Editing Dirty bomb

{{short description|Type of radiological weapon}}
{{about }}
{{distinguish|text=[[Salted bomb|salted bombs]]}}
{{terrorism}}
A '''dirty bomb''' or '''radiological dispersal device''' is a [[radiological weapon]] that combines radioactive material with conventional explosives. The purpose of the weapon is to contaminate the area around the dispersal agent/conventional explosion with radioactive material, serving primarily as an [[area denial]] device against civilians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bioterrorism.slu.edu/bt/products/ahec_rad/ppt/Dirty%20Bomb.ppt |title=Dirty Bomb |access-date=2014-01-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020010837/http://bioterrorism.slu.edu/bt/products/ahec_rad/ppt/Dirty%20Bomb.ppt |archive-date=2011-10-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://video.yahoo.com/watch/213659/1198382 |title=Yahoo Screen - Watch videos online |date=23 March 2015 |work=Yahoo Screen |access-date=30 March 2015 }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5173310.stm |title=BBC NEWS - Science/Nature - Chernobyl's 'nuclear nightmares'|date=13 July 2006|access-date=30 March 2015}}</ref> It is not to be confused with a nuclear explosion, such as a [[fission bomb]], which produces [[explosion|blast]] effects far in excess of what is achievable by the use of conventional explosives. Unlike the [[Fallout|rain of radioactive material from a typical fission bomb]], a dirty bomb's radiation can be dispersed only within a few hundred meters or a few miles of the explosion.<ref name= "nrc.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fs-dirty-bombs.html|title=Backgrounder on Dirty Bombs|website = NRC.gov|date = 23 February 2022}}</ref>

Dirty bombs have never been used, only tested. They are designed to disperse radioactive material over a certain area. They act through the effects of [[radioactive contamination]] on the environment and [[Radioactive contamination#Health effects of contamination|related health effects]] of [[Acute radiation syndrome|radiation poisoning]] in the affected populations. The containment and [[Human decontamination|decontamination]] of victims, as well as decontamination of the affected area require considerable time and expenses, rendering areas partly unusable and causing economic damage. Dirty bombs might be used to create [[mass panic]] as a weapon of [[terrorism|terror]].

== Effect of a dirty bomb explosion ==
When dealing with the implications of a dirty bomb attack, there are two main areas to be addressed: the [[civilian]] impact, not only dealing with immediate casualties and long term health issues, but also the [[psychological]] effect, and the economic impact. With no prior event of a dirty bomb detonation, it is considered difficult to predict the impact. Several analyses have predicted that radiological dispersal devices will neither sicken nor kill many people.<ref>Reshetin (2005); Dingle (2005)</ref>

;Differences between dirty bombs and fission bombs
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 50%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|width="50%"|'''Dirty bomb'''
* Explosives combined with radioactive materials
* Detonation vaporizes or aerosolizes radioactive material and propels it into the air
* Not a nuclear detonation
|width="50%"|'''Fission bomb'''
* Caused by an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction with highly enriched uranium or weapons-grade plutonium
* Sphere of fissile material ([[Pit (nuclear weapon)|pit]]) surrounded by explosive lenses
* Initial explosion produces imploding shock wave that compresses pit inward, creating [[Critical mass|supercritical mass]] by increasing the density of fissile material. Neutrons from either [[modulated neutron initiator]] or external [[neutron generator]] start chain reaction in compressed pit
* Resulting fission chain reaction causes bomb to explode with tremendous force: nuclear detonation
|}
Source: Adapted from Levi MA, Kelly HC. "Weapons of mass disruption". ''Sci Am.'' 2002 Nov;287(5):76-81.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Levi |first1=Michael A. |last2=Kelly |first2=Henry C. |date=November 2002 |title=Weapons of Mass Disruption |journal=Scientific American |volume=287 |issue=5 |pages=76–81 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1102-76 |pmid=12395729 |bibcode=2002SciAm.287e..76L |issn=0036-8733}}</ref>

== Accidents with radioactives ==
{{See also|Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents|Goiânia accident}}
The effects of uncontrolled [[radioactive contamination]] have been reported several times.

