description|Capability to understand one's emotions and use this understanding to guide thinking and behavior}}
{{For|the book|Emotional Intelligence{{!}}''Emotional Intelligence''}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2023}}
{{emotion}}

'''Emotional intelligence''' ('''EI'''), also known as '''emotional quotient''' ('''EQ'''), is the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. High emotional intelligence includes [[emotion recognition|emotional recognition]] of [[emotions]] of the self and others, using emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discerning between and labeling of different feelings, and adjusting emotions to adapt to environments. This includes [[emotional literacy]].

The term first appeared in 1964, gaining popularity in the 1995 bestselling book ''[[Emotional Intelligence]]'' by psychologist and science journalist [[Daniel Goleman]]. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim that it is innate.

Various models have been developed to measure EI: The ''trait model'' focuses on self-reporting behavioral dispositions and perceived abilities; the ''ability model'' focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the [[social environment]]. Goleman's original model may now be considered a ''mixed model'' that combines what has since been modelled separately as ''ability EI'' and ''trait EI''.

While some studies show that there is a correlation between high EI and positive workplace performance, there is no general consensus on the issue among psychologists, and no [[causal relationships]] have been shown. EI is typically associated with [[empathy]], because it involves a person relating their personal experiences with those of others. Since its popularization in recent decades and links to workplace performance, methods of developing EI have become sought by people seeking to become more effective leaders.

Recent research has focused on emotion recognition, which refers to the attribution of emotional states based on observations of visual and auditory nonverbal cues.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|vauthors=Durand K, Gallay M, Seigneuric A, Robichon F, Baudouin JY|date=May 2007|title=The development of facial emotion recognition: the role of configural information|url=https://hal-univ-bourgogne.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00568168/file/The_development_of_facial_emotion_recognition.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721152122/https://hal-univ-bourgogne.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00568168/file/The_development_of_facial_emotion_recognition.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-21 |url-status=live|journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology|volume=97|issue=1|pages=14–27|doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.001|pmid=17291524|s2cid=18976192 }}
|2={{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research|vauthors=Bänziger T|year=2014|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-0753-5|veditors=Michalos AC|place=Dordrecht|pages=3934–3941|chapter=Measuring Emotion Recognition Ability|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_4188}}
}}</ref> In addition, [[Neurology|neurological]] studies have sought to characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite news|title=Scientists Complete 1st Map of 'Emotional Intelligence' in the Brain|url=https://health.usnews.com/health-news/news/articles/2013/01/28/scientists-complete-1st-map-of-emotional-intelligence-in-the-brain|agency=U.S. News & World Report|date=2013-01-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814225540/http://health.usnews.com/health-news/news/articles/2013/01/28/scientists-complete-1st-map-of-emotional-intelligence-in-the-brain|archive-date=2014-08-14}}
|2={{cite journal| vauthors = Kosonogov VV, Vorobyeva E, Kovsh E, Ermakov PN |date=2019|title=A review of neurophysiological and genetic correlates of emotional intelligence|url=https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/2334-847X/2019/2334-847X1901137K.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211065825/https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/2334-847X/2019/2334-847X1901137K.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-11 |url-status=live|journal=International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=137–142|doi=10.5937/IJCRSEE1901137K|issn=2334-847X|doi-access=free}}
}}</ref> Criticisms of EI have centered on whether EI has [[incremental validity]] over [[IQ]] and the [[Big Five personality traits]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|vauthors=Harms PD, Credé M|year=2010|title=Remaining Issues in Emotional Intelligence Research: Construct Overlap, Method Artifacts, and Lack of Incremental Validity| journal = Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice | volume = 3|issue=2|pages=154–158|doi = 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01217.x | s2cid = 144371039 }}
|2={{cite journal|vauthors=Cavazotte F, Moreno V, Hickmann M|year=2012|title=Effects of leader intelligence, personality and emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and managerial performance|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=23|issue=3|pages=443–455|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.10.003}}
}}</ref> Meta-analyses have found that certain measures of EI have [[Validity (statistics)|validity]] even when controlling for both IQ and personality.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Boyle Jr EH, Humphrey RH, Pollack JM, Hawver TH, Story PA |date=2011-07-01 |title=The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=788–818 |doi=10.1002/job.714 |issn=1099-1379 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== History ==
The concept of ''emotional strength'' was introduced by [[Abraham Maslow]] in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dhani|first=Priyam|name-list-style=vanc|date=5 March 2021|title=Emotional Intelligence: History, Models, and Measures|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305815636|website=Research Gate}}</ref> The term "emotional intelligence" may have first appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|vauthors=Beldoch M|date=1964|chapter=Sensitivity to expression of emotional meaning in three modes of communication|veditors=Davitz JR, etal|title=The Communication of Emotional Meaning | publisher =  McGraw-Hill | pages = 31–42 }}
|2={{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKqQM3CLAyQC&pg=PA121|title=Contributions to social interactions: Social Encounters | date = 1973 | isbn = 9780202368979 | veditors = Argyle M | vauthors = Beldoch M |chapter=Sensitivity to Expression of Emotional Meaning in Three Modes of Communication|publisher=Transaction Publishers}}
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beldoch |first1=Michael |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106000103371 |title=The communication of emotional meaning |last2=Davitz |first2=Joel Robert |date=1976 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=9780837185279 |location=Westport, Conn. |page=39 |oclc=647368022 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> and a 1966 paper by B. Leuner.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leuner B | year = 1966 | title = Emotional intelligence and emancipation | journal = Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie | volume = 15 | pages = 193–203 }}</ref>

In 1983, [[Howard Gardner]]'s ''Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences'' introduced the idea that traditional types of intelligence, such as [[IQ]], fail to fully explain cognitive ability.<ref>{{cite book |title=Frames of mind |vauthors=Gardner H |date=1983 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York}}</ref> He introduced the idea of [[multiple intelligences]], which included both interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence, which he respectively defined as the capacity to understand others and oneself.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | vauthors = Smith MK |date=2002 |url=https://infed.org/mobi/howard-gardner-multiple-intelligences-and-education/ |title=Howard Gardner, multiple intelligences and education |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Informal Education |access-date=2005-11-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051102035039/http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm |archive-date=2005-11-02 }}</ref>

The first published use of the term ''EQ'' (emotional quotient) is in an article by Keith Beasley in 1987 in the [[Mensa International|British Mensa]] magazine.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal | vauthors = Beasley K | title = The Emotional Quotient. | journal = Mensa | date = May 1987 | page = 25 | url = http://www.keithbeasley.co.uk/EQ/Original%20EQ%20article.pdf }}</ref>

In 1989, [[Stanley Greenspan]] proposed a model to describe EI. The following year, [[Peter Salovey]] and John Mayer proposed another model.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Salovey P, Mayer JD | year = 1989 | title = Emotional intelligence | url = http://ei.yale.edu/journal/imagination-cognition-and-personality/ | journal = Imagination, Cognition, and Personality | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 185–211 | doi=10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg| hdl = 10654/36316 | s2cid = 219900460 }}</ref>

