Editing Egyptology

{{Short description|Scientific study of ancient Egypt}}
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{{for-multi|the book by Dugald Steer|Egyptology: Search for the Tomb of Osiris{{!}}''Egyptology: Search for the Tomb of Osiris''|the album by World Party|Egyptology (album){{!}}''Egyptology'' (album)}}
[[File:Tuts Tomb Opened.JPG|thumb|[[Howard Carter]] examines the opened coffin of the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] pharaoh [[Tutankhamun]] with a local assistant in [[Luxor, Egypt]], 1925]] 

'''Egyptology''' (from ''Egypt'' and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]}}, ''[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]''; {{langx|ar|[[wiktionary:Egyptology#Translations|علم المصريات]]}}) is the scientific study of [[ancient Egypt]]. The topics studied include ancient Egyptian [[History of Egypt|history]], [[Egyptian language|language]], [[Ancient Egyptian literature|literature]], [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]] and [[Art of ancient Egypt|art]] from the 5th millennium BC until the end of its native religious practices in the 4th century AD.

==History==
===First explorers===
The earliest explorers of ancient Egypt were the ancient Egyptians themselves. Inspired by a dream he had, [[Thutmose IV]] led an excavation of the [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] and inscribed a description of the dream on the [[Dream Stele]]. Less than two centuries later, Prince [[Khaemweset]], fourth son of [[Ramesses II]], would gain fame for identifying and restoring historic buildings, tombs and temples, including pyramids; and has subsequently been described as the first Egyptologist.<ref>[http://www.egyptology.com/niankhkhnum_khnumhotep/index.html  © Greg Reeder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923031810/http://egyptology.com/niankhkhnum_khnumhotep/index.html |date=23 September 2010 }} retrieved GMT23:48.3.9.2010</ref>

===Classical Antiquity===
Some of the first historical accounts of Egypt were given by [[Herodotus]], [[Strabo]], [[Diodorus Siculus]] and the largely lost work of [[Manetho]], an [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] priest, during the reign of [[Ptolemy I]] and [[Ptolemy II]] in the 3rd century BC. The Ptolemies were very interested in the work of the ancient Egyptians, and many of the Egyptian monuments, including the pyramids, were restored by them. The Ptolemies also built many new temples in the Egyptian style. The Romans also carried out restoration work in Egypt.

===Middle Ages===
Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], travelers on [[pilgrimage]]s to the [[Holy Land]] would occasionally detour to visit sites in Egypt. Destinations would include [[Cairo]] and its environs, where the [[Holy Family]] was thought to have fled, and the great Pyramids, which were thought to be [[Joseph's Granaries]], built by the Hebrew patriarch to store grain during [[Prosperity|the years of plenty]]. A number of their accounts (''[[Itineraria]]'') have survived and offer insights into conditions in their respective time periods.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicole|last=Chareyron|title=Pilgrims to Jerusalem in the Middle Ages|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York City|date=2005|isbn=0231132301|pages=127–97}}</ref>

[[File:Ibn Wahshiyya's 985 CE translation of the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph alphabet.jpg|thumb|[[Ibn Wahshiyya]]'s 985 CE incorrect translation of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs]]
[[Islamic Golden Age|Medieval Islamic scholars studied ]] Ancient Egypt and made attempts at [[Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts|translating]] [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Ancient Egyptian texts]] into [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. These Arabic scholars were key in preserving and sharing knowledge about Egypt, connecting ancient civilizations to [[Muslim world|the Islamic world]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=El-Daly |first=Okasha |title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings |date=April 19, 2005 |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=978-1844720620 |edition=1st |location=London, UK |publication-date=February 20, 2005 |pages=57–73 |language=English}}</ref> [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)|Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi]], a teacher at [[Cairo]]'s [[Al-Azhar University]] in the 13th century, wrote detailed descriptions of [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|ancient Egyptian monuments]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Okasha|last=El Daly|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings|publisher=[[UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications]]|location=London, England|date=2005|isbn=1-84472-063-2|pages=127–97}}</ref> Similarly, the 15th-century Egyptian historian [[al-Maqrizi]] wrote detailed accounts of Egyptian antiquities.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCirYN52kNsC&q=al-Maqrizi+wrote+detailed+descriptions+on+ancient+Egyptian+monuments&pg=PR12|title=Description of Egypt: Notes and Views in Egypt and Nubia, Made During the Years 1825, 26, 27, and 28 : Chiefly Consisting of a Series of Descriptions and Delineations of the Monuments, Scenery, &c. of Those Countries ...|date=2000|publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]]|location=Cairo, Egypt|isbn=978-9774245251|language=en}}</ref>

===European explorers===
European exploration and travel writings of ancient Egypt commenced in the 13th century, with only occasional detours into what could be considered a scientific approach, notably by [[Claude Sicard]], [[Benoît de Maillet]], [[Frederic Louis Norden]] and [[Richard Pococke]].

In the early 17th century, [[John Greaves]] measured the pyramids, having inspected the broken Obelisk of Domitian in Rome, then intended for [[Thomas Howard, 14th Earl of Arundel|Lord Arundel]]'s collection in London.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Edward|last=Chaney|author-link=Edward Chaney|chapter=Roma Britannica and the Cultural Memory of Egypt: Lord Arundel and the Obelisk of Domitian|encyclopedia=Roma Britannica: Art Patronage and Cultural Exchange in Eighteenth-Century Rome|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Marshall|editor2-first=Karin|editor2-last=Wolfe|editor3-first=Susan|editor3-last=Russell|publisher=British School at Rome|date=2011|isbn=978-0904152555|pages=147–70}}</ref> He went on to publish the illustrated ''Pyramidographia'' in 1646.

The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] scientist-priest [[Athanasius Kircher]] was perhaps the first to hint at the phonetic importance of Egyptian hieroglyphs, demonstrating [[Coptic language|Coptic]] as a vestige of [[Egyptian language|early Egyptian]], for which he is considered a founder of Egyptology.<ref name="Woods">{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Woods|title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization|publisher=Regenery|location=Washington DC|date=2005|isbn=0-89526-038-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/howcatholicchurc0000wood}}</ref>

===Modern Egyptology===
{{see also|Pyramidology#History}}
[[File:1794 Anville Map of Ancient Egypt - Geographicus - Egypt-anville-1794.jpg|thumb|[[Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville]]'s 1765 map of Ancient Egypt was a significant advance in the [[cartography]] of the subject, allowing readers to understand ancient and modern sites more clearly than previously. It was the primary map used in the 1809–1829 ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]''.{{sfn|Thompson|2015|p=85|ps=: {{"'}}Ancient and modern Egypt became easier to conceptualize because of the prolific French cartographer Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville (1697–1782). The greatest mapmaker of his age, Bourguignon d'Anville also had a special interest in ancient geography, one that he wrote would not permit me to neglect Egypt, this country so celebrated in antiquity.' Instead of copying older maps and blindly replicating their errors and speculations as had long been the practice he sought reliable data and was content to leave spaces blank rather than fill them with conjectural features. He had no firsthand experience with Egypt, but he carefully pored over every available source modern ancient and Arab as he explained in his ''Memoires sur l'Egypte ancienne et moderne'' (1766). Bourguignon d'Anville's map of Egypt allowed readers to see the relationship of ancient and modern sites much more clearly than before. It continued in use well into the nineteenth century. Although the cartographers of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition made a more accurate map, it was declared a state secret and Bourguignon d'Anville's map was printed in its place in the great ''Description de l'Egypte''."}}]] [[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|thumb|The gold funerary [[mask of Tutankhamun]], one of the most symbolic artifacts representing ancient Egypt and Egyptology today]]
[[File:Monumenti dell'Egitto e della Nubia-plate-0083.jpg|thumb|Hieroglyphs and depictions transcribed by [[Ippolito Rosellini]] in 1832]]

Egyptology's modern history begins with the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|invasion of Egypt]] by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in the late 18th century. The [[Rosetta Stone]] was discovered in 1799. The study of many aspects of ancient Egypt became more scientifically oriented with the publication of ''[[Mémoires sur l'Égypte]]'' in 1800 and the more comprehensive ''[[Description de l'Egypte (1809)|Description de l'Egypte]]'' between 1809 and 1829. These recorded Egyptian flora, fauna, and history—making numerous ancient Egyptian source materials available to Europeans for the first time.<ref name="Saylor">{{cite web|title=Egyptology|url=http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/ARTH201-Egyptology-FINAL.pdf|publisher=Saylor.org|access-date=6 March 2012|archive-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219030523/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/ARTH201-Egyptology-FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The British captured Egypt from the French and gained the Rosetta Stone in 1801, the Greek script of which was translated by 1803. In 1822, the corresponding [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] were deciphered by [[Jean-François Champollion]], marking the beginning of modern Egyptology. With increasing knowledge of Egyptian writing, the study of ancient Egypt was able to proceed with greater academic rigour. Champollion, [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] and [[Ippolito Rosellini]] were some of the first Egyptologists of wide acclaim. The German [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] was an early participant in the investigations of Egypt—mapping, excavating and recording several sites.