One example is the [[Goiania accident|radiological accident]] occurring in [[Goiânia]], Brazil, between September 1987 and March 1988: Two [[metal theft|metal scavengers]] broke into an abandoned [[radiotherapy]] clinic and removed a [[teletherapy]] source capsule containing powdered caesium-137 with an activity of 50 T[[Becquerel|Bq]]. They brought it back to the home of one of the men to take it apart and sell as scrap metal. Later that day both men were showing acute signs of radiation illness with [[vomiting]] and one of them had a swollen hand and [[diarrhea]]. A few days later one of the men punctured the {{convert|1|mm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} thick window of the capsule, allowing the [[caesium chloride]] powder to leak out and when realizing the powder glowed blue in the dark, brought it back home to his family and friends to show it off. After two weeks of spread by contact contamination causing an increasing number of adverse health effects, the correct diagnosis of acute [[radiation sickness]] was made at a hospital and proper precautions could be put into procedure. By this time 249 people were contaminated, 151 exhibited both external and internal contamination, of whom 20 people were seriously ill and five people died.<ref>King (2004); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004); Sohier and Hardeman (2006)</ref>

The Goiânia incident to some extent predicts the contamination pattern if it is not immediately realized that the explosion spread radioactive material, but also how fatal even very small amounts of ingested radioactive powder can be.<ref name="Zimmerman and Loeb">Zimmerman and Loeb (2004)</ref> This raises worries of terrorists using powdered [[alpha particle|alpha]] emitting material, that if ingested can pose a serious health risk,<ref>Mullen et al. (2002); Reshetin (2005)</ref> as [[Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko|in the case of Alexander Litvinenko]], who was poisoned by tea with [[polonium-210]]. "Smoky bombs" based on alpha emitters might be just as dangerous as [[beta particle|beta]] or [[gamma ray|gamma]] emitting dirty bombs.<ref>Zimmerman (2006)</ref>

== Public perception of risks ==
Although the exposure might be minimal, many people find radiation exposure especially frightening because it is something they cannot see or feel, and it therefore becomes an unknown source of danger.<ref>Johnson (2003)</ref>  When United States Attorney General [[John Ashcroft]] on June 10, 2002, announced the arrest of [[José Padilla (prisoner)|José Padilla]], allegedly plotting to detonate such a weapon, he said:

{{Blockquote|[A] radioactive "dirty bomb"&nbsp;... spreads radioactive material that is highly toxic to humans and can cause mass death and injury.|Attorney General John Ashcroft<ref name="Zimmerman and Loeb"/>}}

This public fear of radiation also plays a big role in why the costs of a radiological dispersal device impact on a major metropolitan area (such as lower Manhattan) might be equal to or even larger than that of the 9/11 attacks.<ref name="Zimmerman and Loeb"/> Assuming the radiation levels are not too high and the area does not need to be abandoned such as the town of [[Prypiat (city)|Pripyat]] near the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant|Chernobyl reactor]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010210215449/http://www.time.com/time/daily/chernobyl/860623.pixact.html "The Lifeless Silence of Pripyat"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', June 23, 1986.</ref> an expensive and time-consuming cleanup procedure will begin. This will mainly consist of tearing down highly contaminated buildings, digging up contaminated soil and quickly applying sticky substances to remaining surfaces so that radioactive particles adhere before radioactivity penetrates the building materials.<ref>Vantine and Crites (2002); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004); Weiss (2005)</ref> These procedures are the current state of the art for [[radioactive contamination]] cleanup, but some experts say that a complete cleanup of external surfaces in an urban area to current decontamination limits may not be technically feasible.<ref name="Zimmerman and Loeb"/> Loss of working hours will be vast during cleanup, but even after the radiation levels reduce to an acceptable level, there might be residual public fear of the site including possible unwillingness to conduct business as usual in the area. [[tourism|Tourist traffic]] is likely never to resume.<ref name="Zimmerman and Loeb"/>

== Dirty bombs and terrorism ==
{{Further|Nuclear terrorism}}
{{See also|Crimes involving radioactive substances}}
[[File:Nuclear Security in Big Cities (05pea0943) (45273402825).jpg|thumb|2018 exercise by the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] simulating a dirty bomb attack.]]
Since the [[9/11]] attacks, the fear of terrorist groups using dirty bombs has increased, which has been frequently reported in the media.<ref name="Petroff 2007">Petroff (2007)</ref> The meaning of terrorism used here, is described by the [[U.S. Department of Defense]]'s definition, which is "the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/t/7591.html|title=terrorism|access-date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110122848/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/t/7591.html |archive-date=10 November 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all|website = dtic.mil}}</ref>

