Editing Dieting

{{short description|Regulation of the consumption of food}}
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'''Dieting''' is the practice of [[eating]] food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase [[body weight]], or to prevent and treat diseases such as [[diabetes]] and [[obesity]]. As weight loss depends on [[calorie]] intake, [[List of diets|different kinds]] of [[Calorie restriction|calorie-reduced]] diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients ([[low-fat diet|low-fat]], [[low-carbohydrate diet|low-carbohydrate]], etc.), have been shown to be no more effective than one another.<ref name=Strychar>{{cite journal | vauthors = Strychar I | title = Diet in the management of weight loss | journal = CMAJ | volume = 174 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–63 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16389240 | pmc = 1319349 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.045037 }}</ref><ref name="Thom2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thom G, Lean M | title = Is There an Optimal Diet for Weight Management and Metabolic Health? | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 152 | issue = 7 | pages = 1739–1751 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28214525 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.056 | url = http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/137779/7/137779.pdf | type = Review | access-date = 24 November 2019 | archive-date = 19 July 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180719104604/http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/137779/7/137779.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="JAMA Dieting Patient Page">{{cite journal | vauthors = Guth E | title = JAMA patient page. Healthy weight loss | journal = JAMA | volume = 312 | issue = 9 | pages = 974 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25182116 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2014.10929 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = sacks>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ, Smith SR, Ryan DH, Anton SD, McManus K, Champagne CM, Bishop LM, Laranjo N, Leboff MS, Rood JC, de Jonge L, Greenway FL, Loria CM, Obarzanek E, Williamson DA | display-authors = 6 | title = Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 360 | issue = 9 | pages = 859–873 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19246357 | pmc = 2763382 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0804748 }}</ref><ref name="Wadden2012" /> As weight regain is common, diet success is best predicted by long-term adherence.<ref name="Thom2017" /><ref name="Wadden2012" /><ref name="Anderson 579–584">{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson JW, Konz EC, Frederich RC, Wood CL | title = Long-term weight-loss maintenance: a meta-analysis of US studies | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 74 | issue = 5 | pages = 579–584 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11684524 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/74.5.579 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.<ref name="Thom2017" /><ref name="Mann2007"/>

The first popular diet was "Banting", named after [[William Banting]]. In his 1863 pamphlet, ''[[Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public]]'', he outlined the details of a particular low-carbohydrate, low-calorie diet that led to his own dramatic weight loss.<ref name="Jennifer Petrelli; Kathleen Y. Wolin 2009 11">{{cite book | vauthors = Petrelli J, Wolin KY |title=Obesity (Biographies of Disease) |publisher=Greenwood |location=Westport, Conn |year=2009 |pages=11 |isbn=978-0-313-35275-1}}</ref>

Some guidelines recommend dieting to [[Weight loss|lose weight]] for people with weight-related health problems, but not for otherwise healthy people.<ref name="harrington2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrington M, Gibson S, Cottrell RC | title = A review and meta-analysis of the effect of weight loss on all-cause mortality risk | journal = Nutrition Research Reviews | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–108 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19555520 | doi = 10.1017/S0954422409990035 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="USGuidelines2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, Ard JD, Comuzzie AG, Donato KA, Hu FB, Hubbard VS, Jakicic JM, Kushner RF, Loria CM, Millen BE, Nonas CA, Pi-Sunyer FX, Stevens J, Stevens VJ, Wadden TA, Wolfe BM, Yanovski SZ, Jordan HS, Kendall KA, Lux LJ, Mentor-Marcel R, Morgan LC, Trisolini MG, Wnek J, Anderson JL, Halperin JL, Albert NM, Bozkurt B, Brindis RG, Curtis LH, DeMets D, Hochman JS, Kovacs RJ, Ohman EM, Pressler SJ, Sellke FW, Shen WK, Smith SC, Tomaselli GF | display-authors = 6 | title = 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society | journal = Circulation | volume = 129 | issue = 25 Suppl 2 | pages = S102–S138 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24222017 | pmc = 5819889 | doi = 10.1161/01.cir.0000437739.71477.ee | type = Professional society guideline }}</ref> One survey found that almost half of all American adults attempt to lose weight through dieting, including 66.7% of obese adults and 26.5% of normal weight or underweight adults.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-07|title=Products - Data Briefs - Number 313 - July 2018|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db313.htm|access-date=2020-12-25|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|archive-date=12 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212001742/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db313.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Dieters who are [[overweight]] (but not obese), who are normal weight, or who are [[underweight]] may have an increased mortality rate as a result of dieting.<ref name="harrington2"/>