English Egyptologist [[Flinders Petrie]] (1853–1942) introduced archaeological techniques of field preservation, recording, and excavation to the field. Many highly educated amateurs also travelled to Egypt, including women such as [[Harriet Martineau]] and [[Florence Nightingale]]. Both of these left accounts of their travels, which revealed learned familiarity with all of the latest European Egyptology.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Chaney|author-link=Edward Chaney|chapter=Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution|title=Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines|url=https://archive.org/details/sitesexchangeeur00asca|url-access=limited|editor1-first=Maurizio|editor1-last=Ascari|editor2-first=Adriana|editor2-last=Corrado|publisher=Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|date=2006|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sitesexchangeeur00asca/page/n39 39]–74|isbn=9789042020153}}</ref> [[Howard Carter]]'s 1922 [[Discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun|discovery]] of the [[KV62|tomb]] of [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]] King [[Tutankhamun]] brought a greater understanding of Egyptian relics and wide acclaim to the field.

In the modern era, the [[Supreme Council of Antiquities|Ministry of State for Antiquities]]<ref>[http://www.sca-egypt.org/eng/main.htm The Ministry of State for Antiquities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927213419/http://www.sca-egypt.org/eng/main.htm |date=27 September 2011 }} retrieved 18:55GMT 3.10.11</ref> controls excavation permits for Egyptologists to conduct their work. The field can now use [[Geophysical survey (archaeology)|geophysical methods]] and other applications of modern sensing techniques.

In June 2000,<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1375708.stm/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509020101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1375708.stm |date=9 May 2021 }} BBC News</ref> the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology (IEASM), directed by Franck Goddio, in cooperation with the Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities discovered the ancient sunken city of Thonis-Heracleion in today's Abu Qir Bay. The statues of a colossal King and Queen are on display at the [[Grand Egyptian Museum]]. Other discovered artefacts are exhibited at the [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]] and [[Alexandria National Museum]]. The excavations are documented through several publications<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ocma.web.ox.ac.uk/publications-1|title=Publications|access-date=23 June 2021|archive-date=13 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213224243/https://ocma.web.ox.ac.uk/publications-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Goddio, Franck, Masson-Berghoff, Aurélia  (éd.), "Sunken Cities, Egypt's Lost World ",  London, Thames & Hudson, 2016, London. {{ISBN|978-0-500-29237-2}} /  Catalogue of the exhibition at the British Museum</ref>

In March 2017, the Egyptian-German team of archaeologists unearthed an eight-meter 3,000-year-old statue that included a head and a torso thought to depict [[Ramesses II|Pharaoh Ramses II]]. According to Khaled El-Enany, the Egyptian Antiquities Minister, the statue was more likely thought to be King [[Psamtik I|Psammetich I]]. Excavators also revealed an 80&nbsp;cm-long part of a [[limestone]] statue of Pharaoh [[Seti II]] while excavating the site.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 March 2017|title=Massive Statue of Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Found in City Slum|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/03/egypt-pharaoh-ramses-statue-discovered-cairo/|access-date=14 January 2021|website=National Geographic News|language=en|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116154156/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/03/egypt-pharaoh-ramses-statue-discovered-cairo/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Thomas Page|title=Colossal 3,000-year-old statue unearthed from Cairo pit|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/ramses-ii-ozymandias-statue-cairo/index.html|access-date=14 January 2021|website=CNN|date=10 March 2017|language=en|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116135422/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/ramses-ii-ozymandias-statue-cairo/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Youssef|first=Nour|date=17 March 2017|title=So Many Pharaohs: A Possible Case of Mistaken Identity in Cairo (Published 2017)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/17/world/middleeast/egypt-cairo-pharaoh-statue-ramses-psamtik.html|access-date=14 January 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=18 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318151127/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/17/world/middleeast/egypt-cairo-pharaoh-statue-ramses-psamtik.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Aboulenein|first=Ahmed|date=9 March 2017|title=Colossus probably depicting Ramses II found in Egypt|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-archaeology-idUSKBN16G2A2|access-date=14 January 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005010922/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-archaeology-idUSKBN16G2A2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Katz|first=Brigit|title=Huge Statue of Egyptian Pharaoh Discovered in Cairo|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/huge-statue-egyptian-pharaoh-discovered-cairo-180962497/|access-date=14 January 2021|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414151739/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/huge-statue-egyptian-pharaoh-discovered-cairo-180962497/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2017, archaeologists from the Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of five mud-brick tombs at Bir esh-Shaghala, dating back nearly 2,000 years. Researchers also revealed worn masks gilded with gold, several large jars and a piece of pottery with unsolved ancient Egyptian writing on it.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Owen|last=Jarus|title=Photos: 2,000-Year-Old Tombs Found in Egyptian Oasis|url=https://www.livescience.com/60221-2000-year-old-egyptian-tombs-photos.html|access-date=24 February 2021|website=livescience.com|date=24 August 2017|language=en|archive-date=25 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025204044/https://www.livescience.com/60221-2000-year-old-egyptian-tombs-photos.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 August 2017|title=2,000-year-old Roman tombs uncovered in Egypt|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/2000-year-old-roman-tombs-uncovered-in-egypt-606660.html|access-date=24 February 2021|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027045647/https://www.deccanherald.com/2000-year-old-roman-tombs-uncovered-in-egypt-606660.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 August 2017|title=2,000-year-old Roman tombs, artifacts and inscribed pottery discovered in Egypt|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-2000-year-old-roman-tombs-artifacts-and-inscribed-pottery-discovered-in-egypt-2541057|access-date=24 February 2021|website=DNA India|language=en|archive-date=25 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160703/https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-2000-year-old-roman-tombs-artifacts-and-inscribed-pottery-discovered-in-egypt-2541057|url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2017 (25 October 2000), the Egyptian mission in cooperation with the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology announced the discovery of 2,000-year-old three sunken shipwrecks dated back to the Roman Era in [[Alexandria]]'s [[Abu Qir Bay]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 November 2017|title=Sunken vessels dating back to Roman era discovered in Alexandria|url=https://www.egyptindependent.com/sunken-vessels-dating-back-roman-era-discovered-alexandria/|access-date=28 December 2020|website=Egypt Independent|language=en-US|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126073854/https://www.egyptindependent.com/sunken-vessels-dating-back-roman-era-discovered-alexandria/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=2,000-year-old Roman shipwrecks discovered near coast of Alexandria, Egypt|url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/roman-shipwrecks-discovered-near-coast-of-alexandria-egypt-1.5467698|access-date=28 December 2020|newspaper=Haaretz|language=en|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508173718/https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/roman-shipwrecks-discovered-near-coast-of-alexandria-egypt-1.5467698|url-status=live}}</ref>