The term became widely known with the publication of [[Daniel Goleman|Daniel Goleman's]] 1995 book: ''Emotional Intelligence – Why it can matter more than IQ''.<ref name="Goleman_1995">{{cite book | vauthors = Goleman D |author-link=Daniel Goleman |year=1996 |title=Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-553-38371-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/emotionalintelli00dani }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Dan|last= Schawbel|name-list-style=vanc |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2011/09/15/daniel-goleman-on-leadership-and-the-power-of-emotional-intelligence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104185806/http://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2011/09/15/daniel-goleman-on-leadership-and-the-power-of-emotional-intelligence |archive-date=2012-11-04 |title=Daniel Goleman on Leadership and The Power of Emotional Intelligence – Forbes |website=[[Forbes]] |access-date=2014-03-07}}</ref> Goleman followed up with several similar publications that reinforce use of the term.<ref name="Goleman_1998">{{cite book |title=Working with emotional intelligence. |vauthors=Goleman D |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1998 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book | vauthors = Lantieri L, Goleman D | date = 2008 | title = Building Emotional Intelligence: Techniques to Cultivate Inner Strength in Children | publisher = Sounds True | isbn = 978-1-59179-849-1 }}
|2={{cite book | vauthors = Goleman D | date = 2011 | title = The Brain and Emotional Intelligence: New Insights | publisher = More Than Sound | isbn = 978-1-934441-15-2 }}
|3={{cite book | vauthors = Goleman D | date = 2011 | title = Leadership: The Power of Emotional Intelligence | publisher = More Than Sound}}
}}</ref> Late in 1998, Goleman's ''Harvard Business Review'' article entitled "What Makes a Leader?"<ref name="hbr98">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goleman et al. |date=2023 |title=What Makes a Leader? |journal=Harvard Business Review |volume=76 |pages=92–105}}</ref> caught the attention of senior management at [[Johnson & Johnson|Johnson & Johnson's Consumer Companies]]. The article argued that EI comprised the skills and characteristics that drive leadership performance.<ref name="hbr98" /> Johnson & Johnson funded a study which concluded that there was a strong relationship between superior performing leaders and [[emotional competence]], supporting theorists' suggestions that the EI is a distinguishing factor in leadership performance.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Cavallo K, Brienza D|title=Emotional Competence and Leadership Excellence at Johnson & Johnson: The Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Study |url=http://www.eiconsortium.org/reports/jj_ei_study.html |website=Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations |access-date=8 September 2020 |date=2001}}</ref>

Tests measuring EI have not replaced IQ tests as a standard metric of intelligence.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Brown H|title=What is Emotional Intelligence and How to Improve it? (Definition + EQ Test) |url=https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/emotional-intelligence-eq/ |website=positivepsychologyprogram.com |access-date=3 February 2019 |date=14 November 2018}}</ref> In later research, EI has received criticism regarding its purported role in leadership and business success.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Tobak S|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-emotional-intelligence-is-just-a-fad/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128120307/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505125_162-57376240/why-emotional-intelligence-is-just-a-fad/ |archive-date=2012-11-28 |title=Why emotional intelligence is just a fad |website=[[CBS News]] |date=2012-02-13 |access-date=2014-03-07}}</ref>

== Definitions ==
Emotional intelligence has been defined by Peter Salovey and John Mayer as "accurately perceiving emotion, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotion, and managing emotion".<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mayer JD, Roberts RD, Barsade SG |year=2008 |title=Human abilities: emotional intelligence |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=59 |pages=507–36 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646 |pmid=17937602 |s2cid=11801336}}</ref><ref name="A Dictionary of Psychology">{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Psychology |vauthors=Colman A |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780199534067 |edition=3}}</ref> The concept comprises both emotional and [[Intellect|intellectual processes]].<ref name="Tolegenova">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tolegenova AA, Jakupov SM, Chung C, Saduova M, Jakupov MS |year=2012 |title=A theoretical formation of emotional intelligence and childhood trauma among adolescents |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=69 |pages=1891–1894 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.142 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Emotional intelligence also reflects an ability to use intelligence, empathy, and emotions to enhance understanding of interpersonal dynamics.<ref name="Mayer_2008">{{cite journal |author3-link=Sigal G. Barsade |vauthors=Mayer JD, Roberts RD, Barsade SG |year=2008 |title=Human abilities: emotional intelligence |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5907081 |url-status=live |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=59 |pages=507–36 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646 |pmid=17937602 |s2cid=11801336 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222125327/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5907081_Human_Abilities_Emotional_Intelligence |archive-date=2015-12-22}}</ref> However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalization. Currently, there are three main models of EI: The ''ability model'' defines EI in terms of cognitive and emotional abilities;<ref name="Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR |date=July 2004 |title=Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=197–215 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1503_02 |s2cid=144415437}}</ref> the ''mixed model'', introduced by Daniel Goleman, comprises a variety of emotional competencies, sometimes being regarded as a form of trait EI;<ref name="Kluemper, D.H. 2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kluemper DH | year = 2008 | title = Trait emotional intelligence: The impact of core-self evaluations and social desirability | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 44 | issue = 6| pages = 1402–1412 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.008}}</ref><ref name="Martins_2010">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029 | vauthors = Martins A, Ramalho N, Morin E | year = 2010 | title = A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health | journal = Journal of Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 49 | issue = 6| pages = 554–564 }}</ref> the ''trait model'' defines EI as comprising traits within a [[Trait theory|personality trait theory]] framework.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrides KV, Furnham A |date=November 2001 |title=Trait Emotional Intelligence: Psychometric Investigation with Reference to Established Trait Taxonomies |journal=European Journal of Personality |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=425–48 |doi=10.1002/per.416 |s2cid=144031083}}</ref>

Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they relate to different constructs.

== Models ==
Based on theoretical and methodological approaches, EI measures are categorized in three main streams:  ability-based measures (e.g. MSCEIT),  self-reports of abilities measures (e.g. SREIT, SUEIT and WLEIS), and mixed-models (e.g. AES, ECI, EI questionnaire, EIS, EQ-I and GENOS), which include measures of EI and traditional social skills.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ashkanasy NM, Daus CS |date=2005-06-01 |title=Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_13541/Ashkanasy_Daus__Dec23_04_.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=441–452 |doi=10.1002/job.320 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725225320/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:13541/Ashkanasy_Daus__Dec23_04_.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-25}}</ref>

=== Ability model ===
Salovey and Mayer's define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G | title = Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence|journal = Emotion|volume=1|issue=3| pages=232–42|date=September 2001|pmid=12934682|doi=10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.232}}
|2={{cite journal | vauthors = MacCann C, Joseph DL, Newman DA, Roberts RD|title=Emotional intelligence is a second-stratum factor of intelligence: evidence from hierarchical and bifactor models|journal=Emotion|volume=14|issue= 2|pages=358–374|date=April 2014|pmid= 24341786|doi=10.1037/a0034755}}
}}</ref> Their initial definition of EI had been "the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior".<ref name="A Dictionary of Psychology" /> They later revised the definition to "the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth." After further research, their definition of EI evolved into "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."<ref name="Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications" />

The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment, with EI abilities manifesting in adaptive behaviors.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P | chapter = What is emotional intelligence? | veditors = Salovey P, Sluyter D | title = Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators | year = 1997 | pages = 3–31 | location = New York | publisher = Basic Books | isbn = 978-0-521-51806-2 }}</ref><ref name="grewal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salovey P, Grewal D | year = 2005 | title = The Science of Emotional Intelligence | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 14 | issue = 6| page = 6 | doi=10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381.x | s2cid = 2143869 | url = https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/131109 }}</ref> It proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to wider cognition.

