Editing Duchy of Prussia

{{Short description|Historical state (1525–1701)}}
{{Distinguish|Royal Prussia|Kingdom of Prussia}}

{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{native name|de|Herzogtum Preußen}}<br />{{native name|pl|Prusy Książęce}}<br />{{native name|lt|Prūsijos kunigaikštystė}}
| conventional_long_name = Duchy of Prussia
| common_name            = Prussia
| era                    = [[Early modern period]]
| currency               = ''[[Reichsthaler|Thaler]]<br><small>(1525-1701)</small>''
| status                 = [[Nation]]
| status_text            = [[Fief]] of [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]] <small>(until 1657)</small><br />Part of [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] <small>(from 1618)</small>
| today                  = [[Lithuania]]<br />[[Poland]]<br />[[Russia]]|
| government_type        = [[Feudalism|Feudal]] [[monarchy]]
| event_start            = [[Prussian Homage]]
| year_start             = 1525
| date_start             = 10 April
| event_end              = [[King in Prussia|Coronation]]
| event1                 = [[Treaty of Wehlau]]
| date_event1            = 1657
| date_end               = 
| year_end               = 1701
| event_post             = 
| date_post              = 
| p1                     = State of the Teutonic Order
| flag_p1                = Flag of the State of the Teutonic Order.svg
| border_p1              = no
| s1                     = Brandenburg-Prussia
| flag_s1                = Brandenburg-Prussia.svg
| image_flag             = Flag of Ducal Prussia.svg
| flag_type              = [[Flag of Prussia|Flag]]<br>(1525–1657)
| image_coat             = POL Prusy książęce COA.svg
| image_map              = Duchy of Prussia.svg
| image_map_caption      = The Duchy of Prussia (yellow)
| capital                = [[Königsberg]]
| common_languages       = [[Low German]], [[German language|German]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]
| religion               = [[Lutheranism]]<ref>The duchy's Evangelical (Protestant) church was the first formally established as a [[state religion]].</ref>
| title_leader           = [[List of monarchs of Prussia|Duke]]
| leader1                = [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert]]
| year_leader1           = 1525–1568
| leader2                = [[Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia|Albert Frederick]]
| year_leader2           = 1568–1618
| leader3                = [[John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg|John Sigismund]]
| year_leader3           = 1618–1619
| leader4                = [[George William, Elector of Brandenburg|George William]]
| year_leader4           = 1619–1640
| leader5                = [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]]
| year_leader5           = 1640–1688
| leader6                = [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick]]
| year_leader6           = 1688–1701|
| legislature            = [[Prussian estates|Estates]]
| demonym                = <nowiki>Prussian</nowiki>
| area_km2               = 30000
| coordinates            = {{coord|54|50|N|21|20|E|type:country|display=inline,title}}
}}

The '''Duchy of Prussia''' ({{langx|de|Herzogtum Preußen}}, {{langx|pl|Księstwo Pruskie}}, {{langx|lt|Prūsijos kunigaikštystė}}) or '''Ducal Prussia''' ({{langx|de|Herzogliches Preußen|link=no}}; {{langx|pl|Prusy Książęce|link=no}}) was a [[duchy]] in the [[Prussia (region)|region of Prussia]] established as a result of secularization of the Monastic Prussia, the territory that remained under the control of the [[State of the Teutonic Order]] until the [[Protestant Reformation]] in 1525.

== Overview ==
The duchy became the first [[Protestant]] state when [[Albert, Duke of Prussia]] formally adopted [[Lutheranism]] in 1525. It was inhabited by a German, Polish (mainly in [[Masuria]]), and Lithuanian-speaking (mainly in [[Lithuania Minor]]) population.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wu5AAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA284 |title=Notes and Queries |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1850 }}</ref>

In 1525, during the [[Protestant Reformation]], in accordance to the [[Treaty of Kraków]], the [[Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Knights]], Albert, [[secularization|secularized]] the order's prevailing Prussian territory (the Monastic Prussia), becoming [[Albert, Duke of Prussia]]. As the region had been a part of the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] since the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Górski |first=Karol |title=Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych |year=1949 |publisher=Instytut Zachodni |location=[[Poznań]] |language=pl,la |pages=96–97, 214–215 }}</ref> King of Poland [[Sigismund I the Old]], as its suzerain, granted the territory as a hereditary [[fief]] of Poland to Duke Albert per the Treaty of Kraków, a decision that was sealed by the [[Prussian Homage]] in [[Kraków]] in April 1525. The new duke established Lutheranism as the first Protestant [[state church]]. The capital remained in [[Königsberg]] (modern [[Kaliningrad]]).

