Editing Discordia

{{Short description|Roman goddess}}
{{about|a personification of strife and discord}}
[[File:Discordia print by Philip Galle, S.I 1737, Prints Department, Royal Library of Belgium.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Print of Discordia made by [[Philip Galle]]<ref>[https://opac.kbr.be/Library/doc/SYRACUSE/17899683 Discordia (print)]. [[Royal Library of Belgium]] (KBR).</ref>]]

In [[Roman mythology]], '''Discordia''' is the Roman equivalent of the Greek [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], goddess of strife and discord. She was the daughter of Nox (Night) and [[Erebus]]. Like Eris, Discordia has no mythology other than her involvement in the [[Judgement of Paris]].

Unlike her opposite [[Concordia (mythology)|Concordia]], Discordia was not a cult goddess, but simply a literary personification, and like Eris was especially associated with the strife and discord in war. She was, in particular, associated with Roman civil war.

==Family==
The Greek personification of strife and discord, [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], according to [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', is the daughter of [[Nyx]] (Night) with no father.<ref>Gantz, pp. 4&ndash;5; [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/hesiod-theogony/2018/pb_LCL057.21.xml 223&ndash;225].</ref>
Similarly, according to the ''[[Fabulae]]'', Discordia is the daughter of Nox (Night), although it gives her father as [[Erebus]].<ref>Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia]; [[Hyginus (Fabulae)|Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'' Theogony 1.2&ndash;6.</ref> The ''Fabulae'' lists many siblings of Discord, similar to but different from the list of siblings of Eris as given by Hesiod. For example both are siblings of  "Old Age" (the Greek [[Geras]] and Roman Senecus), "Death" (the Greek [[Thanatos]] and Roman [[Mors (mythology)|Mors]]), the [[Fates]] (the Greek [[Moirai]] and Roman [[Parcae]]), and [[Nemesis]] ("Indignation").<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/hesiod-theogony/2018/pb_LCL057.21.xml 211&ndash;225].</ref> However while the siblings of Eris are all negative personified abstractions,<ref>Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA30 p. 31].</ref> some of Discordia's are positive, such as [[Euphrosyne]] ("Cheerfulness"), and [[Amicitia]] ("Friendship"), while others are not personified abstractions at all, such as the [[Giants (Greek mythology)|Giant]] [[Porphyrion]], or [[Styx]], the goddess and river of the Underworld. Also unlike Eris, Discordia has no children.

==Judgement of Paris==
The Roman story of Discordia's involvement in the [[Judgement of Paris]], is essentially the same as that of Eris. As told in the ''Fabulae'', the story is as follows. All the gods, except Discordia, were invited by [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] to the wedding of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]]. She came anyway and was refused admission, so she threw an apple through the doorway, saying that the most beautiful should take it. The three goddesses, [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], and [[Minerva]] each claimed the apple. This started the quarrel which led to the Judgement of Paris, and ultimately to the outbreak of the [[Trojan War]].<ref>Hyginus, ''[[Fabulae]]'' [https://topostext.org/work/206#92 92].</ref>

==Latin literature==
Unlike her opposite, Concordia, Discordia was not a cult goddess, and was little more than a literary personification.<ref>Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia].</ref> As a personification of discord, she is a frequent occurrence in Latin [[epic poetry]], and, and in particular, civil discord and civil war, through the first-century AD. In late antiquity Latin Christian literature, Discordia is contrasted with Concordia, with Discordia becoming a symbol of Christian discord and heresy.<ref>Hardie, pp. 4&ndash;5, 49.</ref>