The sunken cargo included a royal head of crystal perhaps belong to the commander of the Roman armies of "Antonio", three gold coins from the era of Emperor Octavius Augustus, large wooden planks and pottery vessels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archeologists find Roman shipwrecks off Egypt's north coast|url=https://phys.org/news/2017-11-archeologists-roman-shipwrecks-egypt-north.html|access-date=28 December 2020|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126125225/https://phys.org/news/2017-11-archeologists-roman-shipwrecks-egypt-north.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the head of the bust of Roman Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] at the Temple of Kom Ombo in Aswan during work to protect the site from groundwater.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 April 2018|title=Shrine to Osiris and bust of Roman emperor found in Egypt|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-and-science/science/shrine-to-osiris-and-bust-of-roman-emperor-found-in-egypt/article/520449|access-date=1 March 2021|website=www.digitaljournal.com|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122041038/http://www.digitaljournal.com/tech-and-science/science/shrine-to-osiris-and-bust-of-roman-emperor-found-in-egypt/article/520449|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=22 April 2018|title=Archaeologists find bust of Roman emperor in Egypt dig in Aswan|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1289571/art-culture|access-date=1 March 2021|website=Arab News|language=en|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507020030/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1289571/art-culture|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the shrine of god [[Osiris]]- Ptah Neb, dating back to the 25th dynasty in the [[Karnak|Temple of Karnak]] in Luxor. According to archaeologist Essam Nagy, the material remains from the area contained clay pots, the lower part of a sitting statue and part of a stone panel showing an offering table filled with a sheep and a goose which were the symbols of the god Amun.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 April 2018|title=Archeologists find Roman emperor bust, ancient shrine in Egypt|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/04/22/archeologists-find-roman-emperor-bust-ancient-shrine-in-egypt|access-date=1 March 2021|website=Daily Sabah|language=en-US|archive-date=22 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122081648/https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/04/22/archeologists-find-roman-emperor-bust-ancient-shrine-in-egypt|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2018, German-Egyptian researchers' team head by Ramadan Badry Hussein of the [[University of Tübingen]] reported the discovery of an extremely rare gilded burial mask that probably dates from the Saite-Persian period in a partly damaged wooden [[coffin]] in Saqqara. The last time a similar mask was found was in 1939. The eyes were covered with [[obsidian]], [[calcite]], and black hued [[gemstone]] possibly [[onyx]]. "The finding of this mask could be called a sensation. Very few masks of precious metal have been preserved to the present day, because the tombs of most Ancient Egyptian dignitaries were looted in ancient times." said Hussein.<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 July 2018|title=Researchers discover gilded mummy mask|url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2018/07/researchers-discover-gilded-mummy-mask/120943|access-date=1 March 2021|website=HeritageDaily – Archaeology News|language=en-US|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930162120/https://www.heritagedaily.com/2018/07/researchers-discover-gilded-mummy-mask/120943|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Mandal|first1=Dattatreya|date=16 July 2018|title=The Mummy With The Silver Gilded Mask – Discovered In Saqqara, Egypt|url=https://www.realmofhistory.com/2018/07/16/mummy-silver-gilded-mask-saqqara-egypt/|access-date=1 March 2021|website=Realm of History|language=en-us|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930162117/https://www.realmofhistory.com/2018/07/16/mummy-silver-gilded-mask-saqqara-egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2018, archaeologists led by Zeinab Hashish announced the discovery of a 2,000-year-old 30-ton black granite [[sarcophagus]] in [[Alexandria]]. It contained three damaged skeletons in red-brown sewage water. According to archaeologist [[Mostafa Waziri]], the skeletons looked like a family burial with a middle-aged woman and two men. Researchers also revealed a small gold artifact and three thin sheets of gold.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Specia|first=Megan|date=19 July 2018|title=Inside That Black Sarcophagus in Egypt? 3 Mummies (and No Curses) (Published 2018)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/world/middleeast/egypt-black-sarcophagus-opened.html|access-date=29 December 2020|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109004513/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/world/middleeast/egypt-black-sarcophagus-opened.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=17 July 2018|title=Clues Point to Occupant of Ancient 'Mystery' Sarcophagus|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-alexandria-egypt-coffin-sarcophagus-archaeology/|access-date=29 December 2020|website=Science|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224071352/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-alexandria-egypt-coffin-sarcophagus-archaeology/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Daley|first=Jason|title=Scientists Begin Unveiling the Secrets of the Mummies in the Alexandria 'Dark Sarcophagus'|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/were-learning-more-about-inhabitants-dark-sarcophagus-180970085/|access-date=29 December 2020|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603052425/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/were-learning-more-about-inhabitants-dark-sarcophagus-180970085/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2018, a sandstone sphinx statue &nbsp;was discovered at the temple of Kom Ombo. The statue, measuring approximately 28&nbsp;cm (11&nbsp;in) in width and 38&nbsp;cm (15&nbsp;in) in height, likely dates to the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeologists discover sphinx in Egyptian temple|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/9/17/egypt-archaeologists-discover-sphinx-in-temple-at-aswan|access-date=1 March 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=6 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006063006/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/9/17/egypt-archaeologists-discover-sphinx-in-temple-at-aswan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Heffron|first=Claire|date=17 September 2018|title=Archaeologists discover ancient sphinx in Egyptian temple|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/17/archaeologists-discover-ancient-sphinx-in-egyptian-temple|access-date=1 March 2021|website=euronews|language=en|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616152322/https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/17/archaeologists-discover-ancient-sphinx-in-egyptian-temple|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=17 September 2018|title=Egyptian archaeologists find sphinx at Aswan temple|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45546415|access-date=1 March 2021|archive-date=6 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306024703/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45546415|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2018, several dozen cache of mummies dating 2,000 years back were found in Saqqara by a team of Polish archaeologists led by Kamil Kuraszkiewicz from the Faculty of Oriental Studies of the [[University of Warsaw]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polish archeologists uncover Egyptian mummies|url=https://polandin.com/43249026/polish-archeologists-uncover-egyptian-mummies|access-date=1 March 2021|website=polandin.com|language=en|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930172510/https://polandin.com/43249026/polish-archeologists-uncover-egyptian-mummies|url-status=live |last1=s. a |first1=Telewizja Polska }}</ref>

In November 2018, an Egyptian archaeological mission located seven ancient Egyptian tombs at the ancient necropolis of Saqqara containing a collection of scarab and cat mummies dating back to the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifth]] and [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth]] Dynasties. Three of the tombs were used for cats, some dating back more than 6,000 years, while one of four other [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] was unsealed. With the remains of cat mummies were unearthed gilded and 100 wooden statues of cats and one in [[bronze]] dedicated to the cat goddess [[Bastet]]. In addition, funerary items dating back to the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]] were found besides the skeletal remains of cats.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 November 2018|title=Dozens of Mummified Cats Found in 6,000-yr-old Egyptian Tombs|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2018/11/12/mummified-cats-found/|access-date=4 May 2021|website=The Vintage News|language=en|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504135931/https://www.thevintagenews.com/2018/11/12/mummified-cats-found/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=11 November 2018|title=Dozens of cat mummies found in 6,000-year-old tombs in Egypt|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/11/dozens-of-cat-mummies-found-in-6000-year-old-tombs-in-egypt|access-date=4 May 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506043534/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/11/dozens-of-cat-mummies-found-in-6000-year-old-tombs-in-egypt|url-status=live}}</ref>