The duchy was inherited by the [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] [[prince-elector]]s of [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] in 1618. This [[personal union]] is referred to as [[Brandenburg-Prussia]]. [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]], the "Great Elector" of Brandenburg, achieved full sovereignty over the duchy under the 1657 [[Treaty of Wehlau]], confirmed in the 1660 [[Treaty of Oliva]]. In the following years, attempts were made to return to Polish suzerainty, especially by the capital city of Königsberg, whose burghers rejected the treaties and viewed the region as part of Poland.<ref name=JJ/><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Komunikaty_Mazursko_Warminskie/Komunikaty_Mazursko_Warminskie-r1995-t-n3/Komunikaty_Mazursko_Warminskie-r1995-t-n3-s311-313/Komunikaty_Mazursko_Warminskie-r1995-t-n3-s311-313.pdf | title="Historia Królewca. Szkice z XIII-XX stulecia", Janusz Jasiński, Olsztyn 1994 : [recenzja] | language=pl | trans-title="History of Königsberg. Sketches from the 13th to the 20th centuries", Janusz Jasiński, Olsztyn 1994: [review] | author=Andrzej Kamieński }}</ref> The Duchy of Prussia was elevated to a [[Kingdom of Prussia|kingdom]] in 1701.

==History==
{{History of Brandenburg and Prussia}}

===Background===
As [[Protestantism]] spread among the laity of the [[monastic state of the Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Monastic State of Prussia]], dissent began to develop against the [[Roman Catholic]] rule of the [[Teutonic Knights]], whose Grand Master, [[Albert, Duke of Prussia]], a member of a [[cadet branch]] of the [[House of Hohenzollern]], lacked the military resources to assert the order's authority.

After [[Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521)|losing a war]] against the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]], and with his personal bishop, [[Georg von Polenz]] [[Bishopric of Pomesania|of Pomesania]] and of [[Bishopric of Samland|Samland]], who had converted to Lutheranism in 1523,<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge">Albertas Juška, ''Mažosios Lietuvos Bažnyčia XVI-XX amžiuje'', Klaipėda: 1997, pp. 742–771, hereafter the German translation [http://www.liuteronai.lt/Istorija-ir-teologija/Baznycios-istorija/Die-Kirche-in-Klein-Litauen ''Die Kirche in Klein Litauen''] (section: 2. Reformatorische Anfänge; {{in lang|de}}) on: [http://www.liuteronai.lt/eng ''Lietuvos Evangelikų Liuteronų Bažnyčia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002005842/http://www.liuteronai.lt/eng |date=2011-10-02 }}, retrieved on 28 August 2011.</ref> and a number of his commanders already supporting Protestant ideas, Albert began to consider a radical solution.

At [[Wittenberg]] in 1522, and at [[Nuremberg]] in 1524, [[Martin Luther]] encouraged him to convert the order's territory into a secular principality under his personal rule, as the Teutonic Knights would not be able to survive the [[Protestant Reformation|reformation]].<ref name="Christiansen">[[Eric Christiansen|Christiansen, Eric]]. ''The Northern Crusades''. Penguin Books. London, 1997. {{ISBN|0-14-026653-4}}</ref>

===Establishment===
On 10 April 1525, Albert resigned his position, became a Protestant and in the [[Prussian Homage]] was granted the title "Duke of Prussia" by his uncle, King [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I]] of Poland. In a deal partly brokered by Luther, Ducal Prussia became the first Protestant state, anticipating the dispensations of the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555.

[[File:Gallery of 19th-Century Polish Art in the Sukiennice, 2022, 07.jpg|300px|left|thumb|The ''[[Prussian Homage (painting)|Prussian Homage]]'' (by [[Jan Matejko]], 1882, National Museum, [[Kraków]]): [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert]] receives Ducal Prussia as a [[fief]] from King [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I]] of Poland in 1525.]][[File:Rzeczpospolita Royal Ducal.png|right|thumb|Ducal Prussia as a Polish fief (striped) in the second half of the 16th century]]
When Albert returned to Königsberg, he publicly declared his conversion and announced to a quorum of Teutonic Knights his new ducal status. The knights who disapproved of the decision were pressured into acceptance by Albert's supporters and the [[:wikt:burgher|burgher]]s of Königsberg, and only Eric of [[Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]], [[Komtur]] of [[Klaipėda|Memel]], opposed the new duke. On 10 December 1525, at their session in Königsberg, the [[Prussian estates]] established the [[Lutheran]] Church in Ducal Prussia by deciding the [[Church Order (Lutheran)|Church Order]].<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/>