===Second-century BC&ndash;first-century AD===
The Roman poet [[Ennius]] seems to have been the first to introduce "loathsome Discord" (''Discordia taetra'') when, in his second-century BC epic ''[[Annales (Ennius)|Annales]]'', he describes Discordia as breaking open the "portals of War".<ref>Bernstein, p. 16; Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia]; [[Ennius]] ''[[Annales (Ennius)|Annales]]'' Book 7 [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/ennius-annals/2018/pb_LCL294.227.xml fr. 13] [= [[Horace]], ''[[Satires (Horace)|Satires]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/horace-satires/1926/pb_LCL194.53.xml1.4.60–62]]. Ennius' "portals of War" have been associated with the doors of the [[Temple of Janus (Roman Forum)|Temple of Janus]] (''Janus Geminus''), which were left open whenever Rome was at war, see notes to Ennius 7 [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/ennius-annals/2018/pb_LCL294.227.xml fr. 13.3], and ''Satires'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/horace-satires/1926/pb_LCL194.53.xml 1.4.62].</ref> [[Virgil]], in the ''[[Aeneid]]'' (first century BC), has "maddening Strife (''Discordia demens''), her snaky locks entwined with bloody ribbons" as one of the many terrible evils who reside at the entrance to his [[Orcus|Underworld]].<ref>Bernstein, p. 16; Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia]; [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/virgil-aeneid/1916/pb_LCL063.553.xml 6.280].</ref>

Discordia was particularly associated with Roman internal conflict and civil war.<ref>Bernstein, pp. 16, 181 (which calls her "the personification of civil war"), see also Fantham, [https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.003.0013 pp. 209&ndash;211].</ref> Like the Homeric [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]] in the ''[[Iliad]]'', who is one of the divinities active in the [[Trojan War]], Virgil makes Discordia one of the divine participants (as depicted on the prophetic [[Shield of Aeneas]]) at the [[Battle of Actium]], during the Roman civil war between [[Octavian]] and [[Mark Antony]].<ref>Hardie, p. 106; Bernstein, p. 16; Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia]; Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DE%3Aentry+group%3D6%3Aentry%3Deris-bio-1 s.v. Eris].</ref> In a battle of gods, with "rent robe", Discordia "strides exultant":

{{blockquote|Monstrous gods of every form and barking Anubis wield weapons against Neptune and Venus and against Minerva. In the middle of the fray storms Mavors, embossed in steel, with the grim Furies from on high; and in rent robe Discord [''Discordia''] strides exultant, while Bellona follows her with bloody scourge.|[[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/virgil-aeneid/1916/pb_LCL064.109.xml 8.698&ndash;702]; translation by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold}}