=== Constructing and obtaining material for a dirty bomb ===
In order for a terrorist organization to construct and detonate a dirty bomb, it must acquire radioactive material. Possible radiological dispersal device material could come from the millions of radioactive sources used worldwide in the industry, for medical purposes and in academic applications mainly for research.<ref>Ferguson et al. (2003); Frost (2005)</ref> Of these sources, only nine reactor-produced [[isotope]]s stand out as being suitable for radiological terror: [[americium-241]], [[californium-252]], [[caesium-137]], [[cobalt-60]], [[iridium-192]], [[plutonium-238]], [[polonium-210]], [[radium-226]] and [[strontium-90]],<ref name="Frost">Frost (2005)</ref> and even from these it is possible that radium-226 and polonium-210 do not pose a significant threat.<ref name="Ferguson">Ferguson et al. (2003)</ref> Of these sources the U.S. [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]] has estimated that within the U.S., approximately one source is lost, abandoned or stolen every day of the year. Within the [[European Union]] the annual estimate is 70.<ref>Ferguson et al. (2003); Zimmerman and Loeb (2004)</ref> There exist thousands of such "orphan" sources scattered throughout the world, but of those reported lost, no more than an estimated 20 percent can be classified as potential high security concerns if used in a radiological dispersal device.<ref name="Ferguson"/> Russia is believed to house thousands of orphan sources, which were lost following the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]]. A large but unknown number of these sources probably belong to the high security risk category. These include the beta-emitting strontium-90 sources used as [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s for [[beacon]]s in lighthouses in remote areas of Russia.<ref>Burgess (2003); Van Tuyle and Mullen (2003); Sohier and Hardeman (2006)</ref> In December 2001, three [[Georgians|Georgian]] woodcutters stumbled over such a power generator and dragged it back to their camp site to use it as a heat source. Within hours they suffered from acute radiation sickness and sought hospital treatment. The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) later stated that it contained approximately {{convert|40|kCi|PBq|lk=on}} of strontium,<ref name="february" /> equivalent to the amount of radioactivity released immediately after the [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl accident]] (though the total radioactivity release from Chernobyl was 2500 times greater at around {{convert|100|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}}<ref name= "Hyperphysics">{{cite web|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/cherno2.html|title=Chernobyl|access-date=|first = R|last = Nave|website = HyperPhysics |publisher = gsu.edu}}</ref>).

Although a terrorist organization might obtain radioactive material through the "[[black market]]",<ref>King (2004); Hoffman (2006)</ref> and there has been a steady increase in illicit trafficking of radioactive sources from 1996 to 2004, these recorded trafficking incidents mainly refer to rediscovered orphan sources without any sign of criminal activity,<ref name="Frost"/> and it has been argued that there is no conclusive evidence for such a market.<ref>Belyaninov (1994); Frost (2005)</ref> In addition to the hurdles of obtaining usable radioactive material, there are several conflicting requirements regarding the properties of the material the terrorists need to take into consideration: First, the source should be "sufficiently" radioactive to create direct radiological damage at the explosion or at least to perform societal damage or disruption. Second, the source should be transportable with enough shielding to protect the carrier, but not so much that it will be too heavy to maneuver. Third, the source should be sufficiently dispersible to effectively contaminate the area around the explosion.<ref name="Sohier and Hardeman">Sohier and Hardeman (2006)</ref>

=== Possibility of use by terrorist groups ===
The first attempt of radiological terror was reportedly carried out in November 1995 by a group of [[Chechen–Russian conflict|Chechen separatists]], who buried a [[caesium-137]] source wrapped in explosives at the [[Izmaylovsky Park]] in [[Moscow]]. A Chechen rebel leader alerted the media, the bomb was never activated, and the incident amounted to a mere [[publicity stunt]].<ref>King (2004)</ref><ref name = february>{{cite web|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/dirtybomb/chrono.html |work=NOVA|title= Chronology of events|first1= Lexi |last1=Krock |first2= Rebecca|last2= Deusser|date = February 2003}}</ref> In December 1998, a second attempt was announced by the Chechen Security Service, who discovered a container filled with radioactive materials attached to an explosive mine. The bomb was hidden near a railway line in the suburban area [[Argun, Chechen Republic|Argun]], ten miles east of the Chechen capital of [[Grozny]]. The same Chechen separatist group was suspected to be involved.<ref>Edwards (2004)</ref><ref name = february/>