The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:
* Perceiving emotions: the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts—including the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions is a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
* Using emotions: the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing [[mood (psychology)|moods]] in order to best fit the task at hand.
* Understanding emotions: the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.
* Managing emotions: the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. The emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

The ability EI model has been criticized for lacking [[Face validity|face]] and [[predictive validity]] in the workplace.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bradberry TR, Su LD | title = Ability-versus skill-based assessment of emotional intelligence | journal = Psicothema | volume = 18 Suppl | pages = 59–66 | date = 2003 | pmid = 17295959 | url = https://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3277.pdf | access-date = 2014-03-07 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120905061723/http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3277.pdf | archive-date = 2012-09-05 }}</ref> However, in terms of [[construct validity]], ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI because they compare individual maximal performance to standard performance scales and do not rely on individuals' endorsement of descriptive statements about themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brackett MA, Mayer JD | title = Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 29 | issue = 9 | pages = 1147–58 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 15189610 | doi = 10.1177/0146167203254596 | s2cid = 5744173 }}</ref>

==== Measurement ====
The current measure of Mayer and Salovey's model of EI, the [[Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test]] (MSCEIT), is based on a series of emotion-based problem-solving items.<ref name="grewal"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G | title = Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0 | journal = Emotion | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 97–105 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12899321 | doi = 10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.97 }}</ref> Consistent with the model's claim of EI as a type of intelligence, the test is modeled on ability-based [[IQ tests]]. By testing a person's abilities on each of the four branches of emotional intelligence, it generates scores for each of the branches as well as a total score.

Central to the four-branch model is the idea that EI requires attunement to [[social norms]]. Therefore, the MSCEIT is [[consensus based assessment|scored in a consensus fashion]], with higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's answers and those provided by a worldwide sample of respondents. The MSCEIT can also be expert-scored so that the amount of overlap is calculated between an individual's answers and those provided by a group of 21 [[emotion|emotion researchers]].<ref name="grewal"/>

Although promoted as an ability test, the MSCEIT test is unlike standard IQ tests in that its items do not have objectively correct responses. Among other challenges, the consensus scoring criterion means that it is impossible to create items that only a minority of respondents can solve, because, by definition, responses are deemed emotionally "intelligent" only if the majority of the sample has endorsed them. This and other similar problems have led some cognitive ability experts to question the definition of EI as a genuine intelligence.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Petrides KV | chapter = Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence | title = The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Individual Differences | veditors = Chamorro-Premuzic T, von Stumm S, Furnham A | location = London | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2015 | pages = 656–78 | isbn = 978-1-119-05030-8 }}</ref>

In a study by Føllesdal, the MSCEIT test results of 111 business leaders were compared with how their employees described their leader. It was found that there were no correlations between a leader's test results and how he or she was rated by the employees, with regard to [[empathy]], ability to motivate, and leader effectiveness. Føllesdal also criticized the Canadian company Multi-Health Systems, which administers the test. The test contains 141 questions, but it was found after publishing the test that 19 of these did not give the expected answers. This has led Multi-Health Systems to remove answers to these 19 questions before scoring.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=Emotional Intelligence as Ability: Assessing the Construct Validity of Scores from the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Oslo |url=http://www.psykologi.uio.no/studier/drpsych/disputaser/follesdal_summary.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216094950/http://www.psykologi.uio.no/studier/drpsych/disputaser/follesdal_summary.html |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=dead |vauthors=Føllesdal H |year=2008}}</ref>

==== Other measurements ====
Various other specific measures also assess ability in emotional intelligence. These include:
* Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy (DANVA)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nowicki|first1=Stephen|last2=Duke|first2=Marshall P.|name-list-style=vanc|date=1994-03-01|title=Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: The diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02169077|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=9–35|doi=10.1007/BF02169077|s2cid=144426091|issn=1573-3653}}</ref>
* Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matsumoto|first1=David|last2=LeRoux|first2=Jeff|last3=Wilson-Cohn|first3=Carinda|last4=Raroque|first4=Jake|last5=Kooken|first5=Kristie|last6=Ekman|first6=Paul|last7=Yrizarry|first7=Nathan|last8=Loewinger|first8=Sherry|last9=Uchida|first9=Hideko|last10=Yee|first10=Albert|last11=Amo|first11=Lisa|name-list-style=vanc|date=2000-09-01|title=A New Test to Measure Emotion Recognition Ability: Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1006668120583|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=179–209|doi=10.1023/A:1006668120583|s2cid=18039888|issn=1573-3653}}</ref>
* Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU)<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=MacCann|first1=Carolyn|last2=Roberts|first2=Richard D.|name-list-style=vanc|year=2008|title=New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0012746|journal=Emotion|volume=8|issue=4|pages=540–551|doi=10.1037/a0012746|pmid=18729584|via=APA}}</ref>
* Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM).<ref name=":6" />

=== Mixed model ===
The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills, which drive leadership performance in applied settings.<ref name="Goleman_1998" /> Goleman's model outlines five main EI constructs:{{r|hbr98}}
* [[Self-awareness]] – the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values, and goals and recognize their impact on others while using [[gut feeling]]s to guide decisions
* [[Emotional self-regulation|Self-regulation]] – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances
* [[Social skill]] – managing relationships to get along with others
* [[Empathy]] – considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions
* [[Motivation]] – being aware of what motivates them

Goleman includes a set of [[emotional competence|emotional competencies]] within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are learned capabilities that must be developed to achieve performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.<ref name="boy">{{cite book | vauthors = Boyatzis RE, Goleman D, Rhee K | chapter = Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). | veditors = Bar-On R, Parker JD | title = Handbook of emotional intelligence. | year = 2000 | volume = 99 | issue = 6 | pages = 343–62 | location = San Francisco | publisher = Jossey-Bass }}</ref>

==== Criticism ====
Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as "[[pop psychology]]".<ref name="Mayer_2008" />

Goleman's early work has been criticized for assuming that EI is a type of intelligence or [[cognitive ability]]. Eysenck writes that Goleman's description of EI contains unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect when studying types of intelligence.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |author-link=Hans Eysenck |title=Intelligence: A New Look |vauthors=Eysenck HJ |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7658-0707-6}}</ref> Similarly, Locke claims that the concept of EI is a misinterpretation of the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not another form or type of intelligence, but intelligence—the ability to grasp [[abstractions]]—applied to a particular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.<ref name="locke">{{cite journal |vauthors=Locke EA |year=2005 |title=Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.1002/job.318}}</ref>