Discordia, under the influence of Virgil, appears in the works of the four later first-century AD Roman epic poets [[Lucan]], [[Silius Italicus]], [[Statius]], and [[Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]]. The word ''discordia'' (whether personified or not) appears seven times in Lucan's ''[[Pharsalia]]'', his epic poem about the decisive battle in [[Caesar's civil war]].<ref>Bernstein, p. 16.</ref> Silius, in his epic ''[[Punica]]'' about the [[Second Punic War]], begins his [[Battle of Cannae]] with Virgil's "maddening strife" (''Discordia demens'') invading heaven and forcing "the gods to fight".<ref>Bernstein, p. 16; [[Silius Italicus]], ''[[Punica (poem)|Punica]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/silius_italicus-punica/1934/pb_LCL278.23.xml 9.288&ndash;289].</ref> Statius involves Discordia (in the company of other personifications) in his ''[[Thebaid (Latin poem)|Thebaid]]'' concerning the fraternal war, for the kingship of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], between the two sons of [[Oedipus]], [[Eteocles]] and [[Polynices]].<ref>Bernstein, p. 16; [[Statius]], ''[[Thebaid (Latin poem)|Thebaid]]'' [https://archive.org/details/statiuswithengli02statuoft/page/8/mode/2up 5.76], [https://archive.org/details/statiuswithengli02statuoft/page/136/mode/2up 7.50].</ref> The ''Argonautica'', Valerius' epic poem about [[Jason]]'s search for the [[Golden Fleece]], where the theme of civil discord is pervasive,<ref>Krasne, p. 39, with n. 24; Sanderson, pp. 303&ndash;304.</ref> also mentions the goddess. In Book 2, Discordia, among other personifications, hurries to assist [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ("the Martian consort") to incite the women of [[Lemnos]] to make (civil) war on their husbands:<ref>Bloch, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia].</ref>
{{Blockquote|Straightway Fear and insensate Strife [''Discordia''] from her Getic lair, dark-browed Anger with pale cheeks, Treachery, Frenzy and towering above the rest Death, her cruel hands bared, come hastening up at the first sound of the Martian consort's pealing voice that gave the signal.|[[Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]], ''Argonautica'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/valerius_flaccus-argonautica/1934/pb_LCL286.87.xml 2.204]; translation by J. H. Mozley}}
Later in Book 6, Valerius, describing the crashing chariots of the warring [[Colchian]] brothers [[Aeetes]] and [[Perses (brother of Aeetes)|Perses]], has: "the curved blades doth discord [''discordia''] entangle and lacerate the panic-stricken cars", then goes on to liken the battle between the two brothers to Roman civil war.<ref>Bernstein, p. 16; [[Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]], ''Argonautica'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/valerius_flaccus-argonautica/1934/pb_LCL286.331.xml 6.400&ndash;406]: "As when fierce Tisiphone stirs Roman legions and their princes to war, whose lines on either side glitter with the same eagles and spears".</ref> While preparing Jason for his encounter with the [[Colchis Bulls]],  [[Medea]] handing him his helm says: "take again this crested helm which Discord [''Discordia''] held but now in her death-bringing hand".<ref>[[Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]], ''Argonautica'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/valerius_flaccus-argonautica/1934/pb_LCL286.395.xml 7.467&ndash;468].</ref>

Discordia is also mentioned in non-epic poetry, also often associated with Roman civil war. She makes an appearance in a civil war parody in [[Petronius]]'s ''[[Satyricon]]'' (late first century AD), where she is described as follows:<ref>Bernstein, p. 16.</ref>

{{blockquote|Discord [''Discordia''] with disheveled hair raised her Stygian head up toward the gods of heaven. On her face blood had clotted, tears ran from her bruised eyes, her teeth covered in rusty scales were eaten away, her tongue was dripping with decaying matter, her face beset with snakes, beneath her torn clothes her breasts writhed, and in her bloody hand she waved a quivering torch.|[[Petronius]], ''[[Satyricon]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/petronius-satyricon/2020/pb_LCL015.357.xml 124.271&ndash;277]; translation by Gareth Schmeling}}

Urging all to war&mdash;in particular several notable figures in Caesar's civil war: [[Julius Caesar]], [[Pompey the Great]], [[Gaius Claudius Marcellus (consul 49 BC)|Marcellus]], [[Gaius Scribonius Curio (tribune 50 BC)|Curio]], [[Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus|Lentulus]]&mdash;Discordia:
{{Blockquote|spewed forth these words from her maddened breast: ‘All nations, take up arms now and fill your hearts with fire, take up arms, and hurl torches into the hearts of cities. Whoever hides from the fray will be lost; let no woman delay, no child, no man wasted by old age; let the earth itself quake and the shattered houses join the fight. You, Marcellus, uphold the law. You, Curio, stir up the rabble crowds. You, Lentulus, do not slow down the god of war. You, divine Caesar, why are you a laggard in your arms, why do you not break down the gates, why do you not strip the towns of their walls, and seize their treasures? You, Pompey the Great, do you not know how to defend Rome's citadels? So, seek out the alien walls of Epidamnus, and stain red the bays of Thessaly with human blood.’ All was done on earth, just as Discord ordered it.|[[Petronius]], ''[[Satyricon]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/petronius-satyricon/2020/pb_LCL015.357.xml 124.282&ndash;295]; translation by Gareth Schmeling}}