==History==
[[File:William Banting.png|thumb|[[William Banting]] popularized one of the first weight loss diets in the 19th century.]]
The word ''diet'' comes from the Greek ''[[wikt:δίαιτα#Ancient Greek|δίαιτα (diaita)]]'', which represents a notion of a whole way healthy lifestyle including both mental and physical health, rather than a narrow weight-loss regimen.<ref name="Foxcroft2012">{{cite book |vauthors=Foxcroft L |title=Calories & corsets : a history of dieting over 2,000 years |date=2014 |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1847654588 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ih5qnNit-KIC |access-date=6 June 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114192810/https://books.google.com/books?id=ih5qnNit-KIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20695743 | title=History's weirdest fad diets | work=BBC News | date=2 January 2013 | access-date=24 October 2019 | archive-date=30 June 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630112051/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20695743 | url-status=live }}</ref>

One of the first [[dietitian]]s was the English doctor [[George Cheyne (physician)|George Cheyne]]. He himself was tremendously overweight and would constantly eat large quantities of rich food and drink. He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and soon regained his health. He began publicly recommending his diet for everyone who was obese. In 1724, he wrote ''An Essay of Health and Long Life'', in which he advises exercise and fresh air and avoiding luxury foods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/cheyne.html|title=The Ethics of Diet - A Catena|access-date=17 December 2012|archive-date=20 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820151827/http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/cheyne.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Scottish military surgeon, [[John Rollo]], published ''Notes of a Diabetic Case'' in 1797. It described the benefits of a meat diet for those with [[diabetes]], basing this recommendation on [[Matthew Dobson (physician)|Matthew Dobson]]'s discovery of [[glycosuria]] in [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Joslin EP |title=Joslin's Diabetes Mellitus: Edited by C. Ronald Kahn ... [et Al.].|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohgjG0qAvfgC&pg=PA3|access-date=20 June 2013|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-2796-9|page=3}}</ref> By means of Dobson's testing procedure (for [[glucose]] in the urine) Rollo worked out a diet that had success for what is now called [[type 2 diabetes]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Chalem LD |title=Essential Diabetes Leadership|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-5BIoIJT5YC&pg=PA39|access-date=20 June 2013|date=5 September 2009|publisher=Laurence Chalem|isbn=978-1-4392-4566-8|page=39}}</ref>

The first popular diet was "Banting", named after the English [[undertaker]] [[William Banting]]. In 1863, he wrote a booklet called ''Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public'', which contained the particular plan for the diet he had successfully followed. His own diet was four meals per day, consisting of meat, greens, fruits, and dry wine. The emphasis was on avoiding sugar, sweet foods, starch, beer, milk and butter. Banting's pamphlet was popular for years to come, and would be used as a model for modern diets.<ref name=Britannica>{{cite EB1911
 | wstitle = Corpulence
 | volume = 7
 | pages = 192–193
 }}</ref> The pamphlet's popularity was such that the question "Do you bant?" referred to his method, and eventually to dieting in general.<ref name=Groves>{{Cite web | url = http://www.second-opinions.co.uk/banting.html | title = WILLIAM BANTING: The Father of the Low-Carbohydrate Diet | access-date = 26 December 2007 | vauthors = Groves B | year = 2002 | publisher = Second Opinions | archive-date = 11 June 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110611192236/http://www.second-opinions.co.uk/banting.html | url-status = live }}</ref> His booklet remains in print as of 2007.<ref name="Jennifer Petrelli; Kathleen Y. Wolin 2009 11"/><ref name=Cosimo>{{Cite book| vauthors = Banting W |title=Letter on Corpulence|orig-year=1863|url=http://www.cosimobooks.com/bookstore_a/book_description.php?book=83|access-date=28 December 2007|year=2005|publisher=Cosimo Classics|location=USA: New York|isbn=978-1-59605-085-3|pages=64 pages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708193412/http://www.cosimobooks.com/bookstore_a/book_description.php?book=83|archive-date=8 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 ''[[Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories]]'' by American physician and columnist [[Lulu Hunt Peters]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Kawash S |title = Candy: A Century of Panic and Pleasure|date = 2013|publisher = Faber & Faber, Incorporated|location = New York|isbn = 978-0-86547-756-8 |pages = 185–189}}</ref>