==== Measurement ====
Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:
* The Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), a newer edition of the ECI, which was developed in 2007. The Emotional and Social Competence – University Edition (ESCI-U) is also available. These tools, developed by Goleman and [[Richard Boyatzis|Boyatzis]], provide a behavioral measure of emotional and social competencies.
* [[The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal]], which was created in 2001 and which can be taken as a self-report or [[360-degree feedback|360-degree assessment]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bradberry T, Greaves J | title = Emotional Intelligence 2.0. | year = 2009 | location = San Francisco | publisher = Publishers Group West | isbn = 978-0-9743206-2-5 }}</ref>

=== Trait model ===
Konstantinos V. Petrides proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a [[Phenotypic trait|trait]]-based model of EI, developing the latter over many years in a number of publications.<ref name="pet2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2000 | title = On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 313–320 | doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00195-6| citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.5285 }}</ref><ref name="petrides07">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Pita R, Kokkinaki F | title = The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 273–89 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17456273 | doi = 10.1348/000712606x120618 }}</ref> Trait EI is an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities — as defined by Petrides, "a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."<ref name="petrides07"/> This definition of EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities. It is measured by [[self-report inventory|self report]], as opposed to the ability-based model which attempts to measure actual abilities, which have proven resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI is investigated within a [[personality psychology|personality]] framework.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2001 | title = Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 15 | issue = 6| pages = 425–448 | doi=10.1002/per.416| s2cid = 144031083 }}</ref> An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional [[self-efficacy]].{{Cn|date=September 2024}}

The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman mixed model. The conceptualization of EI as a [[Trait theory|personality trait]] leads to a construct that lies outside the [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] of human [[Cognitive skill|cognitive ability]], distinguishing its operationalization and theory from other models.<ref name="pet2000"/>

==== Measurement ====
There are many self-report measures of EI,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Pérez JC, Petrides PJ, Furnham A | chapter = Measuring trait emotional intelligence | veditors = Schulze R, Roberts RD | title = International Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. | publisher = Hogrefe & Huber | location = Cambridge, Mass. | year = 2005 | pages = 123–43 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.474.294 }}</ref> including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. As limited measures of trait emotional intelligence, these models do not assess intelligence, abilities, or skills.<ref name="petrides07" /> The most widely used and widely researched measure of self-report or [[self-schema]] emotional intelligence is the EQ-i 2.0.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the EQ-i 2.0 and emotional intelligence? |url=https://www.eitrainingcompany.com/eq-i/ |website=The Emotional Intelligence Training Company |access-date=22 September 2024 |language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (Eds.) |title=The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace |date=2000}}</ref> Originally known as the [[Reuven Bar-On|BarOn]] EQ-i, it was the first self-report measure of emotional intelligence available, and the only measure predating Goleman's bestselling book.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020|reason=No sources are provided for this claim}}

The Petrides model is operationalized by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2003 | title = Trait emotional intelligence: behavioral validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 17 | pages = 39–75 | doi=10.1002/per.466| s2cid = 4287409 }}</ref> which encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors: [[Quality of life|well-being]], [[self-control]], [[emotionality]], and [[sociability]]. In a 2007 study, the [[psychometrics|psychometric]] properties of the TEIQue have been found to be [[normally distributed]] and [[reliability (statistics)|reliable]].<ref name="Mikolajczak07">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mikolajczak M, Luminet O, Leroy C, Roy E |date=June 2007 |title=Psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire: factor structure, reliability, construct, and incremental validity in a French-speaking population |journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=338–53 |doi=10.1080/00223890701333431 |pmid=17518555 |s2cid=21196733 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Researchers have found TEIQue scores to be unrelated to [[Raven's Progressive Matrices|Raven's matrices]] of non-verbal reasoning, which has been interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI. TEIQue scores have also been found to be positively related to [[extraversion]], [[agreeableness]], [[openness to experience|openness]], [[conscientiousness]], while being inversely related to [[alexithymia]], [[neuroticism]]. A number of quantitative genetic studies have been carried out within the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects and heritabilities for all trait EI scores.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vernon PA, Petrides KV, Bratko D, Schermer JA | title = A behavioral genetic study of trait emotional intelligence | journal = Emotion | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 635–42 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18837613 | doi = 10.1037/a0013439 }}</ref> Two studies involving direct comparisons of multiple EI tests yielded favorable results for the TEIQue.<ref name="Martins_2010" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00049530903312857 | vauthors = Gardner JK, Qualter P | year = 2010 | title = Concurrent and incremental validity of three trait emotional intelligence measures | journal = Australian Journal of Psychology | volume = 62 | pages = 5–12 }}</ref>

== Correlations ==
A review published in the ''Annual Review of Psychology'' in 2008 found that higher emotional intelligence is positively correlated with a number of outcomes, including social relations, academic achievement, negotiation skills, workplace social dynamics, positive perceptions by other people, health and wellbeing. It also found EI to be negatively correlated with anti-social and deviant behavior in children as well as poor health behaviors.<ref name="Mayer_2008" /> However, once IQ is taken into account, EI does not generally result in higher grades.<ref name=":7" /> Additionally, subsequent research has argued that EI leads to better self awareness, decision making, and [[self-actualization]] ability.<ref>{{multiref2|{{cite journal | vauthors = Heffernan M, Quinn Griffin MT, Fitzpatrick JJ | title = Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in nurses | journal = International Journal of Nursing Practice | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 366–73 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20649668 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-172X.2010.01853.x | s2cid = 1902234 }}|{{cite journal| vauthors = Bratton VK, Dodd NG, Brown FW |date= January 2011 |title=The impact of emotional intelligence on accuracy of self-awareness and leadership performance |journal=Leadership & Organization Development Journal|volume=32|issue=2|pages=127–149|doi=10.1108/01437731111112971|issn=0143-7739|url= https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/12652}}
}}</ref>

