Editing Dysphemism

{{Short description|Expression with derogatory connotations}}
A '''dysphemism''' is an expression with connotations that are derogatory either about the subject matter or to the audience. Dysphemisms contrast with neutral or [[Euphemism|euphemistic]] expressions.<ref name="E & D">{{cite book|last1=Allan|first1=Keith|last2=Burridge|first2=Kate|title=Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used As Shield and Weapon|year=2001|publisher=Replica Books|location=Bridgewater, N.J.|isbn=978-0-7351-0288-0|edition=1st Replica Books}}</ref> Dysphemism may be motivated by [[fear]], [[Distasteful|distaste]], [[hatred]], [[contempt]], or [[humour]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-04-14|title=Dysphemism - Definition and Examples of Dysphemism|url=https://literarydevices.net/dysphemism/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=Literary Devices|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allan|first=Keith|title=Euphemism & dysphemism: Language used as a shield and weapon|url=https://www.academia.edu/20588736|journal=Journal of Pragmatics|date=January 1992|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Allan|first=Keith|url=https://library.villanova.edu/Find/Record/332840|title=Euphemism & dysphemism : language used as shield and weapon|date=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-506622-7}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word ''dysphemism'' was composed from the [[Greek language|Greek]] elements ''dys'' δύς "mis-" and ''pheme'' φήμη "speech, voice, reputation" in the late 19th century.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 1972, [https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/58899 ''s.v.'']</ref> Related terms include ''malphemism'' (from the [[Latin Language|Latin]] ''malus'' "bad"), and ''cacophemism'' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kakos'' κακός "bad").

== Usage ==
A dysphemism is a [[Markedness|marked]] form (standing out as unusual or divergent) which expresses a speaker's view or attitude towards the listener or group.

== Types ==

=== Dysphemistic epithets ===
Animal names are frequently used as dysphemistic epithets. By using one, the speaker attempts to offend or antagonize the listener by targeting their humanity. Examples include "[[Bitch (slang)|bitch]]", "pig", "swine", "chicken", "weasel", "sheep", "snake", "rat", and "jackass".<ref name="Rawson 1989">{{cite book|last=Rawson|first=Hugh|title=Wicked words: a treasury of curses, insults, put-downs, and other formerly unprintable terms from Anglo-Saxon times to the present|year=1989|publisher=Crown Publishers|location=New York|isbn=0-517-57334-2|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/h00hugh}}</ref>

=== Name dysphemism ===
When a person uses another's name rather than an appropriate kinship term or title of address.{{Clarify|reason=incomplete sentence|date=March 2015}} The speaker uses a more casual or lower style than is appropriate given the social context.
* "Peter, what are you doing?" (rather than "Dad"/"Father")
* "How are you doing, Bill?" (rather than "Uncle Bill")

Many languages, to a greater extent than in English, indicate respect with verb tenses and thus provide more scope for such dysphemism and require care by non-native speakers to avoid causing offence by unintentional dysphemism.

This use of language may not constitute dysphemism if the choice of words used by the speaker is welcomed by the listener, such as a father who prefers being called by his given name as opposed to "Dad"/"Father". In that case it would appeal to the listener's positive face rather than damage it and would thus not be a dysphemism.

Similarly, being more formal with someone than expected may be a type of dysphemism. For example, if a child usually calls their father "dad" or "papa", calling him "father" may be a way of offending or antagonizing him, through coldness or distance (in other words, one might formally refer to one's father as "father," but when speaking to him one would use a particularly endearing term,) or that he is merely his role, if a child usually called "Billy" is addressed by a parent as "William".

Dysphemism may also be indicated by the disuse or substitution of someone's name or title. For instance, someone named Teresa who made overstated claims for a company-paid trip could be described as "the little witch who charmed the boss into approving that phony expense report".