In mid-December 2018, the Egyptian government announced the discovery at Saqqara of a previously unknown 4,400-year-old tomb, containing paintings and more than fifty sculptures. It belongs to [[Wahtye]], a high-ranking priest who served under King [[Neferirkare Kakai]] during the Fifth Dynasty. The tomb also contains four shafts that lead to a sarcophagus below.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Owen|last=Jarus|title=4,400-Year-Old Tomb of 'Divine Inspector' with Hidden Shafts Discovered in Egypt|url=https://www.livescience.com/64317-saqqara-tomb-hidden-shafts-discovered.html|access-date=4 May 2021|website=livescience.com|date=15 December 2018|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224101503/https://www.livescience.com/64317-saqqara-tomb-hidden-shafts-discovered.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the [[Al-Ahram]], in January 2019, archaeologists headed by [[Mostafa Waziri]] revealed a collection of 20 tombs dated back to the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] in Kom Al-Khelgan. The burials contained the remains of animals, amulets, and scarabs carved from faience, round and oval pots with handholds, flint knives, broken and burned pottery. All burials included skulls and skeletons in the bending position and were not very well-preserved.<ref>{{Cite web|title=3,500-Year-Old Tombs Unearthed in Egypt's Nile Delta – Archaeology Magazine|url=https://www.archaeology.org/news/7326-190124-nile-delta-tombs|access-date=11 September 2020|website=www.archaeology.org|date=24 January 2019 |archive-date=12 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200912201145/https://www.archaeology.org/news/7326-190124-nile-delta-tombs|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ancient tombs and prehistoric burials found in Nile Delta – Ancient Egypt – Heritage|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/9/40/322326/Heritage/Ancient-Egypt/Ancient-tombs-and-prehistoric-burials-found-in-Nil.aspx|access-date=11 September 2020|website=Ahram Online|language=en|archive-date=13 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213070845/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/9/40/322326/Heritage/Ancient-Egypt/Ancient-tombs-and-prehistoric-burials-found-in-Nil.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2019, archaeologists discovered 35 mummified remains of Egyptians in a tomb in [[Aswan]]. Italian archaeologist [[Patrizia Piacentini]], professor of Egyptology at the [[University of Milan]], and Khaled El-Enany, the Egyptian minister of antiquities reported that the tomb where the remains of ancient men, women and children were found, dates back to the [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman period]] between 332 BC and 395 AD. While the findings assumed belonging to a mother and a child were well preserved, others had suffered major destruction. Beside the mummies, artefacts including painted funerary masks, vases of bitumen used in mummification, pottery and wooden figurines were revealed. Thanks to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphics]] on the tomb, it was detected that the tomb belongs to a tradesman named Tjit.<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 April 2019|title=Mummified remains of 35 ancient Egyptians found in Aswan|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/24/mummified-remains-of-35-ancient-egyptians-found-in-aswan|access-date=4 May 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506003418/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/24/mummified-remains-of-35-ancient-egyptians-found-in-aswan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Emily Dixon|title=At least 34 mummies found in hidden Egyptian tomb|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-mummies-aswan-hidden-tomb-scli-intl/index.html|access-date=4 May 2021|website=CNN|date=25 April 2019|language=en|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504135921/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-mummies-aswan-hidden-tomb-scli-intl/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 April 2019|title=Egyptian necropolis with 35 mummies found – Culture|url=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2019/04/23/egyptian-necropolis-with-35-mummies-found_b19e4e39-c00d-4069-a42d-528cf82c5ee7.html|access-date=4 May 2021|website=ANSAMed|language=en|archive-date=25 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725203758/http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/culture/2019/04/23/egyptian-necropolis-with-35-mummies-found_b19e4e39-c00d-4069-a42d-528cf82c5ee7.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 13 April 2019, an expedition led by a member of the Czech Institute of Egyptology, Mohamed Megahed, discovered a 4,000-year-old tomb near Egypt's Saqqara [[Necropolis]] in [[Saqqara]]. Archaeologists confirmed that the tomb belonged to an influential person named Khuwy, who lived in Egypt during the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]]. "The L-shaped Khuwy tomb starts with a small corridor heading downwards into an antechamber and from there a larger chamber with painted reliefs depicting the tomb owner seated at an offerings table", reported Megahed. Some paintings maintained their brightness over a long time in the tomb. Mainly made of white limestone bricks, the tomb had a tunnel entrance generally typical for pyramids. Archaeologists say that there might be a connection between Khuwy and pharaoh because the mausoleum was found near the pyramid of Egyptian Pharaoh [[Djedkare Isesi]], who ruled during that time.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Earl|first=Jennifer|date=15 April 2019|title=Discovery of Egyptian dignitary's 4,000-year-old colorful tomb stuns archaeologists|url=https://www.foxnews.com/science/egyptian-dignitary-colorful-tomb-discovery|access-date=4 May 2021|website=Fox News|language=en-US|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224115727/https://www.foxnews.com/science/egyptian-dignitary-colorful-tomb-discovery|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Jack Guy|title=Colorful 4,000-year-old Egyptian tomb intrigues archaeologists|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-paintings-color-scli-intl/index.html|access-date=4 May 2021|website=CNN|date=15 April 2019|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224100605/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-paintings-color-scli-intl/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt: Vivid 4,300-year-old tomb belonging to Fifth Dynasty senior official unveiled|url=https://news.sky.com/story/egypt-vivid-4-300-year-old-tomb-belonging-to-fifth-dynasty-senior-official-unveiled-11694402|access-date=4 May 2021|website=Sky News|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224101011/https://news.sky.com/story/egypt-vivid-4-300-year-old-tomb-belonging-to-fifth-dynasty-senior-official-unveiled-11694402|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2019, ancient granite columns and a smaller Greek temple, treasure-laden ships, along with bronze coins from the reign of [[Ptolemy II]], pottery dating back to the third and fourth centuries BC were found at the sunken city of [[Heracleion]]. The investigations were conducted by Egyptian and European divers led by underwater archaeologist [[Franck Goddio]]. They also uncovered the ruins of the city's main temple off of Egypt's north coast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://headtopics.com/uk/archaeologists-discover-a-sunken-ancient-settlement-underwater-7097571|title=Archaeologists discover a sunken ancient settlement underwater|last=Topics|first=Head|website=Head Topics|date=24 July 2019|language=en|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817155916/https://headtopics.com/uk/archaeologists-discover-a-sunken-ancient-settlement-underwater-7097571|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/ancient-egypt-underwater-cities-sunken-cities-temple-coins-jewelry-archaeology-1450695|title=Ancient Egypt: Underwater archaeologists uncover destroyed temple in the sunken city of Heracleion|first=Katherine|last=Hignett|date=23 July 2019|website=Newsweek|language=en|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-date=13 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213070846/https://www.newsweek.com/ancient-egypt-underwater-cities-sunken-cities-temple-coins-jewelry-archaeology-1450695|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nosymedia.info/archaeologists-discover-a-sunken-ancient-settlement-underwater/1410/|title=Archaeologists discover a sunken ancient settlement underwater|last=Santos|first=Edwin|date=28 July 2019|website=Nosy Media|language=en-US|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817155916/https://nosymedia.info/archaeologists-discover-a-sunken-ancient-settlement-underwater/1410/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/66045-underwater-ancient-egypt-city-temple.html|title=Divers Find Remains of Ancient Temple in Sunken Egyptian City|first=Laura|last=Geggel|website=livescience.com|date=29 July 2019|language=en|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-date=13 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213070844/https://www.livescience.com/66045-underwater-ancient-egypt-city-temple.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2019, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 2,200-year-old temple believed to belong to [[Ptolemy IV Philopator|Ptolemy IV]] in Kom Shakau village of Tama township. Researchers also revealed limestone walls carved with inscriptions of Hapi, the Nile god, and inscriptions with fragments of text featuring the name of Ptolemy IV.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 November 2019|title=Ptolemaic-era temple discovered in Sohag|url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/77859/Ptolemaic-era-temple-discovered-in-Sohag|access-date=24 February 2021|website=EgyptToday|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118103407/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/77859/Ptolemaic-era-temple-discovered-in-Sohag|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Alice Johnston|title=Lost Egyptian temple unearthed 2,200 years after it was built for King Ptolemy IV|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-lost-temple-intl-scli/index.html|access-date=24 February 2021|website=CNN|date=5 October 2019|language=en|archive-date=26 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226201419/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/egypt-lost-temple-intl-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=30 September 2019|title=Ruins of Ptolemy IV temple unearthed in Sohag|url=https://egyptindependent.com/ruins-of-ptolemy-iv-temple-unearthed-in-sohag/|access-date=24 February 2021|website=Egypt Independent|language=en-US|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225104852/https://www.egyptindependent.com/ruins-of-ptolemy-iv-temple-unearthed-in-sohag/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2020, Egyptian-Spanish archaeological mission head by Esther Ponce uncovered a unique cemetery dating back to the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|26th Dynasty]] (so-called the El-Sawi era) at the site of ancient [[Oxyrhynchus]]. Archaeologists found tombstones, bronze coins, small crosses, and clay seals inside eight Roman-era tombs with domed and unmarked roofs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mahmoud|first=Rasha|date=26 May 2020|title=Egypt makes major archaeological discovery amid coronavirus crisis|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/05/egypt-archaeological-discover-cemetery-coronavirus.html|access-date=29 September 2020|website=Al-Monitor|language=en|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301080318/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/05/egypt-archaeological-discover-cemetery-coronavirus.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 May 2020|title=Unique cemetery dating back to el-Sawi era discovered in Egypt amid coronavirus crisis|url=https://zeenews.india.com/world/unique-cemetery-dating-back-to-el-sawi-era-discovered-in-egypt-amid-coronavirus-crisis-2286500.html|access-date=29 September 2020|website=Zee News|language=en|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002212445/https://zeenews.india.com/world/unique-cemetery-dating-back-to-el-sawi-era-discovered-in-egypt-amid-coronavirus-crisis-2286500.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 3 October 2020, Khalid el-Anany, Egypt's tourism and antiquities minister announced the discovery of at least 59 sealed sarcophagi with mummies more than 2,600 years old in [[Saqqara]]. Archaeologists also revealed the 20 statues of [[Ptah|Ptah-Soker]] and a carved 35-centimeter tall bronze statue of god [[Nefertem]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Magdy|first=Samy|title=Egypt reveals 59 ancient coffins found near Saqqara pyramids, many of which hold mummies|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/2020/10/03/archeologists-unearthed-59-sealed-sarcophagi-egypt/3610284001/|access-date=4 May 2021|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224101724/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/2020/10/03/archeologists-unearthed-59-sealed-sarcophagi-egypt/3610284001/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=6 October 2020|title=59 sealed sarcophagi and mummies discovered in Egypt|url=https://www.slashgear.com/59-sealed-sarcophagi-and-mummies-discovered-in-egypt-06641162/|access-date=4 May 2021|website=SlashGear|language=en-US|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224112906/https://www.slashgear.com/59-sealed-sarcophagi-and-mummies-discovered-in-egypt-06641162/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=3 October 2020|title=Egyptian archaeologists unveil discovery of 59 sealed sarcophagi|url=https://arab.news/z64ny|access-date=4 May 2021|website=Arab News|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224121925/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1743621/middle-east|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 19 October 2020, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities announced the discovery of more than 2,500 years of colorful, sealed sarcophagi in [[Saqqara]]. The archaeological team unearthed gilded, wooden statues and more than 80 coffins.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt says another trove of ancient coffins found in Saqqara|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/egypt-trove-ancient-coffins-found-saqqara-73694700|access-date=4 May 2021|website=ABC News|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224150857/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/egypt-trove-ancient-coffins-found-saqqara-73694700|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 October 2020|title=Egypt says another trove of ancient coffins found in Saqqara – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/egypt-says-another-trove-of-ancient-coffins-found-in-saqqara/articleshow/78752008.cms|access-date=4 May 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224102345/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/egypt-says-another-trove-of-ancient-coffins-found-in-saqqara/articleshow/78752008.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2020, archaeologists unearthed more than 100 delicately painted wooden coffins and 40 funeral statues. The sealed, wooden coffins, some containing mummies, date as far back as 2,500 years. Other artifacts discovered include funeral masks, canopic jars and amulets. According to Khaled el-Anany, tourism and antiquities minister, the items date back to the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. One of the coffins was opened and a mummy was scanned with an X-ray, determining it was most likely a man about the age of 40.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kwai|first=Isabella|date=15 November 2020|title=Egypt Unearths New Mummies Dating Back 2,500 Years|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/15/world/middleeast/egypt-discovery-mummies.html|access-date=1 March 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=12 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912063743/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/15/world/middleeast/egypt-discovery-mummies.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Cairo|first=Associated Press in|date=14 November 2020|title=Nearly 100 coffins buried over 2,500 years ago found in Egypt|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/14/nearly-100-coffins-buried-over-2500-years-ago-found-in-egypt|access-date=1 March 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=31 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231135657/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/14/nearly-100-coffins-buried-over-2500-years-ago-found-in-egypt|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 November 2020|title=Egypt announces huge discovery of 100 human sealed coffins,40 impressive statues|url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/94209/Egypt-announces-huge-discovery-of-100-human-sealed-coffins-40|access-date=1 March 2021|website=EgyptToday|archive-date=26 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226041516/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/94209/Egypt-announces-huge-discovery-of-100-human-sealed-coffins-40|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2021, the Tourism and [[Antiquities]] Ministry announced the discovery of more than 50 wooden sarcophagi in 52 burial shafts which date back to the New Kingdom period and a 13&nbsp;ft-long papyrus that contains texts from the [[Book of the Dead]]. Archaeologists led by [[Zahi Hawass]] also found the funerary temple of [[Naert]] and warehouses made of bricks in Saqqara.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Queen's temple, 50 coffins, Book of Dead: Ancient Egypt trove 'remakes history' {{!}} The Times of Israel|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/book-of-the-dead-texts-unearthed-in-ancient-egypt-necropolis/amp/|access-date=1 March 2021|website=www.timesofisrael.com|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212143537/https://www.timesofisrael.com/book-of-the-dead-texts-unearthed-in-ancient-egypt-necropolis/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt makes 'major discoveries' at Saqqara archaeological site|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/ar-BB1cOtz0|access-date=1 March 2021|website=www.msn.com|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125143143/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/ar-BB1cOtz0|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2021, Egyptian-Dominican researchers led by [[Kathleen Martínez|Kathleen Martinez]] have announced the discovery of 2,000-year-old ancient tombs with golden tongues dating to the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman periods]] at [[Taposiris Magna]]. The team also unearthed gold leaf [[amulet]]s in the form of tongues placed for speaking with God [[Osiris]] afterlife. The mummies were depicted in different forms: one of them was wearing a [[crown]], decorated with horns, and the cobra snake at the forehead and the other was depicted with gilded decorations representing the wide necklace.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Owen|last=Jarus|title=Mummy with a gold tongue found in Egypt|url=https://www.livescience.com/mummy-with-gold-tongue-discovered.html|access-date=17 June 2021|website=livescience.com|date=February 2021|language=en|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219215145/https://www.livescience.com/mummy-with-gold-tongue-discovered.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2 February 2021|title=Ancient mummies with golden tongues unearthed in Egypt|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55902631|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107090558/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55902631|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=30 January 2021|title=Photos: Archaeological mission uncovers 16 burial chambers in Alexandrian temple|url=https://egyptindependent.com/photos-archaeological-mission-uncovers-16-burial-chambers-in-alexandrian-temple/|access-date=17 June 2021|website=Egypt Independent|language=en-US|archive-date=1 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701150418/https://egyptindependent.com/photos-archaeological-mission-uncovers-16-burial-chambers-in-alexandrian-temple/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Fortin|first=Jacey|date=3 February 2021|title=Archaeologists Find Mummies With Golden Tongues|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/03/science/egypt-mummy-golden-tongue.html|access-date=17 June 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907220708/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/03/science/egypt-mummy-golden-tongue.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