[[Gender differences in emotional intelligence|Gender differences in EI]] have been observed, with women tending to score higher levels than men.<ref name="ReferenceB" />
=== Bullying ===
{{Main|Bullying and emotional intelligence}}
[[Bullying]] is an [[abusive]] [[social interaction]] between peers that can include [[aggression]], [[harassment]], and [[violence]]. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of [[Abusive power and control|power]] over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates an [[Negative relationship|inverse correlation]] between bullying (both as the bully and the victim) and emotional intelligence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Lamb J, Pepler DJ, Craig W | title = Approach to bullying and victimization | journal = Canadian Family Physician | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 356–60 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19366941 | pmc = 2669002 }}
|2={{cite journal|title = The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents|journal = Social Psychology of Education|date = 2011-07-26|issn = 1381-2890|pages = 41–58|volume = 15|issue = 1|doi = 10.1007/s11218-011-9168-9| vauthors = Lomas J, Stough C, Hansen K, Downey LA |s2cid = 143679923}}
|3={{cite journal | vauthors = Lomas J, Stough C, Hansen K, Downey LA | title = Brief report: Emotional intelligence, victimisation and bullying in adolescents | journal = Journal of Adolescence | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 207–11 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 21470670 | doi = 10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.002 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 1959.3/190030| url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/26216390 }}
}}</ref> It also shows that emotional intelligence is a key factor in cybervictimization.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Rey L, Quintana-Orts C, Mérida-López S, Extremera N |date=2018-07-01|title=Emotional intelligence and peer cybervictimisation in adolescents: Gender as moderator|journal=Comunicar|language=es|volume=26|issue=56|pages=09–18|doi=10.3916/c56-2018-01|issn=1134-3478|doi-access=free|hdl=10272/15115|hdl-access=free}}</ref> EI education has been put forth as a potential method for bullying prevention and intervention initiatives.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mckenna J, Webb J | year = 2013 | title = Emotional intelligence | journal = British Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 76 | issue = 12| page = 560 | doi = 10.1177/030802261307601202 | s2cid = 208741104 }}</ref>

=== Job performance ===
{{Main|Job performance and emotional intelligence}}
Cote and Miners have offered a compensatory model between EI and IQ, which posits that the association between EI and job performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context of academic performance.<ref name="Côté 2006" /><ref>(Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004)</ref>{{full citation needed|date=July 2023}} A 2015 meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and job performance showed correlations of ''r''=.20 (for job performance & ability EI) and ''r''=.29 (for job performance and mixed EI),<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal |vauthors=Joseph DL, Jin J, Newman DA, O'Boyle EH |date=March 2015 |title=Why does self-reported emotional intelligence predict job performance? A meta-analytic investigation of mixed EI |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=298–342 |doi=10.1037/a0037681 |pmid=25243996 |s2cid=1602838}}</ref> although earlier research on EI and [[job performance]] had shown mixed results.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |vauthors=Van Rooy DL, Viswesvaran C |date=2004-08-01 |title=Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net |journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=71–95 |doi=10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00076-9}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |vauthors=Law KS, Wong CS, Song LJ |date=June 2004 |title=The construct and criterion validity of emotional intelligence and its potential utility for management studies |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=483–96 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.483 |pmid=15161407}}</ref> An earlier 2011 meta-analysis found that all three models of EI "have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance", the mixed and trait models "have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model," and "all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance."<ref name=":0" />

A 2005 study of the predictive ability of EI for job performance concluded that higher EI was associated with higher leadership effectiveness regarding achievement of organizational goals,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosete D, Ciarrochi J |date=2005-07-01 |title=Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness |journal=Leadership & Organization Development Journal |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=388–399 |doi=10.1108/01437730510607871 |issn=0143-7739}}</ref> with a 2008 study arguing that EI can be deliberately developed to enhance leadership abilities in the workplace.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Groves KS, McEnrue MP, Shen W |date=2008-02-08 |title=Developing and measuring the emotional intelligence of leaders |journal=Journal of Management Development |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=225–250 |doi=10.1108/02621710810849353 |issn=0262-1711}}</ref> Emotional intelligence has also been recognised in business leadership, commercial negotiation, and dispute resolution contexts. Professional qualifications and continuous professional development have incorporated aspects of EI into their curriculum.<ref>{{multiref2|{{cite news|vauthors=Whitener S|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2020/11/25/the-importance-of-emotional-intelligence-in-business/|title=The Importance Of Emotional Intelligence In Business|work=Forbes|date=25 November 2020|access-date=26 February 2021}}|JCA Global Ltd. and [[Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply|CIPS]] (2017), [https://www.cips.org/Documents/1/JCA-CIPS-EI-in-Procurement-report.pdf Emotional Intelligence in the Procurement Sector], accessed 26 February 2021|{{cite journal|vauthors=Kelly EJ, et al|title=Importance of emotional intelligence in negotiation and mediation|journal=International Comparative Jurisprudence|volume=2|number=1|date=September 2016|pages=55–60|doi=10.1016/j.icj.2016.07.001|doi-access=free}}
}}</ref> By 2008, 147 companies and consulting firms in the U.S. had developed programmes that involved EI for training and hiring employees.<ref name="ReferenceC" />

A 2006 study has found that EI correlates positively with performance in teams, strong and positive relationships with co-workers, and [[stress management]] capabilities.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lopes PN, Grewal D, Kadis J, Gall M, Salovey P |year=2006 |title=Evidence that emotional intelligence is related to job performance and affect and attitudes at work |journal=Psicothema |volume=18 Suppl |pages=132–8 |pmid=17295970}}</ref> A 2001 article also found that employees with strong EI improve workplace performance by providing emotional support and instrumental resources needed to succeed in their roles.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Seibert SE, Kraimer ML, Liden RC |date=April 2001 |title=A social capital theory of career success |journal=Academy of Management Journal |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=219–237 |jstor=3069452}}</ref> Joseph and Newman's 2010 study suggests that emotional perception and emotional regulation components of EI contribute to job performance under job contexts of high emotional demands.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |vauthors=Joseph DL, Newman DA |date=January 2010 |title=Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=54–78 |doi=10.1037/a0017286 |pmid=20085406 |s2cid=11238077}}</ref> Moon and Hur's 2011 study found that the job performance-EI relationship is stronger under contexts of high emotional exhaustion or burn-out.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Moon TW, Hur WM |date=2011-09-01 |title=Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Exhaustion, And Job Performance |journal=Social Behavior and Personality |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=1087–1096 |doi=10.2224/sbp.2011.39.8.1087}}</ref>

A 2015 article observed that there is no significant link between emotional intelligence and work attitude-behavior,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Relojo D, Pilao SJ, Dela Rosa R |year=2015 |title=From passion to emotion: Emotional quotient as predictor of work attitude behavior among faculty member |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1098164.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.26634/jpsy.8.4.3266 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430173940/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1098164.pdf |archive-date=2017-04-30}}</ref> though a 2006 study shows that employees high in EI show more confidence in their roles, allowing them to face demanding tasks positively.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sy T, Tram S, O'Hara LA |date=2006-06-01 |title=Relation of employee and manager emotional intelligence to job satisfaction and performance |journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=461–473 |doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.003}}</ref> A separate 2006 study finds that employees with strong emotional intelligence dedicate more time to cultivating their rapport with supervisors, resulting in more favorable outcomes in performance evaluations compared to those with lower EI.<ref name=":2" />

A 2011 study has examined a possible link between EI and entrepreneurial behaviors and success.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmetoglu G, Leutner F, Chamorro-Premuzic T |date=December 2011 |title=EQ-nomics: Understanding the relationship between individual differences in trait emotional intelligence and entrepreneurship |url=http://www.drtomascp.com/uploads/EQNomics_PAID_2011.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=1028–1033 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.016<!--pmid=893295016--> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101125012/http://www.drtomascp.com/uploads/EQNomics_PAID_2011.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-01}}</ref> A 2012 study suggests that EI is not necessarily a universally positive trait, finding that EI and teamwork effectiveness are negatively correlated under certain workplace scenarios.<ref name="Emotional intelligence, teamwork ef">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farh CI, Seo MG, Tesluk PE |date=July 2012 |title=Emotional intelligence, teamwork effectiveness, and job performance: the moderating role of job context |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=890–900 |doi=10.1037/a0027377 |pmid=22390388}}</ref>