On 8 May 2002, [[José Padilla (prisoner)|José Padilla]] (a.k.a. Abdulla al-Muhajir) was arrested on suspicion that he was an al-Qaeda terrorist planning to detonate a dirty bomb in the U.S. This suspicion was raised by information obtained from an arrested terrorist in U.S. custody, [[Abu Zubaydah]], who under interrogation revealed that the organization was close to constructing a dirty bomb. Although Padilla had not obtained radioactive material or explosives at the time of arrest, law enforcement authorities uncovered evidence that he was on reconnaissance for usable radioactive material and possible locations for detonation.<ref>Ferguson et al. (2003); Hosenball et al. (2002)</ref> It has been doubted whether José Padilla was preparing such an attack, and it has been claimed that the arrest was highly politically motivated, given the pre-9/11 security lapses by the [[CIA]] and [[FBI]].<ref>Burgess (2003); King (2004)</ref>

In 2006, [[Dhiren Barot]] from North London pleaded guilty of conspiring to murder people in the United Kingdom and United States using a radioactive dirty bomb. He planned to target underground [[car park]]s within the UK and buildings in the U.S. such as the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Bank]] buildings in [[Washington D.C.]], the [[New York Stock Exchange]], [[Citigroup]] buildings and the [[Prudential Financial]] buildings in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. He also faces 12 other charges including, [[conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] to commit [[public nuisance]], seven charges of making a record of information for terrorist purposes and four charges of possessing a record of information for terrorist purposes. Experts say if the plot to use the dirty bomb was carried out "it would have been unlikely to cause deaths, but was designed to affect about 500 people".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6044938.stm | work=BBC News | title=Man admits UK-US terror bomb plot | date=2006-10-12 | access-date=2010-04-01}}</ref>

In January 2009, a leaked FBI report described the results of a search of the Maine home of James G. Cummings, a [[white supremacy|white supremacist]] who had been shot and killed by his wife. Investigators found four one-gallon containers of 35 percent hydrogen peroxide, uranium, thorium, lithium metal, aluminium powder, [[beryllium]], boron, black iron oxide and magnesium as well as literature on how to build dirty bombs and information about caesium-137, strontium-90 and cobalt-60, radioactive materials.<ref>[http://www.bangornews.com/detail/99263.html Report: 'Dirty bomb' parts found in slain man's home] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214140020/http://bangornews.com/detail/99263.html |date=2009-02-14 }}, ''Bangor Daily News'', 10 February 2009</ref> Officials confirmed the veracity of the report but stated that the public was never at risk.<ref>[http://www.bangornews.com/detail/99310.html Officials verify dirty bomb probe results] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213211427/http://bangornews.com/detail/99310.html |date=2009-02-13 }}, ''Bangor Daily News'', 11 February 2009</ref>

In July 2014, [[Islamic State of Iraq and Syria|ISIS]] militants seized {{convert|88|lb}} of uranium compounds from [[Mosul University]]. The material was unenriched and so could not be used to build a conventional fission bomb, but a dirty bomb was a theoretical possibility. Nonetheless, uranium's relatively low radioactivity makes it a poor candidate for use in a dirty bomb.<ref name="isis">{{cite magazine |first=Stephanie |last=Burnett |date=July 10, 2014 |url=https://time.com/2972050/iraq-terrorist-nuclear-materials-isis/|title=Iraqi 'Terrorist Groups' Have Seized Nuclear Materials |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref name="isis2">{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/07/10/isis-seized-uranium-compounds-from-lab-experts-downplay-threat/|title=ISIS seizes uranium from lab; experts downplay 'dirty bomb' threat|website=[[Fox News]]|date=24 March 2015}}</ref>