By the end of Albert's rule, the offices of Grand Commander and Marshal of the Order had deliberately been left vacant, and the order was left with but 55 knights in Prussia. Some of the knights converted to Lutheranism in order to retain their property and then married into the Prussian nobility, while others returned to the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and remained [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].<ref name="Seward">[[Desmond Seward|Seward, Desmond]]. ''The Monks of War: The Military Religious Orders''. Penguin Books. London, 1995. {{ISBN|0-14-019501-7}}</ref> These remaining Teutonic Knights, led by the next Grand Master, [[Walter von Cronberg]], continued to unsuccessfully claim Prussia, but retained much of the estates in the Teutonic [[bailiwick]]s outside of Prussia.
{{Rzeczpospolita 1618|size=250px}}
On 1 March 1526, Albert married [[Dorothea of Denmark, Duchess of Prussia|Princess Dorothea]], daughter of King [[Frederick I of Denmark]], thereby establishing political ties between Lutheranism and [[Scandinavia]]. Albert was greatly aided by his elder brother [[George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]], who had earlier established the Protestant religion in his territories of [[Franconia]] and [[Upper Silesia]]. Albert also found himself reliant on support from his uncle [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I]] of Poland, as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the Roman Catholic Church, had banned him for his Protestantism.

The Teutonic Order had only superficially carried out its mission to Christianize the native rural population and erected few churches within the state's territory.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/> There was little longing for [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. Baltic [[Old Prussians]] and [[Prussian Lithuanians|Prussian Lithuanian]] peasants continued to practice pagan customs in some areas, for example, adhering to beliefs in [[Perkūnas|Perkūnas (Perkunos)]], symbolized by the [[goat|goat buck]], [[Potrimpo]], and [[Peckols|Pikullos (Patollu)]] while "consuming the roasted flesh of a goat".<ref name="Kirby">[[David Kirby (historian)|Kirby, David]]. ''Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492–1772''. Longman. London, 1990. {{ISBN|0-582-00410-1}}</ref> Bishop [[George of Polentz]] had forbidden the widespread forms of pagan worship in 1524 and repeated the ban in 1540.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/>

On 18 January 1524 Bishop George had ordered the use of native languages at baptisms, which improved the acceptance of baptism by the peasants.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/> There was little active resistance to the new Protestant religion. The Teutonic Knights having brought Catholicism made the transition to Protestantism easier.<ref name="Koch">[[H.W. Koch|Koch, H.W.]] ''A History of Prussia''. Barnes & Noble Books. New York, 1978. {{ISBN|0-88029-158-3}}</ref>

The Church Order of 1525 provided for visitations of the parishioners and pastors, which were first carried out by Bishop George in 1538.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/> Because Ducal Prussia was ostensibly a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] land, authorities traveled throughout the duchy ensuring that Lutheran teachings were being followed and imposing penalties on pagans and dissidents. The rural population of native descent was thoroughly Christianised only starting with the Reformation in Prussia.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/>

A peasant rebellion broke out in [[Sambia Peninsula|Sambia]] in 1525. The combination of taxation by the nobility, the contentions of the [[Protestant Reformation]], and the abrupt secularization of the Teutonic Order's remaining Prussian lands exacerbated peasant unrest. The relatively well-to-do rebel leaders, including a miller from [[Zarechye|Kaimen]] and an innkeeper from [[Schaaken Castle|Schaaken in Prussia]], were supported by sympathizers in Königsberg. The rebels demanded the elimination of newer taxes by the nobility, and a return to an older tax of two [[mark (money)|marks]] per [[hide (unit)|hide]] (a measure of land of approximately forty acres).