==== Criticism ====
Critics argue that the popularity of EI studies is due to media advertising, rather than objective scientific findings.<ref name="Côté 2006">{{cite journal| vauthors = Côté S, Miners CT |year=2006|title=Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, and Job Performance|jstor=20109857|journal=Administrative Science Quarterly|volume=51|issue=1|pages=1–28|doi=10.2189/asqu.51.1.1|s2cid=142971341}}</ref> FJ Landy argues that while the commercial discussion of emotional intelligence makes expansive claims on the applied value of EI, academic discussion of EI cautions against wide claims of EI's predictive power.<ref name="landy">{{cite journal |vauthors=Landy FJ |year=2005 |title=Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=411–424 |doi=10.1002/job.317}}</ref> Landy cites the data upon which commercial claims are based are held in databases unavailable to independent researchers for reanalysis, replication, or verification.<ref name="landy" /> Goleman has stated that "emotional intelligence is the ''[[sine qua non]]'' of leadership."<ref name="hbr98" /> On the other hand, Mayer (1999){{full citation needed|date=July 2023}} warns that the notion " that highly emotionally intelligent people possess an unqualified advantage in life... is unsubstantiated by reasonable scientific standards."

It is difficult to create objective measures of emotional intelligence and demonstrate its influence on leadership as many scales are self-report measures.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Murensky CL |year=2000 |title=The relationships between emotional intelligence, personality, critical thinking ability and organizational leadership performance at upper levels of management |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-95016-143 |journal=Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering |via=PsyNET}}</ref> In review of EI constructs, ability-measures of EI fared worst (ρ=0.04); the WLEIS (Wong-Law measure) did a bit better (ρ=0.08); and the [[Reuven Bar-On|Bar-On]] measure slightly better (ρ=0.18). However, the validity of these estimates does not include the effects of IQ or the big five personality, which correlate both with EI measures and leadership.<ref name="leadership_ei">{{cite book |title=LMX leadership—Game-Changing Designs: Research-Based Tools |vauthors=Antonakis J |publisher=Information Age Publishing |year=2009 |veditors=Graen GB |volume=VII |location=Greenwich, CT |pages=163–192 |chapter="Emotional intelligence": What does it measure and does it matter for leadership? |chapter-url=https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_B0C0967A2E4D.P001/REF.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120055213/https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_B0C0967A2E4D.P001/REF.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> A 2010 study analyzing the impact of EI on both job performance and leadership found that the meta-analytic validity estimates for EI dropped to zero when Big Five traits and IQ were controlled for.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harms PD, Credé M |year=2010 |title=Remaining Issues in Emotional Intelligence Research: Construct Overlap, Method Artifacts, and Lack of Incremental Validity |journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=154–158 |doi=10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01217.x |s2cid=144371039}}</ref> A separate 2010 meta-analysis showed the same result for ability EI, while finding that self-reported and trait EI measures retain a fair amount of predictive validity for job performance after controlling Big Five traits and IQ.<ref name="ReferenceB" />

However, the greater predictive validity of trait EI and mixed EI measures has been attributed to their inclusion of content related to constructs of [[Need for achievement|achievement motivation]], [[Self-efficacy|self efficacy]], and self-rated performance, in addition to IQ and the personality domains of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Newman DA, Joseph DL, MacCann C |year=2010 |title=Emotional Intelligence and Job Performance: The Importance of Emotion Regulation and Emotional Labor Context |journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=159–164 |doi=10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01218.x |s2cid=145567449}}</ref> A 2015 meta-analysis has found that the predictive ability of mixed EI to job performance is non-existent when controlling for these factors.<ref name="ReferenceC" />

In a 2009 review, [[John Antonakis]] and other authors agreed that researchers who test the relationship between EI and leadership have generally not done so using robust research designs, and that there is no strong evidence showing that EI predicts leadership outcomes when accounting for personality and IQ.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Antonakis J, Ashkanasy NM, Dasborough MT |year=2009 |title=Does leadership need emotional intelligence? |url=https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_F989E68B6F71 |journal=The Leadership Quarterly |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=247–261 |doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.006}}</ref> A 2010 meta-analysis found that, if using data free from problems of [[Common source bias|common source]] and [[Common-method variance|common methods]], EI measures correlated only [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|ρ]]=0.11 with measures of [[transformational leadership]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harms PD, Credé M |year=2010 |title=Emotional Intelligence and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=leadershipfacpub |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies]] |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=5–17 |doi=10.1177/1548051809350894 |s2cid=2247881 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612083022/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=leadershipfacpub |archive-date=2011-06-12}}</ref> Barling, Slater, and Kelloway also support this position on transformational leadership.<ref name="Barling_2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Barling J, Slater F, Kelloway EK |date=May 2000 |title=Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: an exploratory study |journal=Leadership & Organization Development Journal |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=157–161 |doi=10.1108/01437730010325040}}</ref> Antonakis has proposed an alternative "curse of emotion" argument, which asserts that leaders who are too sensitive to emotional states might have difficulty making decisions that would result in [[emotional labor]].

There is evidence that emotional intelligence tests are subject to the [[social-desirability bias]], resulting in inaccurate measurement, with several studies showing people can distort their responses on both self-rated and informant-rated emotional intelligence measures when instructed to.<ref>Choi, S., Kluemper, D. H., & Sauley, K. S. (2011). What if we fake emotional intelligence? A test of criterion validity attenuation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(3), 270277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.558870</ref><ref> Day, A. L., & Carroll, S. A. (2008). Faking emotional intelligence (EI): Comparing response distortion on ability and trait-based EI measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 29(6), 761–784. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.485 </ref><ref>Tett, R. P., Freund, K. A., Christiansen, N. D., Fox, K. E., & Coaster, J. (2012). Faking on self-report emotional intelligence and personality tests: Effects of faking opportunity, cognitive ability, and job type. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid. 2011.10.017</ref><ref>Walker, S. A., & MacCann, C. (2023). Faking Good on Self-Reports Versus Informant-Reports of Emotional Intelligence. Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911231203960</ref>

Some studies have found that despite a positive correlation between EI and leadership effectiveness, leadership effectiveness is more heavily dependent on other factors such as their leadership activities and self-management skills.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dabke D |year=2016 |title=Impact of Leader's Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Behavior on Perceived Leadership Effectiveness: A Multiple Source View |journal=Business Perspectives and Research |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=27–40 |doi=10.1177/2278533715605433 |s2cid=147415251}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahiauzu A, Nwokah NC |year=2010 |title=Marketing in governance: emotional intelligence leadership for effective corporate governance |journal=Corporate Governance |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=150–162 |doi=10.1108/14720701011035675}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mullen PR, Gutierrez D, Newhart S |year=2018 |title=School Counselors' Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Leadership |journal=Professional School Counseling |volume=32 |issue=1b |pages=2156759X1877298 |doi=10.1177/2156759X18772989 |s2cid=149709509}}</ref>