It was estimated that over 1000 weight-loss diets have been developed up to 2014.<ref name="Matarese2014" />

==Types ==
{{main|List of diets}}
A restricted [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] is most commonly pursued by those who want to [[weight loss|lose weight]]. Some people follow a diet to gain weight (such as people who are underweight or who are attempting to gain more [[skeletal muscle|muscle]]). Diets can also be used to maintain a stable body weight or to improve health.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Freire R | title = Scientific evidence of diets for weight loss: Different macronutrient composition, intermittent fasting, and popular diets | journal = Nutrition | volume = 69 | pages = 110549 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31525701 | doi = 10.1016/j.nut.2019.07.001 | s2cid = 198280773 }}</ref>

===Low-fat===
{{Main|Low-fat diet}}
Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet. Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sandrou |first1=D. K. |last2=Arvanitoyannis |first2=I. S. |date=2000 |title=Low-Fat/Calorie Foods: Current State and Perspectives |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408690091189211 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |language=en |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=427–447 |doi=10.1080/10408690091189211 |pmid=11029012 |s2cid=25469380 |issn=1040-8398 |access-date=14 August 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615152947/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408690091189211 |url-status=live }}</ref> Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12&nbsp;months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of {{convert|3.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} over habitual eating.<ref name=Strychar/>

A low-fat, plant-based diet has been found to improve control of weight, [[blood sugar level]]s, and [[cardiovascular health]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Trapp CB, Barnard ND | title = Usefulness of vegetarian and vegan diets for treating type 2 diabetes | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–158 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20425575 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-010-0093-7 | s2cid = 13151225 }}</ref>

===Low-carbohydrate===
{{Excerpt|Low-carbohydrate diet|paragraphs=1-4}}

===Low-calorie===
{{Main|Calorie restriction}}
Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a {{convert|0.5|to|1|kg|lb|abbr=off}} weight loss per week.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finkler |first1=Elissa |last2=Heymsfield |first2=Steven B. |last3=St-Onge |first3=Marie-Pierre |date=January 2012 |title=Rate of weight loss can be predicted by patient characteristics and intervention strategies |journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics |volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=75–80 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2011.08.034 |issn=2212-2672 |pmc=3447534 |pmid=22717178}}</ref> The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 [[randomized controlled trial]]s to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets. They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months.<ref name=Strychar/> Women doing low-calorie diets should have at least 1,000 calories per day and men should have approximately 1,200 calories per day. These caloric intake values vary depending on additional factors, such as age and weight.<ref name="Strychar" />

===Very low-calorie===
{{Main|Very low calorie diet}}
Very low calorie diets provide 200–800 calories per day, maintaining protein intake but limiting calories from both fat and carbohydrates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fock |first1=Kwong Ming |last2=Khoo |first2=Joan |date=2013 |title=Diet and exercise in management of obesity and overweight: Diet and exercise for weight management |journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |language=en |volume=28 |pages=59–63 |doi=10.1111/jgh.12407|pmid=24251706 |s2cid=28818676 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They subject the body to [[starvation]] and produce an average loss of {{convert|1.5|–|2.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per week.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} "2-4-6-8", a popular diet of this variety, follows a four-day cycle in which only 200 calories are consumed the first day, 400 the second day, 600 the third day, 800 the fourth day, and then totally [[fasting]], after which the cycle repeats.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} There is some evidence that these diets results in considerable weight loss.<ref name="Thom2017" /> These diets are not recommended for general use and should be reserved for the [[management of obesity]] as they are associated with [[Adverse effect (medicine)|adverse side effect]]s such as loss of lean muscle mass, increased risks of [[gout]], and [[electrolyte imbalance]]s. People attempting these diets must be monitored closely by a physician to prevent complications.<ref name=Strychar/>