===Early Fifth-century===
Discordia's opposite, [[Concordia (mythology)|Concordia]] ("Concord"), the Roman equivalent of the Greek [[Harmonia]] ("Harmony"), was a Roman goddess who had a temple (the [[Temple of Concord]]) dedicated to her in the [[Roman Forum]].
The opposition between ''concordia'' (concord) and ''discordia'' (discord), and their personifications Concordia and Discordia&mdash;a dichotomy made use of by Virgil in the ''Aeneid''&mdash;becomes, for late antiquity Latin poets, "something of an obsession".<ref>Hardie, pp. 4, 48.</ref>

[[Augustine]], in his  ''[[The City of God|City of God]]'' (426 AD)&mdash;responding to the accusation that the 410 AD [[Sack of Rome (410)|Sack of Rome]] was the result of Christianity and the failure to appease the pagan gods&mdash;argues that Rome's pre-Christian history, which was rife with civil discord and civil war, might just as well be said to have been the result of Rome's failure to appease Discordia.<ref>Hardie, pp. 110&ndash;111; [[Augustine]], ''[[The City of God|City of God]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/augustine-city_god_pagans/1957/pb_LCL411.375.xml 3.25].</ref> He notes that, following the dedication of the Temple of Concord in Rome,<ref>Presumably referring to the reconstruction of the temple by [[Lucius Opimius]], following the death of [[Gaius Gracchus]] in 121 BC.</ref> there was even worse civil discord, and remarks sarcastically that it would have been more appropriate for Rome to have built instead a "temple to Discord".<ref>Compare [[Plutarch]], ''Lives. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-lives_tiberius_gaius_gracchus/1921/pb_LCL102.239.xml 17], where Plutarch reports that following "the erection of a temple of Concord by Opimius ... at night, beneath the inscription on the temple, somebody carved this verse:—''A work of mad discord produces a temple of Concord.''".</ref> He goes on to ask "why Concord should be a goddess, but Discord not", and&mdash;in what he describes as having "our fun with such inanities"&mdash; concludes that:
{{blockquote|Thus the Romans to their peril chose to live under the menace of so evil a goddess unplacated, and never reflected that the tale of Troy and its destruction begins with the resentment of Discord. You know, of course, that when she was not invited with the other gods, she contrived to set three goddesses disputing by placing before them the golden apple. Hence the quarrel of the deities, the victory of Venus, the kidnapping of Helen and the destruction of Troy. It follows that if she was perhaps offended because she of all the gods had obtained no temple in the city, and was therefore already upsetting the state with such great tumults, she may well have been far more fiercely aroused when she saw erected a temple to her adversary on the spot where that slaughter—the spot where her handiwork, that is—had taken place!|[[Augustine]], ''[[The City of God|City of God]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/augustine-city_god_pagans/1957/pb_LCL411.375.xml 3.25]; translation by George E. McCracken}}

The opposition of Concordia and Discordia is particularly explicit in the Christian poet [[Prudentius]]'s early fifth-century allegory ''[[Psychomachia]]'' ("Battle of the Soul"), in which armies of personified Virtues and Vices do battle.<ref>Hardie pp. 5, 49.</ref> Here the Vice Discordia becomes explicitly identified with religious heresy. After the army of Vices had been defeated, Discordia, in disguise, entered the camp of the celebrating Virtues, seeking to attack surreptitiously the "greatest" of the Virtues Concordia:<ref>Hardie, p. 118; [[Prudentius]], ''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.327.xml 683&ndash;684]</ref>
{{blockquote|wearing the counterfeit shape of a friend. Her torn mantle and her whip of many snakes were left lying far behind amid the heaps of dead on the field of battle, while she herself, displaying her hair wreathed with leafy olive, answered cheerfully the joyous revellers. But she has a dagger hidden under her raiment, seeking to attack thee, thou greatest of Virtues, thee alone, Concord, of all this number, with bitter treachery.|[[Prudentius]], ''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.327.xml 684&ndash;691]; translation by H. J. Thomson}}