Terrorist organizations may also capitalize on the [[Radiophobia|fear of radiation]] to create weapons of mass disruption rather than weapons of mass destruction. A fearful public response may in itself accomplish the goals of a terrorist organization to gain publicity or destabilize society.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Countering nuclear and radiological terrorism|last1=Samuel.|first1=Apikyan|last2=J.|first2=Diamond, David|last3=Greg.|first3=Kaser|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=140204920X|oclc=209940539}}</ref> Even simply stealing radioactive materials may trigger a panic reaction from the general public. Similarly, a small-scale release of radioactive materials or a threat of such a release may be considered sufficient for a terror attack.<ref name=":02"/> Particular concern is directed towards the medical sector and healthcare sites, which are "intrinsically more vulnerable than conventional licensed nuclear sites".<ref name=":02"/> Opportunistic attacks may range to even kidnapping patients whose treatment involve radioactive materials. In the [[Goiânia accident]], over 100,000 people admitted themselves to monitoring, while only 49 were admitted to hospitals. Other benefits to a terrorist organization of a dirty bomb include economic disruption in the area affected, abandonment of affected assets (such a buildings, subways) due to public concern, and international publicity useful for recruitment.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Terrorist "Dirty Bombs": A Brief Primer|last=Medalia|first=Jonathan|publisher=Congressional Research Service|pages=3–6}}</ref>

==Tests==
Israel carried out a four-year series of tests on nuclear explosives to measure the effects were hostile forces ever to use them against Israel, ''[[Haaretz]]'' reported in 2015. According to the report, high-level radiation was measured only at the center of the explosions, while the level of dispersal of radiation by particles carried by the wind (fallout) was low. The bombs reportedly did not pose a significant danger beyond their psychological effect.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/2015-06-08/ty-article/.premium/israel-tested-dirty-bomb-cleanup-in-the-desert/0000017f-e236-d7b2-a77f-e3371bd60000|title=Haaretz Exclusive: Israel Tested 'Dirty-bomb Cleanup' in the Desert|newspaper=Haaretz |date=8 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2015 |last1=Levinson |first1=Chaim }}</ref>

== Detection and prevention ==
Dirty bombs may be prevented by detecting illicit radioactive materials in shipping with tools such as a [[Radiation Portal Monitor]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=United States Customs and Border Protection's Radiation Portal Monitors at Seaports|last=Richards|first=Anne|publisher=Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General|year=2013}}</ref> Similarly, unshielded radioactive materials may be detected at checkpoints by [[Geiger counter]]s, gamma-ray detectors, and even Customs and Border Patrol (CBS) pager-sized radiation detectors.<ref name=":12"/> Hidden materials may also be detected by x-ray inspection and heat emitted may be picked up by infrared detectors. Such devices, however, may be circumvented by simply transporting materials across unguarded stretches of coastline or other barren border areas.<ref name=":12" />

One proposed method for detecting shielded Dirty Bombs is Nanosecond Neutron Analysis (NNA).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Prevention, detection and response to nuclear and radiological threats|last1=Samuel.|first1=Apikyan|last2=J.|first2=Diamond, David|last3=Ralph.|first3=Way|last4=Organization.|first4=North Atlantic Treaty|date=2008-01-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781402066573|oclc=171556526}}</ref> Designed originally for the detection of explosives and hazardous chemicals, NNA is also applicable to fissile materials. NNA determines what chemicals are present in an investigated device by analyzing emitted γ-emission neutrons and α-particles created from a reaction in the neutron generator. The system records the temporal and spatial displacement of the neutrons and α-particles within separate 3D regions.<ref name=":3" /> A prototype dirty-bomb detection device created with NNA is demonstrated to be able to detect uranium from behind a 5&nbsp;cm-thick lead wall.<ref name=":3" /> Other radioactive material detectors include Radiation Assessment and Identification (RAID) and Sensor for Measurement and Analysis of Radiation Transients, both developed by Sandia National Laboratories.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Chad|date=February 2006|title=Transcendental Terrorism And Dirty Bombs: Radiological Weapons Threat Revisited|journal=Occasional Paper: Center for Strategy and Technology|volume=54|pages=24–27}}</ref> [[Sodium iodide]] [[scintillator]] based aerial radiation detection systems are capable to detect [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) defined dangerous quantities of radioactive material <ref name="gtd">{{cite arXiv |last=Ritter |first=Sebastian |eprint=2111.07756 |title=Detection Limits of NaI Scintillator Detector Based Aerial Source Detection Systems |class=physics.ins-det |date= 2021}}</ref> and have been deployed by the [[New York City Police Department]] (NYPD) [[Counterterrorism]] Bureau.<ref name="gtn">{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/secret-nypd-plane-radioactive-material-exclusive-ride-investigation/296190/ |title=I-Team: Inside the NYPD's New Radiation-Detecting Plane |last1=Dienst |first1=Jonathan |last2=Paredes|first2=David |last3=Strich|first3=Emily| publisher=NBC 4 New York |date=October 6, 2017 |website=NBC New York |access-date=December 3, 2021}}</ref>