[[Adam Grant]] warned of the common but mistaken perception of EI as a desirable moral quality rather than a skill.<ref name=TheAtlantic20140102/> Grant asserted that a well-developed EI is not only an instrumental tool for accomplishing goals, but can function as a weapon for manipulating others by robbing them of their capacity to reason.<ref name=TheAtlantic20140102>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/282720/ |title=The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence | last1=Grant |first1=Adam |name-list-style=vanc|date=January 2, 2014 |magazine=The Atlantic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103210524/http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/282720/ |archive-date=January 3, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Health ===
A 2007 meta-analysis of 44 effect sizes by Schutte ''et al.'' found that emotional intelligence was associated with better mental and physical health. Particularly, trait EI had the stronger association with mental and physical health.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schutte NS, Malouff JM, Thorsteinsson EB, Bhullar N, Rooke SE | title = A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health. | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | date = April 2007 | volume = 42 | issue = 6 | pages = 921–33 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.003 }}</ref> This was replicated in 2010 by researcher Alexandra Martins who found trait EI is a strong predictor for health after conducting a meta-analysis based on 105 effect sizes and 19,815 participants. This meta-analysis also indicated that this line of research reached enough sufficiency and stability to conclude EI is a positive predictor for health.<ref name="Martins_2010" /> An earlier study by Mayer and Salovey argued that high EI can increase one's well-being because of its role in enhancing relationships.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mayer JD, Salovey P |year=1993 |title=The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence |url=https://eclass.teicrete.gr/modules/document/file.php/IP-ERLSF116/Mayer-Salovey.1993-libre.pdf |journal=Intelligence |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=433–442 |doi=10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3 |access-date=2018-05-09 |archive-date=2018-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510051233/https://eclass.teicrete.gr/modules/document/file.php/IP-ERLSF116/Mayer-Salovey.1993-libre.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Self-esteem and drug dependence ===
A 2012 study in India cross-examined emotional intelligence, [[self-esteem]], and [[marijuana]] dependence.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nehra DK, Sharma V, Mushtaq H, Sharma NR, Sharma M, Nehra S |title=Emotional intelligence and self esteem in cannabis abusers |url=http://jiaap.org/listing_detail/logo/9f17c341-3b9d-4317-868b-cebb3b65fb76.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219025158/http://jiaap.org/listing_detail/logo/9f17c341-3b9d-4317-868b-cebb3b65fb76.pdf |archive-date=2018-02-19 |url-status=dead |journal=[[Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology]] |date=July 2012 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=385–393}}</ref> Out of a sample of 200, 100 of whom were dependent on cannabis and the other 100 emotionally healthy, the dependent group scored exceptionally low on EI when compared to the control group. They also found that the dependent group also scored low on self-esteem when compared to the control.

Another study in 2010 examined whether or not low levels of EI had a relationship with the degree of [[Substance dependence|drug]] and [[alcoholism|alcohol]] addiction in Australia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown E, Chiu E, Neill L, Tobin J, Reid J |s2cid=73720582 |date=16 Jan 2012 |title=Is low emotional intelligence a primary causal factor in drug and alcohol addiction? |journal=Australian Academic Press|location=Bowen Hills, QLD, Australia |pages=91–101}}</ref> In the assessment of 103 residents in a drug rehabilitation center, they examined their EI along with other psychosocial factors in a one-month interval of treatment. They found that participants' EI scores improved as their levels of addiction lessened as part of their treatment.

=== Academic performance ===
A 2020 meta-analysis showed that students with higher emotional intelligence show higher academic performance at school.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=MacCann|first1=Carolyn|last2=Jiang|first2=Yixin|last3=Brown|first3=Luke E R|last4=Double|first4=Kit S|last5=Bucich|first5=Micaela|last6=Minbashian|first6=Amirali|name-list-style=vanc|title=Emotional intelligence predicts academic performance: A meta-analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000219|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=2020|volume=146|issue=2|pages=150–186|doi=10.1037/bul0000219|pmid=31829667|s2cid=209342554|via=APA}}</ref> This was a summary of over 1,246 effects from 158 different studies, with a sample size of 42,529. Students with higher emotional intelligence had better scores on standardized tests and achieved higher grades. The effect was significantly larger for humanities than for science/maths areas of study, and significantly larger for ability-model emotional intelligence measures than for rating scales of emotional intelligence. The association of emotional intelligence with higher academic achievement was still significant even after considering the effect of students' Big Five personality and intelligence.

== Validity ==
The construct of emotional intelligence has been criticized within the [[scientific community]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book | veditors = Murphy KR | title = A critique of emotional intelligence: What are the problems and how can they be fixed? | publisher = Psychology Press | date = February 2014 | isbn = 978-1-317-82433-6 }}
|2={{cite web | vauthors = Durlofsky P | title = The Benefits of Emotional Intelligence | url = http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2015/10/29/the-benefits-of-emotional-intelligence/ | work = psychcentral.com | date = 30 October 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170202235000/https://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2015/10/29/the-benefits-of-emotional-intelligence/| archive-date = 2 February 2017}}
}}</ref>
=== Correlations with personality ===
Interpretations of the correlations between EI questionnaires and personality have been varied, with the trait EI view interpreting EI as a collection of personality traits.<ref name="Mikolajczak07" /><ref>{{multiref2|{{cite journal| vauthors = Smith L, Ciarrochi J, Heaven PC |year=2008|title=The stability and change of trait emotional intelligence, conflict communication patterns, and relationship satisfaction: A one-year longitudinal study|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=45|issue=8|pages=738–743|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.023}}|{{cite journal| vauthors = Austin EJ |year=2008|title=A reaction time study of responses to trait and ability emotional intelligence test items|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/14842146/A_reaction_time_study_of_responses_to_trait_and_ability_emotional_intelligence_test_items.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720093255/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/14842146/A_reaction_time_study_of_responses_to_trait_and_ability_emotional_intelligence_test_items.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-20 |url-status=live|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=46|issue=3|pages=381–383|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.025|hdl=20.500.11820/c3e59b2b-8367-4e8a-9d9c-9fb87c186fc1|hdl-access=free}}
}}</ref> Researchers have raised concerns about the extent to which self-report EI measures [[correlation|correlate]] with established personality dimensions. Self-report EI measures and personality measures converge because they both purport to measure personality traits.<ref name="petrides07" /> Two dimensions of the [[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]] stand out as most related to self-report EI: [[neuroticism]] and [[extraversion]]. People who score high on neuroticism are likely to score low on self-report EI measures.