They claimed to be rebelling against the harsh nobility, not against Duke Albert, who was away in the Holy Roman Empire and said that they would swear allegiance to him only in person. Upon Albert's return from the Empire, he called for a meeting of the peasants in a field, whereupon he surrounded them with loyal troops and had them arrested without incident. The leaders of the rebellion were subsequently executed.<ref name="Kirby"/> There were no more large-scale rebellions. Ducal Prussia became known as a land of Protestantism and sectarianism.<ref name="Koch"/>
{{multiple image |align=right |perrow=2 |total_width=380
| image1=Seklucjan gospel.gif
| image2=CATECHISMVSA PRAsty Szadei (in Lithuanian language) by Martynas Mažvydas, published in Königsberg, 1547 (cropped).jpg
| footer=The duchy became a leading Polish and Lithuanian Lutheran and printing center. In the mid-16th century in [[Königsberg]] were published the first translation of the [[New Testament]] into Polish by [[Stanisław Murzynowski]] and the [[Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas]], which is the first printed book in the Lithuanian language.
}}

In 1544, Duke Albert founded the [[University of Königsberg|Albertina University]] in Königsberg, which became the principal educational establishment for Lutheran pastors and theologians of Prussia.<ref name="Juška 1997 2-Reformatorische Anfänge"/> In 1560, the university received a royal [[privilege (law)|privilege]] from King [[Sigismund II Augustus]] of Poland. It was granted the same rights and autonomy that were enjoyed by the [[Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]] and so it became one of the leading universities in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The use of the native languages in church services made Duke Albert appoint exiled Protestant Lithuanian pastors as professors, e.g. [[Stanislovas Rapolionis]] and [[Abraomas Kulvietis]], making the Albertina also a centre of Lithuanian language and literature.<ref name="Juška 1997 5-Pfarrer">Albertas Juška, ''Mažosios Lietuvos Bažnyčia XVI-XX amžiuje'', Klaipėda: 1997, pp. 742–771, here after the German translation [http://www.liuteronai.lt/Istorija-ir-teologija/Baznycios-istorija/Die-Kirche-in-Klein-Litauen ''Die Kirche in Klein Litauen''] (section: 5. Die Pfarrer und ihre Ausbildung; {{in lang|de}}) on: [http://www.liuteronai.lt/eng ''Lietuvos Evangelikų Liuteronų Bažnyčia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002005842/http://www.liuteronai.lt/eng |date=2011-10-02 }}, retrieved on 28 August 2011.</ref>

While the composition of the nobility changed little in the transition from the monastic state to the duchy, the control of the nobility over the dependent peasantry increased. Prussia's free peasants, called Kölmer, were holders of free estates according to [[Culm law]]. Kölmer held them with about a sixth of the arable land, much more than in other nations in the feudal era.<ref>Peter Brandt in collaboration with Thomas Hofmann, ''Preußen: Zur Sozialgeschichte eines Staates''; eine Darstellung in Quellen, edited on behalf of Berliner Festspiele as a catalogue to the exhibition on Prussia between 15 May and 15 November 1981, Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1981, (=Preußen; vol. 3), pp. 24 and 35. {{ISBN|3-499-34003-8}}</ref>

Administratively, little changed in the transition from the Teutonic Knights to ducal rule. Although he was formally a vassal of the crown of Poland, Albert retained self-government for Prussia, his own army, the minting of his currency, a [[Prussian estates|provincial assembly]], (de, ''[[Landtag]]''), and substantial autonomy in foreign affairs.<ref name= "Urban">[[William Urban|Urban, William]]. ''The Teutonic Knights: A Military History''. Greenhill Books. London, 2003. {{ISBN|1-85367-535-0}}</ref>

===Lack of heirs===
When Albert died in 1568, his teenage son (the exact age is unknown) [[Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia|Albert Frederick]] inherited the duchy. Sigismund II was also Albert Frederick's cousin. The [[Elector of Brandenburg]] [[Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg|Joachim II]], converted to Lutheranism in 1539. Joachim wanted to merge his lands with the Prussian dukedom so that his heirs would inherit both. Joachim petitioned his brother-in-law, king [[Sigismund II Augustus|Sigismund II]] of Poland the co-enfeoffment of his line of the Hohenzollern with the Prussian dukedom, and finally succeeded, including the then usual expenses.

On 19 July 1569, when, in [[Lublin]], Poland, duke Albert Frederick rendered King Sigismund II [[homage (feudal)|homage]] and was in return [[enfeoffment|installed]] as Duke of Prussia in [[Lublin]], the King simultaneously enfeoffed Joachim II and his descendants as co-heirs.

Administration in the duchy declined as Albert Frederick became increasingly feeble-minded, which led Margrave [[George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George Frederick]] of [[Brandenburg-Ansbach]] to become [[Regent]] of Prussia in 1577.