The concept of crash dieting is to drastically reduce calories, using a very-low-calorie diet.<ref>{{cite web |title=How to diet |url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-weight/how-to-diet/ |website=nhs.uk |language=en |date=27 April 2018 |access-date=17 October 2019 |archive-date=22 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122105610/https://www.nhs.uk/livewell/loseweight/Pages/how-to-diet.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Take the test: Is an 800-calorie diet right for me? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/crash_diet_test |website=BBC Food |language=en |access-date=19 October 2019 |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618145752/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/crash_diet_test |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bonet |first1=Anna |title=Are crash diets ever a good idea for weight loss? |url=https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthy-eating/a25288668/are-crash-diets-bad-for-you/ |website=Netdoctor |date=28 November 2018 |quote='A crash diet is typically a very low-calorie diet, where you eat a very restrictively for a short period of time,' explains Registered Dietician, Helen Bond. |access-date=19 October 2019 |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707010239/https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthy-eating/a25288668/are-crash-diets-bad-for-you/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Crash diets can cause transient deterioration in heart function |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180202123836.htm |website=ScienceDaily |language=en |date=2018-02-02 |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429184602/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180202123836.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Crash dieting can be highly dangerous because it can cause various kind of issues for the human body. Crash dieting can produce weight loss but without professional supervision all along, the extreme reduction in calories and potential unbalance in the diet's composition can lead to detrimental effects, including sudden death.<ref>{{cite web |title=How crash diets harm your health - CNN.com |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/04/20/crash.diets.harm.health/index.html |website=www.cnn.com |language=en |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519105134/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/04/20/crash.diets.harm.health/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Fasting===
{{Main|Fasting|Intermittent fasting}}
Fasting is the act of intentional taking a long time interval between meals. Lengthy fasting (multiple days in a week) might be dangerous due to the risk of [[malnutrition]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Horne BD, Muhlestein JB, Anderson JL | title = Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? A systematic review | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 464–470 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26135345 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.115.109553 | doi-access = free }}</ref> During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the [[Human brain|brain]], causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores.<ref name=":1" /> Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolizing body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body.<ref name=":1" /> Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-30 |title=Intermittent Fasting Can Lead to Muscle Loss, But It Doesn't Have to – Here's Why |url=https://newjersey.jeffersonhealth.org/content/intermittent-fasting-can-lead-muscle-loss-it-doesn%E2%80%99t-have-%E2%80%93-here%E2%80%99s-why |access-date=2022-11-10 |website=Jefferson Health New Jersey |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110083145/https://newjersey.jeffersonhealth.org/content/intermittent-fasting-can-lead-muscle-loss-it-doesn%E2%80%99t-have-%E2%80%93-here%E2%80%99s-why |url-status=live }}</ref> although some{{who|date=April 2022}} dispute this.