A team of archaeologists led by [[Zahi Hawass]] also found the funerary temple of [[Naert]] or Narat and warehouses made of bricks in [[Saqqara]]. Researchers also revealed that Narat's name engraved on a fallen [[obelisk]] near the main entrance. Previously unknown to researchers, Naert was a wife of [[Teti]], the first king of the sixth dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Queen's temple, 50 coffins, Book of Dead: Ancient Egypt trove 'remakes history' {{!}} The Times of Israel|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/book-of-the-dead-texts-unearthed-in-ancient-egypt-necropolis/amp/|access-date=4 May 2021|website=www.timesofisrael.com|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212143537/https://www.timesofisrael.com/book-of-the-dead-texts-unearthed-in-ancient-egypt-necropolis/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt makes 'major discoveries' at Saqqara archaeological site|url=https://www.malaymail.com/news/life/2021/01/17/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/1941192|access-date=4 May 2021|website=malaymail.com|date=17 January 2021|language=en|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504135923/https://www.malaymail.com/news/life/2021/01/17/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/1941192|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt makes 'major discoveries' at Saqqara archaeological site|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/ar-BB1cOtz0|access-date=4 May 2021|website=www.msn.com|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125143143/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/egypt-makes-major-discoveries-at-saqqara-archaeological-site/ar-BB1cOtz0|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2021, archaeologists from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities announced the discovery of a [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]] temple, a Roman fort, an early Coptic church and an inscription written in [[hieratic]] script at an archaeological site called Shiha Fort in [[Aswan]]. According to [[Mostafa Waziri]], the crumbling temple was decorated with palm leaf carvings and an incomplete sandstone panel that described a Roman emperor. According to researcher Abdel Badie, generally, the church with about 2.1 meters width contained oven that were used to bake pottery, four rooms, a long hall, stairs, and stone tiles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ruins Of Ancient Ptolemaic Temple Discovered In Egypt – Greek City Times|date=3 February 2021|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2021/02/03/ancient-ptolemaic-temple-egypt/|access-date=5 February 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228103454/https://greekcitytimes.com/2021/02/03/ancient-ptolemaic-temple-egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Laura|last=Geggel|title=Ruins of ancient church and temple discovered in Egypt|url=https://www.livescience.com/fort-church-temple-ancient-egypt.html|access-date=5 February 2021|website=livescience.com|date=2 February 2021|language=en|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305013530/https://www.livescience.com/fort-church-temple-ancient-egypt.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2021, Egyptian archeologists announced the discovery of 110 burial tombs at the Koum el-Khulgan archeological site in [[Dakahlia Governorate]]. 68 oval-shaped tombs of them dated back to the Predynastic Period and 37 rectangular-shaped tombs were from [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]]. Rest of them dated back to the [[Naqada III]] period. The tombs also contained the remains of adults and a baby (buried in a jar), a group of ovens, stoves, remnants of mud-brick foundations, funerary equipment, cylindrical, pear-shaped vessels and a bowl with geometric designs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Solly|first=Meilan|title=Archaeologists Discover 110 Ancient Egyptian Tombs Along the Nile Delta|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-discover-110-ancient-egyptian-tombs-along-nile-delta-180977612/|access-date=4 May 2021|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=16 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116100115/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-discover-110-ancient-egyptian-tombs-along-nile-delta-180977612/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Owen|last=Jarus|title=110 ancient Egyptian tombs, including baby burials, found along Nile|url=https://www.livescience.com/110-ancient-egyptian-tombs-nile.html|access-date=4 May 2021|website=livescience.com|date=28 April 2021|language=en|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104034254/https://www.livescience.com/110-ancient-egyptian-tombs-nile.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rare tombs from pre-Pharaonic era discovered in Egypt|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/29/egyptologists-uncover-rare-tombs-from-before-the-pharaohs|access-date=4 May 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=2 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702205909/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/29/egyptologists-uncover-rare-tombs-from-before-the-pharaohs|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2021, archaeologists announce the discovery of ritualistic tools used in religious rituals at the ancient site of Tel al-Fara in the [[Kafr El Sheikh Governorate|Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate]]. Remains included a limestone pillar depicting goddess [[Hathor]], some incense burners with the head of the god [[Horus]]. Hossam Ghanim, said: "''The mission also discovered a huge building of polished limestone from the inside, representing a well for holy water used in daily rituals''".<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 September 2021|title=Ritualistic tools discovered at Tel al-Fara in Egypt|url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/09/ritualistic-tools-discovered-at-tel-al-fara-in-egypt/141427|access-date=24 September 2021|website=HeritageDaily – Archaeology News|language=en-US|archive-date=15 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215022339/https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/09/ritualistic-tools-discovered-at-tel-al-fara-in-egypt/141427|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Discovery Of Tools For Religious Rituals In The Temple Of "Tel Al-Fara'in" In Kafr El-Sheikh » Gulf News » Prime Time Zone|url=https://primetimezone.com/world/gulf-news/the-discovery-of-tools-for-religious-rituals-in-the-temple-of-tel-al-farain-in-kafr-el-sheikh/|access-date=24 September 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=24 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924105629/https://primetimezone.com/world/gulf-news/the-discovery-of-tools-for-religious-rituals-in-the-temple-of-tel-al-farain-in-kafr-el-sheikh/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2022, the discovery of the nearly 4,300-year-old tomb of an ancient Egyptian high-ranked person who handled royal, sealed documents of pharaoh was announced at [[Saqqara]], Egypt. According to [[University of Warsaw]]'s [[Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw|Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology]], the elaborately decorated tomb belonged to a man named Mehtjetju who served as a priest and an inspector of the royal property. Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz, expedition director stated that Mehtjetju most likely lived at about the same time, at some point during the reigns of the first three rulers of the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth Dynasty]]: [[Teti]], [[Userkare]] and [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepy I]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Kuta |first2=Sarah |title=Archaeologists in Egypt Unearth 4,300-Year-Old Tomb of Man Who Handled His Pharaoh's 'Secret Documents' |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-egypt-unearth-4300-year-old-tomb-of-egyptian-dignitary-who-handled-secret-documents-pharaoh-180980120/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811145425/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-egypt-unearth-4300-year-old-tomb-of-egyptian-dignitary-who-handled-secret-documents-pharaoh-180980120/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author1=Owen Jarus |date=16 May 2022 |title=Tomb of ancient Egyptian dignitary who read top secret documents discovered |url=https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egyptian-tomb-royal-official |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=livescience.com |language=en |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811145902/https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egyptian-tomb-royal-official |url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2022, archaeologists from The Cairo Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of an alabaster bust of [[Alexander the Great]] as well as molds and other materials for creating amulets for warriors and for statues of Alexander the Great.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kissel |first=Thomas |date=30 June 2022 |title=2,200 Year Old Alexander the Great Statue Discovered in Alexandria |url=https://greekreporter.com/2022/06/30/2200-year-old-sculpture-alexander-great-discovered/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=GreekReporter.com |language=en-US |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812233811/https://greekreporter.com/2022/06/30/2200-year-old-sculpture-alexander-great-discovered/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Duluk |first=Elif |date=30 June 2022 |title=A 2,200-year-old statue of Alexander the Great has been discovered in Alexandria |url=https://nowarchaeology.com/a-2200-year-old-statue-of-alexander-the-great-has-been-discovered-in-alexandria/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=Now Archaeology |language=en |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701032210/https://nowarchaeology.com/a-2200-year-old-statue-of-alexander-the-great-has-been-discovered-in-alexandria/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 2022, archaeologists from the [[Prague]]'s [[Charles University]] led by Miroslav Bárta discovered the robbed tomb of an ancient Egyptian military official named Wahibre-mery-Neith and a [[Scarab (artifact)|scarab]] in [[Giza]]'s Abusir necropolis 12&nbsp;km southeast of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Pyramids of Giza]]. He commanded battalions of non-local soldiers and likely lived in the late 26th and early 27th dynasties, around 500 BC, according to the [[Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)|Egyptian Antiquities Ministry]]. The tomb's main well was about 6 meters deep and it was divided into separate parts by narrow bridges cut into the natural rock. Inside the main well there was a smaller and deeper shaft which contained two [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] one inside the other where Wahibre-mery-Neith was buried. The external sarcophagus was made of white [[limestone]] while the internal coffin was made out of [[basalt]] rock measures 2.30 meters long and 1.98 meters wide. The inner sarcophagus contained an inscription from the 72nd chapter of the Egyptian [[Book of the Dead|Book of Dead]] said Miroslav Barta.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tabikha |first=Kamal |date=16 July 2022 |title=Egypt uncovers 'unique' ancient tomb of the commander of foreign troops |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/egypt/2022/07/16/egypt-uncovers-unique-ancient-tomb-of-the-commander-of-foreign-troops/ |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719182010/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/egypt/2022/07/16/egypt-uncovers-unique-ancient-tomb-of-the-commander-of-foreign-troops/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tomb of Egyptian commander of foreign soldiers in Abusir sheds light on 'globalisation' in ancient world – Ancient Egypt – Antiquities |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentP/9/471518/Antiquities/Tomb-of-Egyptian-commander-of-foreign-soldiers-in-.aspx |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=Ahram Online |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030649/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentP/9/471518/Antiquities/Tomb-of-Egyptian-commander-of-foreign-soldiers-in-.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tabikha |first=Kamal |date=17 July 2022 |title=Egypt uncovers 'unique' ancient tomb of the commander of foreign troops |url=https://www.trendradars.com/channels/article-638537-egypt-uncovers-unique-ancient-tomb-of-the-commander-of-foreign-troops-2/ |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=TrendRadars |language=en-US |archive-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718155931/https://www.trendradars.com/channels/article-638537-egypt-uncovers-unique-ancient-tomb-of-the-commander-of-foreign-troops-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In August 2022, archaeologists from the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] in [[Warsaw]] announced the discovery of a 4,500-year-old temple dedicated to the Egyptian sun god [[Ra]]. The recently discovered sun temple was made from mud bricks and was about 60 meters long by 20 m wide. According to Massimiliano Nuzzolo, co-director of the excavation, storage rooms and other rooms may have been served for cultic purposes and the walls of the building were all plastered in black and white. The L-shaped entrance [[portico]] had two [[limestone]] columns and was partly made of white limestone. Dozens of well-preserved beer jars and several well-made and red-lined vessels, seal impressions, including seals of the pharaohs who ruled during the fifth and sixth dynasties were also uncovered. One of the earliest seals might belonged to pharaoh [[Shepseskare]], who ruled Egypt before [[Nyuserre Ini|Nyuserre]].<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Owen Jarus |date=4 August 2022 |title=Ancient Egyptian temple to the sun cult uncovered near Cairo |url=https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egyptian-sun-temple-discovered |access-date=8 August 2022 |website=livescience.com |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808185443/https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egyptian-sun-temple-discovered |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Bias in Egyptology===
{{See also|Ancient Egyptian race controversy}}
{{Undue weight|date=January 2025}}