The IAEA recommends certain devices be used in tandem at country borders to prevent transfer of radioactive materials, and thus the building of dirty bombs.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Detection of radioactive materials at borders|last=atomique.|first=Agence internationale de l'énergie|date=2002-01-01|publisher=IAEA|isbn=9201161026|oclc=856404390}}</ref> They define the four main goals of radiation detection instruments as detection, verification, assessment and localization, and identification as a means to escalate a potential radiological situation. The IAEA also defines the following types of instruments:<ref name=":5" />
* Pocket-Type Instruments: these instruments provide a low-power, mobile option to detection that allows for security officers to passively scan an area for radioactive materials. These devices should be easily worn, should have an alarm threshold of three times normal radiation levels, and should have a long battery life - over 800 hours.
* Handheld Instruments: these instruments may be used to detect all types of radiation (including neutron) and may be used to search specific targets flexibly. These instruments should aim for ease of use and speed, ideally weighing less than 2&nbsp;kg and being able to make measurements in less than a second.
* Fixed, installed instruments: these instruments provide a continuous, automatic detection system that can monitor pedestrians and vehicles that pass through. To work effectively pedestrians and vehicles should be led close to the detectors, as performance is directly related to range.
Legislative and regulatory actions can also be used to prevent access to materials needed to create a dirty bomb. Examples include the 2006 U.S. Dirty Bomb Bill, the Yucca Flats proposal, and the Nunn-Lungar act.<ref name=":4" /> Similarly, close monitoring and restrictions of radioactive materials may provide security for materials in vulnerable private-sector applications, most notably in the medical sector where such materials are used for treatments.<ref name=":02"/> Suggestions for increased security include isolation of materials in remote locations and strict limitation of access.

One way to mitigate a major effect of a radiological weapons may also be to educate the public on the nature of radioactive materials. As one of the major concerns of a dirty bomb is the public panic proper education may prove a viable counter-measure.<ref name=":12" /> Education on radiation is considered by some to be "the most neglected issue related to radiological terrorism".<ref name=":02" />

== Personal safety ==
{{See also|Acute radiation syndrome}}

The dangers of a dirty bomb come from the initial blast and the radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1621-20490-3999/dirtybombfactsheet_final.pdf|title=Fact Sheet: Dirty Bomb|date=June 2007|website=www.fema.gov|access-date=April 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/dirtybombs.htm Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Dirty Bombs], by CDC</ref> To mitigate the risk of radiation exposure, FEMA suggests the following guidelines:
* Covering the mouth/nose with cloth to reduce risk of breathing in radioactive materials.
* Avoiding touching materials touched by the explosion.
* Quickly relocating inside to shield from radiation.
* Remove and pack up clothes. Keep clothes until instructed by authorities how to dispose of them.
* Keep radioactive dust outside.
* Remove all dust possible by showering with soap and water.
* Avoid taking [[potassium iodide]], as it only prevents effects from radioactive iodine and may instead cause a dangerous reaction.

== Treatment ==
{{As of|2023}}, research is under way to find radioactive decontanimation drugs to remove radioactive elements from the body. One drug candidate under investigation is [[HOPO 14-1]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-15 |title=First-in-human trial of oral drug to remove radioactive contamination begins |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/first-human-trial-oral-drug-remove-radioactive-contamination-begins |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=National Institutes of Health (NIH) |language=EN}}</ref>


==Other uses of the term==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2024}}
<!--- As stated in my previous edit summary: Restoring this section because it is linked to in at least one other article ([[List of military nuclear accidents]]).  If you want to delete it again, please add explanatory information to articles that link to it. --->
The term has also been used historically to refer to certain types of [[nuclear weapon]]s. Due to the inefficiency of early nuclear weapons, only a small amount of the [[nuclear material]] would be consumed during the explosion. [[Little Boy]] had an efficiency of only 1.4%. [[Fat Man]], which used a different design and a different [[fissile]] material, had an efficiency of 14%. Thus, they tended to disperse large amounts of unused [[fissile material]], and the [[fission product]]s, which are on average much more dangerous, in the form of [[nuclear fallout]]. During the 1950s, there was considerable debate over whether "clean" bombs could be produced and these were often contrasted with "dirty" bombs. "Clean" bombs were often a stated goal and scientists and administrators said that high-efficiency [[nuclear weapon design]] could create explosions that generated almost all of their energy in the form of [[nuclear fusion]], which does not create harmful fission products.