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of [[intermittent fasting]], have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent the issues of long fasting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horne |first1=Benjamin D |last2=Muhlestein |first2=Joseph B |last3=Anderson |first3=Jeffrey L |date=2015-08-01 |title=Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? A systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=464–470 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.115.109553 |pmid=26135345 |s2cid=1478175 |issn=0002-9165|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Intermittent fasting commonly takes the form of periodic fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted feeding, and/or religious fasting.<ref name=":1" /> It can be a form of reduced-calorie dieting but pertains entirely to when the metabolism is activated during the day for digestion. The changes to eating habits on a regular basis do not have to be severe or absolutely restrictive to see benefits to cardiovascular health, such as improved glucose metabolism, reduced inflammation, and reduced blood pressure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Amanda |last2=Gaballa |first2=Dianna |last3=Roslin |first3=Mitchell |last4=Gianos |first4=Eugenia |last5=Kane |first5=Jamie |date=July 2021 |title=Novel Nutritional and Dietary Approaches to Weight Loss for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Ketogenic Diet, Intermittent Fasting, and Bariatric Surgery |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11886-021-01515-1 |journal=Current Cardiology Reports |language=en |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=85 |doi=10.1007/s11886-021-01515-1 |pmid=34081228 |s2cid=235307329 |issn=1523-3782 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301012409/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11886-021-01515-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies have suggested that for people in [[intensive care]], an intermittent fasting regimen might "[preserve] energy supply to vital organs and tissues... [and] powerfully activates cell-protective and cellular repair pathways, including autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant defenses, which may promote resilience to cellular stress."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gunst J, Casaer MP, Langouche L, Van den Berghe G |title=Role of ketones, ketogenic diets and intermittent fasting in ICU |journal=Curr Opin Crit Care |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=385–389 |date=August 2021 |pmid=33967210 |doi=10.1097/MCC.0000000000000841 |s2cid=234345670 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/677319}}</ref> The effects of decreased serum glucose and depleted hepatic glycogen causing the body to switch to ketogenic metabolism are similar to the effects of reduced carbohydrate-based diets.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} There is evidence demonstrating profound metabolic benefits of intermittent fasting in rodents.<ref name=":1" /> However, evidence is lacking or contradictory in humans and requires further investigation, especially over the long-term.<ref name=":1" /> Some evidence suggests that intermittent restriction of caloric intake has no weight-loss advantages over continuous calorie restriction plans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Varady |first1=Krista A |last2=Bhutani |first2=Surabhi |last3=Church |first3=Emily C |last4=Klempel |first4=Monica C |date=2009-09-30 |title=Short-term modified alternate-day fasting: a novel dietary strategy for weight loss and cardioprotection in obese adults |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1138–1143 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.28380 |pmid=19793855 |issn=0002-9165|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> For adults, fasting diets appear to be safe and tolerable, however there is a possibility that periods of fasting and hunger could lead to overeating<ref name=":1" /> and to weight regain after the fasting period.<ref name=":1" /> Adverse effects of fasting are often moderate and include halitosis, fatigue, weakness, and headaches.<ref name=":1" /> Fasting diets may be harmful to children and the elderly.<ref name=":1" />