Various scholars have highlighted the role of colonial racism in shaping the attitudes of early Egyptologists, and criticised the continued over-representation of North American and European perspectives in the field over African ones.<ref>{{cite book |title=Egypt in its African context : proceedings of the conference held at the Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, 2–4 October 2009 |date=2011 |publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1407307602 |pages=1–115}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sedra |first1=Paul |title=Imagining an Imperial Race: Egyptology in the Service of Empire |journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=249–259 |doi=10.1215/1089201X-24-1-251 |s2cid=143690935 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181224 |issn=1548-226X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. D. |title=The Misrepresentation of Diop's Views |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=1995 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1177/002193479502600106 |jstor=2784711 |s2cid=144667194 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784711 |issn=0021-9347 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183043/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784711 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamugisha |first1=Aaron |title=Finally in Africa? Egypt, from Diop to Celenko |journal=Race & Class |date=July 2003 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31–60 |doi=10.1177/0306396803045001002 |s2cid=145514370 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306396803045001002 |issn=0306-3968 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928064105/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306396803045001002 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Young |first1=Robert J.C. |title=Black Athena, and Colonial Discourse Robert J.C. &middot; PDF fileEgypt in America : Black Athena, Racism and Colonial Discourse Robert J.C. Young Colonial discourse analysis was initiated |url=https://pdfslide.tips/documents/black-athena-and-colonial-discourse-robert-jc-egypt-in-america-black-athena.html?page=1 |language=en |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183045/https://pdfslide.tips/documents/black-athena-and-colonial-discourse-robert-jc-egypt-in-america-black-athena.html?page=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] in his work, ''The African Origin of Civilization'' argued that the prevailing views in Egyptology were driven by biased scholarship and colonial attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Victor |first1=Cilius |title=Book reviews : Civilization or Barbarism: an authentic anthropology |journal=Race & Class |date=October 1992 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=98–100 |doi=10.1177/030639689203400214 |s2cid=145646841 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639689203400214 |issn=0306-3968 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183043/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639689203400214 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=John Henrik |title=Cheikh Anta Diop and the New Light on African History |journal=Transition |date=1974 |issue=46 |pages=74–76 |doi=10.2307/2934962 |jstor=2934962 |s2cid=156002419 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2934962 |issn=0041-1191 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183043/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2934962 |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, [[Bruce Trigger]] wrote that early modern scholarship on the Nile Valley populations had been "marred by a confusion of race, language, and culture and by an accompanying racism".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trigger |first1=Bruce |title='Nubian, Negro, Black, Nilotic?', in Sylvia Hochfield and Elizabeth Riefstahl (eds), Africa in Antiquity: the arts of Nubia and the Sudan, Vol. 1 |date=1978}}</ref>