Studies have examined the multivariate effects of personality and intelligence on EI and attempted to correct estimates for measurement error. One study showed that general intelligence, agreeableness, as well as gender could reliably predict the measure of EI ability.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Schulte M, Ree MJ, Carretta TR |year=2004|title=Emotional intelligence: Not much more than g and personality|journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=1059–1068 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2003.11.014 }}</ref> They gave a multiple correlation (R) of .81 with the MSCEIT. This result has been replicated using different inventories, finding a multiple R of .76; significant covariates were intelligence (standardized beta = .39), agreeableness (standardized beta = .54), and openness (standardized beta = .46).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fiori M, Antonakis J |year=2011 |title=The ability model of emotional intelligence: Searching for valid measures |url=https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_B46FDCF00E58 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=329–334 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.010}}</ref> A study of the Ability Emotional Intelligence Measure found similar results (Multiple R = .69), with significant predictors being intelligence (standardized beta = .69) and empathy (standardized beta = .26).<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Antonakis J, Dietz J |year=2011 |title=Looking for Validity or Testing It? The Perils of Stepwise Regression, Extreme-Scores Analysis, Heteroscedasticity, and Measurement Error|url=https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_C442A0C8EDFC|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|type=Submitted manuscript|volume=50|issue=3|pages=409–415|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.014}}</ref> Antonakis and Dietz (2011b){{full citation needed|date=July 2023}} also show how including or excluding important controls variables can fundamentally change results.

A 2011 meta-analysis found that all three models of EI have different correlations with intelligence and personality traits.<ref name=":0" /> A follow-up meta-analysis in 2015 further substantiated these findings, and addressed concerns about "the questionable construct validity of mixed EI measures", arguing that "mixed EI instruments assess a combination of ability EI and self-perceptions, in addition to personality and cognitive ability."<ref name="ReferenceC" /> A 2017 [[meta-analysis]] of 142 data sources found a very large overlap between the [[Hierarchical structure of the Big Five|general factor of personality]] and trait EI. The overlap was so large they concluded that "The findings suggest that the [[Hierarchical structure of the Big Five|general factor of personality]] is very similar, perhaps even synonymous, to trait EI."<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=van der Linden|first1=Dimitri|last2=Pekaar|first2=Keri A.|last3=Bakker|first3=Arnold B.|last4=Schermer|first4=Julie Aitken|last5=Vernon|first5=Philip A.|last6=Dunkel|first6=Curtis S.|last7=Petrides|first7=K. V.|name-list-style=vanc|date=January 2017|title=Overlap between the general factor of personality and emotional intelligence: A meta-analysis.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fbul0000078|journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=143|issue=1|pages=36–52|doi=10.1037/bul0000078|pmid=27841449|s2cid=29455205|issn=1939-1455|hdl=10654/45887|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, the overlap between the general factor of personality and ability EI was more moderate, with a correlation of about 0.28.<ref name=":5" />

In 2021, two review papers examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and the [[dark triad]] of personality traits, finding that emotional intelligence showed negative associations with all three dark triad domains of personality.<ref>{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Sarah A.|last2=Double|first2=Kit S.|last3=Birney|first3=Damian P.|name-list-style=vanc|year=2021|title=The Complicated Relationship Between the Dark Triad and Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic Review|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/17540739211014585|journal=Emotion Review|volume=13|issue=3|pages=257–274|doi=10.1177/17540739211014585|s2cid=235779606|via=SAGE}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Michels|first1=Moritz|last2=Ralf|first2=Schulze|year=2021|title=Emotional intelligence and the dark triad: A meta-analysis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886921003366|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=180|page=110961|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.110961}}
}}</ref>

A 2021 meta-analysis showed that emotional intelligence was positively associated with [[secure attachment]] in adults, but negatively associated with insecure attachment styles such as anxious attachment and avoidant attachment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Sarah A|last2=Double|first2=Kit S|last3=Kunst|first3=Hannah|last4=Zhang|first4=Michael|last5=MacCann|first5=Carolyn|name-list-style=vanc|title=Emotional intelligence and attachment in adulthood: A meta-analysis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886921005535|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2022|volume=184|page=111174|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.111174|issn=0191-8869 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>

=== EI as a measure of conformity ===
[[File:Tom Reed speaks at NAVAIR’s “Mentoring at the Speed of Life” event.jpg|thumb|right|Tom Reed describes four stages of emotional intelligence: [[self-awareness]], [[social consciousness]], [[self-care]] and relationship management, as part of [[NAVAIR]]'s "Mentoring at the Speed of Life" event]]One criticism of the works of Mayer and Salovey comes from a study that suggests that the EI, as measured by the MSCEIT, may only be measuring conformity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts RD, Zeidner M, Matthews G | title = Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions | journal = Emotion | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 196–231 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 12934681 | doi = 10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.196 }}</ref>  This argument is rooted in the MSCEIT's use of consensus-based assessment, and in the fact that scores on the MSCEIT are negatively distributed (meaning that its scores differentiate between people with low EI better than people with high EI).

=== EI as a form of knowledge ===
Another criticism says that in contrast with tests of cognitive ability, the MSCEIT "tests knowledge of emotions but not necessarily the ability to perform tasks that are related to the knowledge that is assessed".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brody N |year=2004 |title=What cognitive intelligence is and what emotional intelligence is not |url=http://psychometriclab.com/Brody.pdf |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=234–238 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1503_03 |s2cid=219727559 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207093225/http://psychometriclab.com/Brody.pdf |archive-date=2016-02-07 }}</ref> If someone knows how they should behave in an emotionally laden situation, it does not necessarily follow that they could actually carry out the reported behavior.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychology|Philosophy|Business}}
<!-- alphabetical order please [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
<!-- please add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]], via {{subst:AnnotatedListOfLinks}} or {{Annotated link}} -->
{{div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}}
* {{Annotated link |Emotional literacy}}
* {{Annotated link |Empathy quotient}}
* {{Annotated link |Emotional thought method}}
* {{Annotated link |Four Cornerstone Model of Emotional Intelligence}}
* {{Annotated link |Life skills}}
* {{Annotated link |Outline of human intelligence}}
* {{Annotated link |People skills}}
* {{Annotated link |Positive psychology}}
* {{Annotated link |Psychological mindedness}}
* {{Annotated link |Religiosity and emotional intelligence}}
* {{Annotated link |Soft skills}}
* {{Annotated link |Temperance (virtue)}}
* {{Annotated link |Marc Brackett}}
* {{Annotated link |Joshua Freedman}}
* {{Annotated link |Anabel Jensen}}
* {{Annotated link |Carolyn Saarni}}
* {{Annotated link |Claude Steiner}}
{{div col end}}
<!-- alphabetical order please [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=Harvard Business Review's 10 Must Reads: On Emotional Intelligence |publisher=HBR|year=2015|isbn=978-1511367196|location=Boston}}
{{Refend}}

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[[Category:Emotional intelligence| ]]
[[Category:Emotional issues]]
[[Category:Intelligence by type]]
[[Category:Life skills]]
[[Category:Popular psychology]]
[[Category:Positive psychology]]