But Discordia is discovered, and with the army of Virtues, swords drawn, surrounding her and demanding to know "her race and name, her country and her faith, what God she worships, of what nation he that sent her",<ref>[[Prudentius]], ''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.329.xml 705&ndash;708].</ref> she answers:
{{blockquote|I am called Discord, and my other name is Heresy. The God I have is variable, now lesser, now greater, now double, now single; when I please, he is unsubstantial, a mere apparition, or again the soul within us, when I choose to make a mock of his divinity. My teacher is Belial, my home and country the world.|[[Prudentius]], ''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.329.xml 709&ndash;714]; translation by H. J. Thomson}}

At which point Faith, the Virtues' queen, unwilling to hear any more of their "outrageous prisoner’s blasphemies", stopped Discordia's speech by driving a javelin through her tongue,<ref>''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.329.xml 715&ndash;718]</ref> and:
{{blockquote|Countless hands tear the deadly beast in pieces, each seizing bits to scatter to the breezes, or throw to the dogs, or proffer to the devouring carrion crows, or thrust into the foul, stinking sewers, or give to the sea-monsters for their own. The whole corpse is torn asunder and parcelled out to unclean creatures; so perishes frightful Heresy, rent limb from limb.|[[Prudentius]], ''[[Psychomachia]]'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/prudentius-fight_mansoul/1949/pb_LCL387.329.xml 719&ndash;725]; translation by H. J. Thomson}}

[[Martianus Capella]] (fl. c. 410–420), has Discordia, along with Seditio (Sedition) as being a deity of the third celestial region.<ref>Block, [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia]; Petrovicova, [https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA536929195&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00445975&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=mlin_oweb&isGeoAuthType=true&aty=geo "Martianus Capella's interpretation of Juno"]; [[Martianus Capella]] 1.47.</ref>