But the ''[[Castle Bravo]]'' accident of 1954, in which a [[nuclear weapon design|thermonuclear weapon]] produced a large amount of fallout that was dispersed among human populations, suggested that this was not what was actually being used in modern thermonuclear weapons, which derive around half of their yield from a final fission stage of the fast fissioning of the uranium tamper of the secondary. While some proposed producing "clean" weapons, other theorists noted that one could make a nuclear weapon intentionally "dirty" by "salting" it with a material, which would generate large amounts of long-lasting fallout when [[irradiation|irradiated]] by the weapon core. These are known as [[salted bomb]]s; a specific subtype often noted is a [[cobalt bomb]].

==In popular culture==
* In the 2018 video game ''[[Detroit: Become Human]]'', numerous endings depict Markus, one of three playable [[Android (robot)|android]] characters in the game, setting off a [[cobalt bomb|cobalt-derived]] dirty bomb in southern Detroit to force the retreat of authorities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hornshaw|first=Phil|title='Detroit: Become Human' endings guide|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/detroit-become-human-endings-guide/|website=[[Digital Trends]]|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614194619/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/detroit-become-human-endings-guide/|archive-date=14 June 2019|date=1 June 2018|quote=Under the right circumstances, North will tell Markus about a dirty bomb in Detroit during the Crossroads chapter. Taking the switch from her gives you the option to use it to force the authorities to spare the androids during the protest in Battle for Detroit.}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col begin}}
* [[Broken Arrow (nuclear)]]
* [[Crimes involving radioactive substances]]
* [[Improvised nuclear device]]
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
* [[Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear weapon design]]
* [[Operation Groundhog]]
* [[Radiation poisoning]]
* [[Radiological warfare]]
* [[Salted bomb]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{Citation
 | last =Belyaninov
 | first =K.
 | year =1994
 | title=Nuclear nonsense, black-market bombs, and fissile flim-flam
 | periodical=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
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==External links==
* U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, [https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fs-dirty-bombs.html Factsheet on Dirty Bombs]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820202226/http://www.crusade-media.com/news1.html Al Qaeda's Nuclear Options]—Crusade Media News
* Council on Foreign Relations, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022055/http://cfrterrorism.org/weapons/dirtybomb.html Terrorism Q&A: Dirty Bombs]
* U.S. Dep't of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration, [https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/emergencypreparedness/rdd_tech.html Radiological Dispersal Devices / Dirty Bombs]
* [https://fas.org/faspir/2002/v55n2/dirtybomb.htm Dirty bomb threat analysis]—[[Federation of American Scientists]]
* Health Physics Society, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050408132643/http://hps.org/hsc/documents/factsheet.pdf Factsheet]
* Health Physics Society, January 2004 study, [http://hps.org/documents/RDD_report.pdf Dirty Bombs Could Cause Devastating Economic Damage]
* CNN, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050123093858/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/HEALTH/06/10/dirty.bomb.health/ Explosion, not radiation, "dirty bomb's" worst fallout]
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/dirtybomb/ Dirty Bomb]—''NOVA'', PBS
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060716082832/http://www.tmia.com/industry/lost.html Lost and stolen nuclear materials in the US]—Three Mile Island Alert describes the problem
* [https://www.theguardian.com/media/2004/oct/15/broadcasting.bbc The making of the terror myth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707042024/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare%2FRadiological+Dispersal+Device+%28RDD%29 Annotated bibliography for dirty bombs from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
* [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/R41891.pdf "Dirty Bombs": Background in Brief] [[Congressional Research Service]]
* [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/R41890.pdf "Dirty Bombs": Technical Background, Attack Prevention and Response, Issues for Congress] [[Congressional Research Service]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dirty Bomb}}
[[Category:Bombs]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear terrorism]]
[[Category:Radiological weapons]]