British Africanist [[Basil Davidson]] wrote in 1995 that a number of unsatisfactory labels are often attached—such as "Bushmen", "Negro", or "Negroid"—to indigenous, African populations. He was also critical of the [[Hamites|Hamitic hypothesis]] and other categorisations of "North African stocks" as "white". Davidson further added that the "ancient Egyptians belonged, that is, not to any specific Egyptian region or Near Eastern heritage but to that wide community of peoples who lived between the Red Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, shared a common "Saharan-Sudanese culture", and drew their reinforcements from the same great source, even though, as time went by, they also absorbed a number of wanderers from the Near East".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Basil |title=Africa in history : themes and outlines |date=1991 |publisher=Collier Books |location=New York |isbn=0684826674 |pages=10–15 |edition=Rev. and expanded}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Stuart Tyson Smith]] argued that a common practice among Egyptologists was to "divorce Egypt from its proper northeast African context, instead framing it as fundamentally part of a Near Eastern or "Mediterranean" economic, social and political sphere, hardly African at all or at best a crossroad between the Near East, the eastern Mediterranean and Africa, which carries with it the implication that it is ultimately not really part of Africa". He explicitly criticised the view that ancient Egypt was clearly 'in Africa' it was not so clearly 'of Africa' as reflecting "long-standing Egyptological biases". He concluded that the interrelated cultural features shared between northeast African dynamic and Pharaonic Egypt are not "survivals" or coincidence, but shared traditions with common origins in the deep past".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Stuart Tyson |title=Gift of the Nile? Climate Change, the Origins of Egyptian Civilization and Its Interactions within Northeast Africa |journal=Across the Mediterranean – Along the Nile: Studies in Egyptology, Nubiology and Late Antiquity Dedicated to László Török. Budapest |date=1 January 2018 |pages=325–345 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43275151 |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013183043/https://www.academia.edu/43275151 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2021, [[Marc Van De Mieroop]] stated that "It was only recently that traditional scholarship started to acknowledge the African background of Egyptian culture, partly in response to world history's aim to replace dominant western-centered narratives with others than focused more on the contributions of other regions, including Africa. At the same time, primarily African diaspora communities wanted the continent's ancient history to be approached outside a Eurocentric context, and insisted, for example, on the use of ancient Egyptian term ''kemet'' instead of the European one".<ref name="A history of ancient Egypt">{{cite book |last1=Van de Mieroop |first1=Marc |title=A history of ancient Egypt |date=2021 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |isbn=978-1119620877 |pages=5–6 |edition=Second}}</ref>

In 2022, Andrea Manzo argued that early Egyptologists had situated the origins of dynastic Egypt within a "broad [[Hamites|Hamitic]] horizon that characterised several regions of Africa" and that these views had continued to dominate in the second half of the twentieth century. Manzo stated more recent studies had "pointed out the relevance of African elements to the rise of Egyptian culture, following earlier suggestions on Egyptian kingship and religion by [[Henri Frankfort]]" which countered the traditional view that considered Egypt "more closely linked to the Near East than to the rest of Africa".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manzo |first1=Andrea |title=Ancient Egypt in its African context : economic networks, social and cultural interactions |date=2022 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1009074544 |pages=1–50}}</ref>

In 2023, [[Christopher Ehret]] outlined that the previous two centuries of Western scholarship had presented Egypt as an "offshoot of earlier Middle Eastern developments". Although, he acknowledged that recent generations of scholars in Egypt and Nubia have been "uncovering extensive new bodies of evidence" which have dispelled older assumptions. However, Ehret continued to argue that these old ideas had influenced the attitudes of scholars in other disciplines such as [[genetics]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=83–85, 97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |language=en |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322125442/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Academic discipline==
Egyptology was established as an [[academic discipline]] through the research of [[Ippolito Rosellini]] in Italy, [[Emmanuel de Rougé]] in France, [[Samuel Birch (Egyptologist)|Samuel Birch]] in England, and [[Heinrich Brugsch]] in Germany. In 1880, [[Flinders Petrie]], another British Egyptologist, revolutionised the field of archaeology through controlled and scientifically recorded excavations. Petrie's work determined that Egyptian culture dated back as early as 4500 BC. The British [[Egypt Exploration Fund]] founded in 1882 and other Egyptologists promoted Petrie's methods. Other scholars worked on producing a hieroglyphic dictionary, developing a Demotic lexicon, and establishing an outline of ancient Egyptian history.<ref name="Saylor" />

In the United States, the founding of the [[Oriental Institute (Chicago)|Oriental Institute]] at the University of Chicago and the expedition of [[James Henry Breasted]] to Egypt and Nubia established Egyptology as a legitimate field of study. In 1924, Breasted also started the [[Epigraphic Survey (Oriental Institute)|Epigraphic Survey]] to make and publish accurate copies of monuments. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]; the [[University of Pennsylvania]]; the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]; the Brooklyn Institute of Fine Arts; and the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University also conducted 
excavations in Egypt, expanding American collections.<ref name="Saylor" />

In 1999, under the leadership of [[Ioannis Liritzis|Prof. Ioannis Liritzis]], Egyptology was introduced as an academic discipline in Greece, specifically in the [https://dms.aegean.gr/en/ Department of Mediterranean Studies (DMS)] of the [https://www.aegean.gr/ University of the Aegean].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archlab.aegean.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/pepragmena.pdf|access-date=31 March 2023|website=archlab.aegean.gr|title=Εργαστήριο Αρχαιομετρίας|year=2019|language=el|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326231248/https://archlab.aegean.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/pepragmena.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://liritzis.eu/?page_id=16|title=ACADEMIC ACTIVITY – Ioannis Liritzis|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=31 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331192032/https://liritzis.eu/?page_id=16|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dms.aegean.gr/%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1/%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1/%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF-%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82/|title=Εργαστήριο Αρχαιομετρίας|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326064426/https://dms.aegean.gr/%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1/%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1/%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF-%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archlab.aegean.gr/|title=Εργαστήριο Αρχαιομετρίας – Τμήμα Μεσογειακών Σπουδών Πανεπιστημίου Αιγαίου|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326231248/https://archlab.aegean.gr/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="zenodo.org">{{Cite journal|url = https://zenodo.org/record/5998553|doi = 10.5281/zenodo.5998553|year = 2001|author1 = University Of The Aegean|title = Gaia Hellenic -Egypt Project|access-date = 17 February 2022|archive-date = 17 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220217105959/https://zenodo.org/record/5998553|url-status = live}}</ref> Beginning in 1998, Prof. Liritzis has collaborated with Egyptian authorities to encourage research, fieldwork, and education, all supported by Greek and European funding.<ref name="zenodo.org"/><ref>1999: Establishment of the Research Institute in Alexandria by the University of the Aegean and the President of the Hellenic Society at Alexandria Mr S Tambakis. Signed protocol and offering of the classical building Zervoudakios School to host the Institute. (The Protocol was not realized by the new President, successor of Mr Tambakis).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://liritzis.eu/?page_id=34|title=Research Grants – Ioannis Liritzis|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217110005/https://liritzis.eu/?page_id=34|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sciendo.com">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1515/geochr-2015-0041|title=Chronology of construction and occupational phases of Nawamis tombs, Sinai based on OSL dating|year=2016|last1=Liritzis|first1=Ioannis|last2=Zacharias|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Al-Otaibi|first3=Fahad|last4=Iliopoulos|first4=Ioannis|last5=Katagas|first5=Christos|last6=Shaltout|first6=Mossalam|journal=Geochronometria|volume=43|issue=2–3 |pages=121–130|bibcode=2016Gchrm..43..121L |s2cid=67846164|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Hellenic-Egyptian relationship in Egyptological studies has been successful, largely due to Prof. Liritzis, and the result is a plethora of publications and interactions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage/special_issues/egyptology|title=Heritage|website=www.mdpi.com|accessdate=31 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031024/https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage/special_issues/egyptology|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www1.aegean.gr/international/institutional.html|title=International Aegean &#124; University of the Aegean|website=www1.aegean.gr|accessdate=31 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031024/http://www1.aegean.gr/international/institutional.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sciendo.com"/><ref>2009–10: Prof Liritzis was invited Speaker at Sohag (2009), Beni Suef, and Cairo (2010) Universities and presentation of honorable plaques to Prof Liritzis for his inauguration of a Egyptology Chair in the University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece for first time.</ref>