Following King [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]]'s Prussian regency agreement (1605) with [[Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg|Joachim Frederick of Brandenburg]] and his [[Treaty of Warsaw (1611)|Treaty of Warsaw]], 1611, with [[John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg|John Sigismund of Brandenburg]], confirming the Brandenburgian co-inheritance of Prussia, both regents guaranteed the free practice of Catholic religion in predominantly-Lutheran Prussia. Based on the agreements, some Lutheran churches were reconsecrated as Catholic places of worship (e.g. [[St. Nicholas Cathedral, Elbląg|St. Nicholas Church]], [[Elbląg]] in 1612).

===Personal union with Brandenburg===
{{main|Brandenburg-Prussia}}
In 1618, the Prussian Hohenzollern became extinct in the male line, and so the Polish fief of Prussia was passed on to the senior Brandenburg Hohenzollern line, the ruling [[margraves]] and [[prince-electors]] of [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]], who thereafter ruled Brandenburg (a fief of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]), and Ducal Prussia (a Polish fief), in [[personal union]]. The legal contradiction made a cross-border [[real union]] impossible; however, in practice, Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia were more and more ruled as one and were colloquially referred to as ''[[Brandenburg-Prussia]]''.

In 1618, the [[Thirty Years' War]] broke out, and John Sigismund himself died the following year. His son, [[George William, Elector of Brandenburg|George William]], was successfully invested with the duchy in 1623 by King of Poland [[Sigismund III Vasa]], thus the personal union [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] was confirmed.<ref name="Koch"/> Many of the [[Prussian Junkers]] were opposed to rule by the [[House of Hohenzollern]] of [[Berlin]] and appealed to Sigismund III Vasa for redress, or even incorporation of Ducal Prussia into the Polish kingdom, but without success.<ref name="Eulenberg">[[Herbert Eulenberg|Eulenberg, Herbert]]. ''The Hohenzollerns''. Translated by [[M.M. Bozman]]. The Century Co. New York, 1929.</ref>

During the [[Polish–Swedish wars]], the duchy became administered in 1635 by the Polish statesman [[Jerzy Ossoliński]], who was appointed by Polish King [[Władysław IV Vasa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/a/biografia/jerzy-ossolinski-h-topor|title=Jerzy Ossoliński h. Topór|website=Internetowy Polski Słownik Biograficzny|author=Władysław Czapliński|access-date=11 September 2020|language=pl|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001152031/https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/a/biografia/jerzy-ossolinski-h-topor|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] the "Great Elector", duke of Prussia and prince-elector of Brandenburg, wished to acquire [[Royal Prussia]] in order to territorially connect his two fiefs. Yet, during the [[Second Northern War]], [[Charles X Gustav of Sweden]] invaded Ducal Prussia and dictated the [[Treaty of Königsberg (1656)|Treaty of Königsberg]] (January 1656), which made the duchy a Swedish fief. In the [[Treaty of Marienburg]] (June 1656), Charles X Gustav promised to cede to Frederick William the Polish [[Chełmno Voivodeship|voivodships of Chełmno]], [[Malbork Voivodeship|Malbork]], [[Pomeranian Voivodeship (1466–1772)|Pomerania]], and the [[Prince-Bishopric of Warmia]] if Frederick William would support Charles Gustav's effort.<ref name="Rutkowski">{{cite book|author-link=Henryk Rutkowski|first=Henryk|last=Rutkowski|chapter=Rivalität der Magnaten und Bedrohung der Souveränität|title=Polen. Ein geschichtliches Panorama|location=Warszawa|publisher=Wydawnictwo Interpress|date=1983|pages=81–91|isbn=83-223-1984-3|trans-title=Poland: A Historical Panorama|trans-chapter=Rivalry of the Magnates and the Threat of Sovereignty|language=de}}</ref>{{rp|82}} The proposition was somewhat risky since Frederick William would definitely have to provide military support, and  the reward could be provided only on victory. When the tide of the war turned against Charles X Gustav, he concluded the [[Treaty of Labiau]] (November 1656), making Frederick William I the full sovereign in Ducal Prussia and Warmia, which, however, was part of Poland.