==Modern culture==
Discordia/Eris is an important figure within the [[new religious movement]] [[Discordianism]].<ref>Cusack, pp. 27&ndash;30.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Illa de la Discòrdia]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Augustine]]. ''City of God, Volume I: Books 1-3.'' Translated by George E. McCracken. Loeb Classical Library 411. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1957. {{isbn|978-0-674-99452-2}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL411/1957/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* Bernstein, Neil W., "Introduction" and "Commentary", in {{cite book |translator=Neil W. Bernstein |year=2022 |title=Silius Italicus: Punica, Book 9: Edited with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-883816-6}}
* Bloch, Rene [https://referenceworks-brill-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/display/entries/NPOE/e321400.xml s.v. Discordia], in [https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/package/bnpo ''Brill's New Pauly Online''], Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and, Helmuth Schneider, English Edition by: Christine F. Salazar, Classical Tradition volumes edited by: Manfred Landfester, English Edition by: Francis G. Gentry, published online: 2006.
* Cusack, Carole M., ''Invented Religions: Imagination, Fiction and Faith'', Ashgate, 2010. {{isbn|978-0-754-66780-3}}.
* [[Ennius]],  ''Fragmentary Republican Latin, Volume I: Ennius, Testimonia. Epic Fragments.'' Edited and translated by Sander M. Goldberg, Gesine Manuwald. [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 294. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99701-1}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL294/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* Fantham, Elaine, "12 Discordia Fratrum: Aspects of Lucan's Conception of Civil War", in ''Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars''. Editors: Brian Breed,  Cynthia Damon, and  Andreola Rossi. Oxford University Press. 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-199-86649-6}}. pp.&nbsp;207&ndash;220. [https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.003.0013 Online version at Oxford Academic].
* [[Timothy Gantz|Gantz, Timothy]], ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Two volumes: {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5360-9}} (Vol. 1), {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5362-3}} (Vol. 2).
* Gildenhad, Ingo, ''Virgil, ''Aeneid'', 4.1&ndash;299: Latin Text, Study Questions, Commentary and Interpretive Essays'', OpenBook Publishers, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-909254-17-6}}. [https://www.openbookpublishers.com/books/10.11647/obp.0023 Online version at OpenBook Publishers]
* Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"'', Psychology Press, 2004, {{ISBN|9780415186360}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC Google Books].
* Hardie, Philip, ''Classicism and Christianity in Late Antique Latin Poetry'', University of California Press, 2019. {{isbn|9780520968424}}. [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520968424/html Online version at De Gruyter].
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* Hyginus, ''[[Fabulae]]'' in ''Apollodorus' ''Library'' and Hyginus' ''Fabulae'': Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma'', Hackett Publishing Company,  2007. {{ISBN|978-0-87220-821-6}}.
* [[Lucan]]. ''The Civil War (Pharsalia)''. Translated by J. D. Duff. [[Loeb Classical Library]] 220. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1928. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99242-9}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL220/1928/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* Krasne, Darcy, "When the Argo Met the Argo: Poetic Destruction in Valerius' ''Argonautica'', in ''Flavian Poetry and its Greek Past'', edited by Antony Augoustakis, Brill, Lieden, Boston, 2014. {{isbn|978-9-004-26649-0}}. pp. 33&ndash;48.
* [[Glenn W. Most|Most, G.W.]], ''Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia,'' Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, [[Harvard University Press]], 2018. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99720-2}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL057/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* Petrovicova, Katarina, "Martianus Capella's interpretation of Juno", in ''Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae'', vol. 57 -3, no. 2, June 2017, pp.&nbsp;279+. [https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA536929195&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00445975&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=mlin_oweb&isGeoAuthType=true&aty=geo Online version at Gale Academic OneFile]
* [[Petronius]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]. ''Satyricon. Apocolocyntosis''. Edited and translated by Gareth Schmeling. [[Loeb Classical Library]] NO. 15. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2020. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99737-0}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL015/2020/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* [[Plutarch]], ''Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus'', translated by Bernadotte Perrin, [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 102, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1921. {{isbn|978-0-674-99113-2}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL102/1921/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].

[[Prudentius]], ''Preface. Daily Round. Divinity of Christ. Origin of Sin. Fight for Mansoul. Against Symmachus 1''. Translated by H. J. Thomson. [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 387. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1949. {{isbn|978-0-674-99426-3}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL387/1949/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].

* Sanderson, Elaine, C., "Kin Conflicts and Stasis: Civil War on Peace in Valerius Flaccus' ''Argonautica''", in ''The Classical Quarterly'' 2002. 72.1 pp.&nbsp;303–315. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/kin-conflicts-and-stasis-civil-war-on-peuce-in-valerius-flaccus-argonautica/C60D228BDA1C723DF5A89219C85B87D6 Online version at Cambridge University Press].
* [[Statius]], ''Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley'', Volume II, ''Thebaid'', Books V&ndash;XII, ''Achilleid'', [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. {{ISBN|978-0674992283}}. [https://archive.org/stream/statiuswithengli02statuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Internet Archive].
* [[Valerius Flaccus (poet)|Valerius Flaccus]], ''Argonautica'', translated by J. H. Mozley, [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 286. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL286/1934/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' [books 1&ndash;6], in ''Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid: Books 1-6'', translated by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold, [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 63, Cambridge, Massachusetts, [[Harvard University Press]], 1999.  {{ISBN|978-0-674-99583-3}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL063/1916/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].
* [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]''  [books 7&ndash;12], in ''Aeneid: Books 7-12. Appendix Vergiliana'', translated by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold, [[Loeb Classical Library]] No. 64, Cambridge, Massachusetts, [[Harvard University Press]], 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-674-99586-4}}. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL064/1918/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press].

[[Category:Personifications in Roman mythology]]
[[Category:Roman goddesses]]
[[Category:Chaos goddesses]]