Anger or dissatisfaction with the listener (or group of people) may compel a speaker to use a name dysphemism or term of address dysphemism.<ref name="E & D" />

=== Cross-cultural dysphemism ===
Various [[slang]] terms that are dysphemistic in one culture may not be if they hold a different meaning in another culture. For instance, the word "fag" when used in American English is typically a [[Faggot (slang)|slur against gay men]]. However, in British English, the word "fag" can be an inoffensive term used to refer to a cigarette, or, previously, a [[Fagging|junior boy who serves a senior boy]] in a British public school.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Fag|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fag|work=The American Heritage Dictionary}}</ref> Likewise, the word "fanny" when used in American English is a euphemism for one's buttocks, so benign that children use it. However, in British, Australian, New Zealand, and South African English, the word "fanny" is slang for [[vulva]] and is considered to be vulgar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Fanny|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fanny|work=The American Heritage Dictionary}}</ref>

== Context and drift ==
Some phrases that are euphemisms in certain contexts can be considered dysphemistic in others. These are often referred to as X-phemisms:<ref name=Metaphor>{{cite journal|last=Plaff|first=Kerry|author2=Raymond W. Gibbs |author3=Michael D. Johnson |doi=10.1017/S0142716400009875|title=Metaphor in using and understanding euphemism and dysphemism|journal=Applied Psycholinguistics|year=1997|volume=18|issue=1|pages=59–83|s2cid=145583670}}</ref> whether the utterance is dysphemistic or not depends on the context of the utterance. For example, many X-phemisms regarding [[sexual intercourse]] could be considered euphemistic within peer groups yet dysphemistic in certain audiences. One might be more likely to say that one "got laid" to a friend than to one's grandparents.<ref name=Metaphor />

There may also be instances in which conflicting definitions of the same word may lead to unintentional dysphemism. The pejorative use of the word [[terrorist]] is a salient example, as definitions of the word terrorist may vary across cultures and even among individuals in the same culture. Typically, the word "terrorist" refers to one who uses violence and fear as a means to pursue political, religious or ideological aims. This definition is ambiguous, and many groups that refer to themselves as "freedom fighters", "revolutionaries", "rebels" or "liberators" are referred to as "terrorists" by dissenting parties.<ref name="Fighting Words" /> Labeling groups as terrorist draws associations with other groups labeled as such even when no direct connection might be present. In 2003, the Philippine government's intention to label the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] as a terrorist organization was indicated by the organization to be an escalation of hostilities.<ref name="Fighting Words">{{cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=Michael|title=Fighting Words: Naming Terrorists, Bandits, Rebels and Other Violent Actors|journal=Third World Quarterly|year=2005|volume=26|issue=1|page=6|doi=10.1080/0143659042000322874|s2cid=146726073|url=http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/courses/PoliticalScience/357B1/documents/BhatiaFightingWordsNamingTerroristsBanditsRebels.pdf|access-date=24 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624113340/http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/courses/PoliticalScience/357B1/documents/BhatiaFightingWordsNamingTerroristsBanditsRebels.pdf}}</ref> It was their belief that by calling their organization a terrorist organization they were being directly compared to Al-Qaeda, with whom they claim no connection. Naming groups in this way has been described, "A name will place emphasis on certain aspects and characteristics of an object, while neglecting or omitting other key areas".<ref name="Fighting Words" />

The interpretation and the production of a text (whether it be written, verbal, or multi-modal) depends on the previous knowledge and experience of the interpreter or producer. The individual compares matching features with representations stored in their long-term memory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fairclough|first=Norman|title=Language and power|year=2001|publisher=Longman|location=Harlow, [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-582-41483-9|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/languagepower00fair}}</ref> Certain lexical items can be used to activate these representations, conjuring stereotypical images which then become the prototype in the listener's mind. Dysphemic terms activate negative stereotypes present in the listener's memory and affect their interpretation of the given text.

=== Move from euphemism to dysphemism ===

The process of [[pejoration]] leads to words that were once considered euphemisms to now be considered dysphemisms. In [[American culture]], words like "colored" were once considered euphemisms,<ref name="Obscenity Symbol">{{cite journal|last=Read|first=Allan|title=An Obscenity Symbol|journal=American Speech|year=1934|volume=9|issue=4|pages=264–278|doi=10.2307/452191|jstor=452191}}</ref> but have since been replaced by terms like "Black" and "African American". Sometimes slight modifications of dysphemisms can make them acceptable: while "colored people" is considered dysphemistic, "people of color" does not carry the same connotations. The words "[[idiot]]" and "[[moron (psychology)|moron]]" were once polite terms to refer to people with mental disabilities,<ref name="Mismeasure of Man">{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Stephen Jay|title=The mismeasure of man|url=https://archive.org/details/mismeasureofman00goul_1|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=0-393-03972-2|edition=Rev. and expanded}}</ref> but they are now rarely used without dysphemism. Likewise, the word "retarded" was introduced as a new polite form once the previous terms became dysphemistic; since then, "retarded" has itself become dysphemistic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=Ben|date=Fall 2011|title=A Critique of Politically Correct Language|journal=The Independent Review|volume=16|issue=2|pages=279–291|jstor=24563157}}</ref> Often a word with both euphemistic and dysphemistic uses becomes restricted to the dysphemistic use alone. The term "[[euphemism treadmill]]",<ref name="The Blank Slate">{{cite book|last=Pinker|first=Steven|title=The blank slate: the modern denial of human nature|year=2002|publisher=Penguin|location=New York|isbn=978-0-14-200334-3}}</ref> coined by [[Steven Pinker]], describes this process, in which terms with an emotionally charged referent that were once euphemisms become dysphemistic by association with the referent.