===Emancipation===
In response to the Swedish-Prussian alliance, King [[John II Casimir Vasa]] submitted a counteroffer, which Frederick William accepted. They signed the [[Treaty of Wehlau]] on 19 September 1657 and the [[Treaty of Bromberg]] on 6 November 1657. In return for Frederick William's renunciation of the Swedish-Prussian alliance, John Casimir recognised Frederick William's full sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia.<ref name="Rutkowski"/>{{rp|83}} After almost 200 years of Polish suzerainty over the Teutonic monastic state of Prussia and its successor Ducal Prussia, the territory passed under the full sovereignty of Brandenburg. Therefore, ''Duchy of Prussia'' then became the more adequate appellation for the state. Full sovereignty was a necessary prerequisite to upgrade Ducal Prussia to the sovereign [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in 1701 when Elector [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick III of Brandenburg]] can become "[[king in Prussia]]" in 1701 without approvement of Emperor [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]].

[[File:Image-Koenigsberg, Map by Merian-Erben 1652.jpg|thumb|17th-century view of Königsberg]]
However, the end of Polish suzerainty was met with resistance of the population, regardless of ethnicity, as it was afraid of Brandenburg [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]] and wished to remain part of the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Polish Crown]]. The burghers of the capital city of Königsberg, led by [[Hieronymus Roth]], rejected the treaties of Wehlau and Oliva and viewed Prussia as "indisputably contained within the territory of the Polish Crown".<ref name=JJ>Janusz Jasiński, ''Polska a Królewiec'', Komunikaty Mazursko-Warmińskie nr 2, 2005, p. 126 (in Polish)</ref> It was noted that the incorporation into the Polish Crown under the [[Treaty of Kraków]] was approved by the city of Königsberg, while the separation from Poland took place without the city's consent.<ref name=JJ/> Polish King John II Casimir was asked for help, and masses were held in Protestant churches for the king and the Polish Kingdom. But in 1662, Elector Frederick William entered the city with his troops and forced the city to swear allegiance to him.

However, in the following decades, at least one attempt to return of Polish suzerainty was made. In 1675, the Polish-French [[Treaty of Jaworów]] was signed according to which [[Kingdom of France|France]] was to support Polish efforts to regain control of the region, and Poland was to join the ongoing Franco-Brandenburgian War on the French side,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://historykon.pl/kalendarium-historyczne/11-czerwca-1675-roku-krol-polski-jan-iii-sobieski-i-ambasador-krola-francji-ludwika-xiv-podpisali-tajny-traktat-w-jaworowie|title=11 czerwca 1675 roku król Polski Jan III Sobieski i ambasador króla Francji Ludwika XIV podpisali tajny traktat w Jaworowie|website=Historykon|access-date=24 October 2020|language=pl}}</ref> however, it was not implemented.

The nature of the ''de facto'' collectively ruled governance of Brandenburg-Prussia became more apparent through the titles of the higher ranks of the Prussian government, seated in Brandenburg's capital of Berlin after the return of the court from Königsberg, where they had sought refuge from the Thirty Years' War.

===Later development===
After the Kingdom of Prussia's annexation of the bulk of the province of Royal Prussia in the [[First Partition of Poland]] in 1772, former Ducal Prussia, including previously Polish-controlled [[Prince-Bishopric of Warmia|Warmia]] within Royal Prussia, was reorganized into the [[Province of East Prussia]], while [[Pomerelia]] and the [[Malbork Land]] became the Province of [[West Prussia]], with the exceptions of the two principal cities of [[Gdańsk]] and [[Toruń]], annexed into West Prussia only in 1793 after the [[Second Partition of Poland]].

The Kingdom of Prussia, then consisting of East and West Prussia, being a sovereign state, and Brandenburg, being a fief within the Holy Roman Empire, were amalgamated ''[[de jure]]'' only after the latter's dissolution in 1806, though later became again partially distinct during the existence of the [[German Confederation]] (1815-1866).

==See also==
{|
| valign="top"width="25%" |
*[[Lithuania Minor]]
*[[Province of Prussia]]
| valign="top"width="25%" |
*[[Masuria]]
*[[East Prussia]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Territories and provinces of Prussia}}
{{Fiefs of the Polish Kingdom}}
{{Administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Duchy of Prussia| ]]
[[Category:Former duchies]]
[[Category:Duchies of Poland]]
[[Category:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Duchy of Prussia]]
[[Category:16th century in Prussia|.]]
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[[Category:States and territories established in 1525|Duchy of Prussia]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1701|Duchy of Prussia]]
[[Category:1525 establishments in Poland|Duchy of Prussia]]
[[Category:1701 disestablishments in Europe|Duchy of Prussia]]
[[Category:Fiefdoms of Poland]]
[[Category:Brandenburg-Prussia| Prussia]]