Some universities and colleges offer degrees in Egyptology. In the United States, these include the [[University of Chicago]], [[Brown University]], [[New York University]], [[Yale University]] and [[Indiana University - Bloomington]], and [[California State University San Bernardino]]. There are also many programmes in the United Kingdom, including those at the [[University of Oxford]], the [[University of Cambridge]], [[Swansea University]], the [[University of Liverpool]], the [[University of Manchester]], and the [[University of London]]. While Egyptology is widely studied in continental Europe,<ref>{{cite web|title=Where to Study Egyptology|url=http://www.guardians.net/egypt/education/egyptology_universities.htm|work=Guardian's Egypt|access-date=13 November 2011|archive-date=22 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122064149/http://www.guardians.net/egypt/education/egyptology_universities.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> only two--[[Leiden University]] and [[Uppsala University]]—offer degree programs taught in English.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.mastersinleiden.nl/programmes/egyptology/en/introduction|title=Egyptology, Introduction ~ Masters in Leiden|website=en.mastersinleiden.nl|access-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118214145/http://en.mastersinleiden.nl/programmes/Egyptology/en/introduction|archive-date=18 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The professional organisation of scholars in Egyptology is the [[International Association of Egyptologists]] (IAE), under whose auspices an ''International Congress of Egyptologists'' (ICE) is held every four years.

Societies for Egyptology include:
* The Society for the Study of Ancient Egypt<ref>[http://www.egyptology-ssae.org The Society for the Study of Ancient Egypt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029175637/http://www.egyptology-ssae.org/ |date=29 October 2015 }} 20:53GMT.14.3.2008</ref>
* The Society for the Study of Ancient Egyptian Antiquities, Canada<ref>[http://www.thessea.org/ The Society for the Study of Ancient Egyptian Antiquities, Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927163705/http://www.thessea.org/ |date=27 September 2008 }} 20:58GMT 3 August 2008</ref>
* Sussex Egyptology Society Online<ref>[http://www.egyptology-uk.com/ Sussex Egyptology Society Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221230305/http://www.egyptology-uk.com/ |date=21 February 2006 }} retrieved GMT21:27.26.2.2006</ref>
* Egypt Exploration Society<ref>[http://www.ees.ac.uk/events/index/31.html Egypt Exploration Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406062448/http://www.ees.ac.uk/events/index/31.html |date=6 April 2012 }} retrieved 16:36GMT 3.10.11</ref>

According to [[UCLA]], the standard text that scholars referenced for studies of Egyptology was for three decades or more, the ''Lexikon der Ägyptologie'' (LÄ). The first volume published in 1975 (containing largely German-language articles, with a few in English and French).<ref>[http://www.uee.ucla.edu/UCLos Angeles Project Development Information;Homepage] retrieved 17:47GMT 3.10.11</ref>

==See also==
*[[Archaeology of Ancient Egypt]]
*[[Artifact (archaeology)]]
*[[Assyriology]]
*[[Coptology]]
*[[Cultural tourism in Egypt]]
*[[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]]
*[[Ethnoarchaeology]]
*[[Excavation (archaeology)]]
*[[Iranology]]
*[[List of Egyptologists]]
*[[Nubiology]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* David, Rosalie. ''Religion and magic in ancient Egypt''. Penguin Books, 2002. {{ISBN|0-14-026252-0}}
* Chaney, Edward. 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution', in: ''Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines'', eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado (Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York, 2006), 39–74.
* Chaney, Edward. "Roma Britannica and the Cultural Memory of Egypt: Lord Arundel and the Obelisk of Domitian", in ''Roma Britannica: Art Patronage and Cultural Exchange in Eighteenth-Century Rome'', eds. D. Marshall, K. Wolfe and S. Russell, British School at Rome, 2011, pp.&nbsp;147–70.
* {{cite book | author=Hill, Marsha | title=''Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=2007 | isbn=9781588392312 | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/74020 | access-date=27 October 2014 | archive-date=19 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119082927/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/74020 | url-status=live }}
* Jacq, Christian. ''Magic and mystery in ancient Egypt''. Souvenir Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-285-63462-3}}
* Manley, Bill (ed.). ''The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-05123-2}}
* Mertz, Barbara. ''Red Land, Black Land: Daily Life in Ancient Egypt''. Dodd Mead, 1978. {{ISBN|0-396-07575-4}}
* Mertz, Barbara. ''Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs: A Popular History of Ancient Egypt''. Bedrick, 1990. {{ISBN|0-87226-223-5}}
* ''Mysteries of Egypt''. National Geographic Society, 1999. {{ISBN|0-7922-9752-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Reeves |title=Ancient Egypt: The Great Discoveries |year=2000 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-05105-4 }}
* Sheppard, Kathleen. 2022. Tea on the terrace: hotels and Egyptologists' social networks, 1885–1925. Manchester University Press
* {{cite book|first=Jason|last=Thompson|title=Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology: 1: From Antiquity to 1881|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-4cCCgAAQBAJ|date=2015|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-599-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Jason|last=Thompson|title=Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology: 2: The Golden Age: 1881–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLs-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327|year=2016|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-692-1}}
* {{cite book|first=Jason|last=Thompson|title=Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology: 3: From 1914 to the Twenty-first Century|year=2018|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-760-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first= Toby |title= A World Beneath the Sands: Adventurers and Archaeologists in the Golden Age of Egyptology |location= London |publisher= Picador |date= 2020 |type= Hardbook |isbn= 978-1-5098-5870-5}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Egyptology|Egyptologist}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/NorthAfricanArchaeology.html|website=ANTIQUITYOFMAN.COM: Anatomical and Behavioural Evolution|title=North African Archaeology|access-date=15 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308224954/http://www.antiquityofman.com/NorthAfricanArchaeology.html|archive-date=8 March 2010|url-status=dead}} Sections, all with content relevant to antiquity: Articles; Books, journals and external resources; Expeditions and fieldwork opportunities; and Professional organizations)
*{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptologyforum.org/EEFinst.html |website=Egyptological Societies and Institutes|title= Egyptologists' Electronic Forum (EEF), version 64 |date=13 September 2015}} List shows Egyptology societies and Institutes
* {{cite web|website=The University of Memphis Institute of Egyptian Art and Archaeology|title=Egyptology Books and Articles in PDF online|date=6 March 2015|url=http://www.memphis.edu/egypt/resources/online_biblio/bibliography_mar2015.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530023213/http://www.memphis.edu/egypt/resources/online_biblio/bibliography_mar2015.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 May 2015}}
* {{cite web|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|title=Egyptology collection|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/research/metpublications/titles-with-full-text-online?searchtype=F}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/7.html |website=Griffiths Institute, OXFORD UNIVERSITY|title= A key to the translation exercises in Sir Alan Gardiner's Egyptian Grammar, Electronic publications, Egyptological databases, Dictionaries and lexicography, Useful Web sites & Main libraries with Egyptological holdings}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.aucpress.com/p-2843-egyptology-at-the-dawn-of-the-twenty-first-century.aspx |website=American University in Cairo Press|access-date= 10 October 2011|title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists|location= Cairo|date= 2000|editor= Hawass, Zahi|editor2= Brock, Lyla Pinch}}
* {{cite web|url=http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/cdm/landingpage/collection/p15795coll8|website= American University in Cairo|title= Rare Books and Special Collections Digital Library Underwood & Underwood Egypt Stereoviews Collection}}
* {{cite web|url=http://egyptologie.ff.cuni.cz/?lang=en|website= Czech Institute of Egyptology|title= Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/detail.aspx?id=15000 | title = Global catalogue of Egyptian archeological records belonging to Institutions of all over the world | website = globalegyptianmuseum.org (without [[Internet preservation|archive-url website]]) | language = en | access-date = 27 October 2018 }}

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