=== Reclamation of dysphemisms ===

"[[Nigger]]" would typically be dysphemistic; however, if used between African Americans it may be seen as neutral (although extremely casual) by the listener, depending on their social distance from the speaker and perceived status relative to the other party;<ref name="E & D" /> see "[[nigga]]".

[[Reappropriation|Reclamations]] of dysphemistic terms have been both successful and unsuccessful. The term "[[chicano]]" was a derogatory term and has been successfully reclaimed. Some terms like "[[Yankee]]" (for an American) or "punk" (for a late 1970s rocker), began as derogatory but were not considered such and adopted proudly by the named group. There have also been movements to reclaim words for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and otherwise non-heterosexual people, such as "queer", "fag" and "dyke".<ref name="Rawson 1989" />

Other historic examples of dysphemism reclamation include the term [[Impressionism]], which originated as a critical remark that "[[Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' was not art, it was an impression", but was adopted to be the formal name of the style and was accepted by the artists themselves.

== Taboo terms ==
[[Taboo]] terms are used as insults, epithets, and expletives because they damage the listener's face, which might destroy social harmony—especially if the speaker and listener are socially distant from each other. For this reason, terms of insult are socially taboo and dysphemistic. Breaking a social taboo can act as an emotional release, with the illocutionary act of expressing a feeling or attitude.<ref name="E & D" />

Bad or taboo words for many things far outnumber the "good" words. Hugh Rawson notices in his book ''Wicked Words'' that when looking at Roget's International Thesaurus, there are "89 synonyms for drunk, compared to 16 for sober, and 206 for bad person compared to 82 for good person. The synonyms for unchastity in the Thesaurus fill 140 lines, occupying exactly four times as much space as those for chastity. For unchaste woman, 34 synonyms are listed; for unchaste man, 24. No synonyms at all are given for chaste woman and chaste man."<ref name="Rawson 1989" />

References to bodily excretions are often used in dysphemisms. Many communities historically believed that bodily effluvia such as [[feces]], [[spittle]], [[blood]], nail-parings, and hair-clippings were cursed. Such revulsion is apparently learned: children and animals are not put off by bodily effluvia (unless they have a foul smell). In a study done at Monash and La Trobe Universities in [[Melbourne]], Australia, subjects rated bodily effluvia according to how revolting they found them. Feces, vomit, [[semen]] and menstrual blood were rated as most revolting while nail parings, breath, blood from a wound, hair clippings, and breast milk were rated as least revolting.<ref name="E & D" /> This continuum of the level of revulsion is apparent in certain dysphemism such as ''shitter'' for "toilet", ''to come'' for "to ejaculate", and ''puke hole'' for "tavern" or "toilet".<ref name="Slang & Euphemism">{{cite book|last=Spears|first=Richard A.|title=Slang and euphemism: a dictionary of oaths, curses, insults, ethnic slurs, sexual slang and metaphor, drug talk, college lingo, and related matters|year=2001|publisher=Signet|location=New York|isbn=978-0-451-20371-7|edition=3rd revised and abridged}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Wiktionary|dysphemism}}
* [[Hyperbole]]
* [[Impoliteness]]
* [[Kenning]]
* [[Loaded language]]
* [[Metaphor]]
* [[Pejorative]]
* [[Satiric misspelling]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* Allan, Keith., Burridge, Kate. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used As Shield and Weapon. United States: Replica Books, 2000.
* Brown, E. K.. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics: Spe-Top. Netherlands: Elsevier, 2006.
* Allan, Keith., Burridge, Kate. Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language. N.p.: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

{{Figures of speech}}

[[Category:Dysphemisms| ]]
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]
[[Category:Figures of speech]]
[[Category:Connotation]]