=== Exclusion Diet ===
This type of diet is based on the restriction of specific foods or food groups. Examples include gluten-free, Paleo, plant-based, and Mediterranean diets.

Plant-based diets include vegetarian and vegan diets, and can range from the simple exclusion of meat products to diets that only include raw vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, legumes, and sprouted grains.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Melina |first1=Vesanto |last2=Craig |first2=Winston |last3=Levin |first3=Susan |date=December 2016 |title=Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025 |journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics |volume=116 |issue=12 |pages=1970–1980 |doi=10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025 |pmid=27886704 |s2cid=4984228 |issn=2212-2672 |access-date=1 March 2024 |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707010241/https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/getSharedSiteSession?redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fandjrnl.org%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2212267216311923&rc=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Exclusion of animal products can reduce the intake of certain nutrients, which might lead to nutritional deficiencies of protein, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins D and B<sub>12</sub>.<ref name=":2" /> Therefore, long term implementation of a plant-based diet requires effective counseling and nutritional supplementation as necessary. Plant-based diets are effective for short-term treatment of overweight and obesity, likely due to the high consumption of low energy density foods.<ref name=":1" /> However, evidence for long-term efficacy is limited.<ref name=":1" />

The Paleo diet includes foods that it identifies as having been available to Paleolithic peoples<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agoulnik |first1=Dorothy |last2=Lalonde |first2=Mathieu Pascal |last3=Ellmore |first3=George S. |last4=McKeown |first4=Nicola M. |date=May 2021 |title=Part 1: The Origin and Evolution of the Paleo Diet |journal=Nutrition Today |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=94–104 |doi=10.1097/NT.0000000000000482 |s2cid=235398211 |issn=1538-9839|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Diet Review: Paleo Diet for Weight Loss |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/healthy-weight/diet-reviews/paleo-diet/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=9 October 2024}}</ref> including meat, nuts, eggs, some oils, fresh fruits, and vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> Overall, it is high in protein and moderate in fats and carbohydrates. Some limited evidence suggests various health benefits and effective weight loss with this diet. However, similar to the plant-based diet, the Paleo diet has potential nutritional deficiency risks, specifically with vitamin D, calcium, and iodine.<ref name=":1" />

Gluten-free diets are often used for weight loss but little has been studied about the efficacy of this diet and metabolic mechanism for its effectiveness is unclear.<ref name=":1" />

The Mediterranean diet is characterized by high consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole-grain cereals, seafood, olive oil, and nuts. Red meat, dairy and alcohol are only recommended in moderation. Studies show that the Mediterranean diet is associated with short term as well as long term weight loss in addition to health and metabolic benefits.<ref name=":1" />

===Detox===
{{Main|Detox diet}}
Detox diets are promoted with unsubstantiated claims that they can eliminate "toxins" from the human body. Many of these diets use [[herb]]s or [[celery]] and other juicy low-[[calorie]] [[vegetable]]s. Detox diets can include fasting or exclusion (as in [[juice fasting]]). Detox diets tend to result in short-term weight loss (because of calorie restriction), followed by weight gain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Obert |first1=Jonathan |last2=Pearlman |first2=Michelle |last3=Obert |first3=Lois |last4=Chapin |first4=Sarah |date=December 2017 |title=Popular Weight Loss Strategies: a Review of Four Weight Loss Techniques |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11894-017-0603-8 |journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports |language=en |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=61 |doi=10.1007/s11894-017-0603-8 |pmid=29124370 |s2cid=45802390 |issn=1522-8037 |access-date=1 March 2024 |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707010240/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11894-017-0603-8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Environmentally sustainable===
{{see also|Environmental vegetarianism}}
Another kind of diet focuses not on the dieter's health effects, but on its environment. The One Blue Dot plan of the BDA<ref>{{cite web|author1=BDA|date=20 November 2018|title=Environmentally sustainable diets are a Win-Win for the planet and health say dietitians|url=https://www.bda.uk.com/news/view?id=221&x[0]=news/list |access-date=22 October 2019|website=www.bda.uk.com}}</ref> offers recommendations towards reducing diets' environmental impacts, by:
# Reducing meat to 70g per person per day.
# Prioritising plant proteins.
# Promoting fish from sustainable sources.
# Moderate dairy consumption.
# Focusing on wholegrain starchy foods.
# Promoting seasonal locally sourced fruits and vegetables.
# Reducing high fat, sugar and salty foods overconsumption.
# Promoting tap water and unsweetened tea/coffee as the de facto choice for healthy hydration.
# Reducing [[food waste]].

==Effectiveness==
Several diets are effective for short-term [[management of obesity|weight loss]] for [[obesity|obese]] individuals,<ref name="USGuidelines2013"/><ref name="Thom2017" /> with diet success most predicted by adherence and little effect resulting from the type or brand of diet.<ref name="Thom2017" /><ref name="Wadden2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wadden TA, Webb VL, Moran CH, Bailer BA | title = Lifestyle modification for obesity: new developments in diet, physical activity, and behavior therapy | journal = Circulation | volume = 125 | issue = 9 | pages = 1157–1170 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22392863 | pmc = 3313649 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.039453 | type = Narrative review }}</ref><ref name="Matarese2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matarese LE, Pories WJ | title = Adult weight loss diets: metabolic effects and outcomes | journal = Nutrition in Clinical Practice | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 759–767 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25293593 | doi = 10.1177/0884533614550251 | type = Review }}</ref><ref name="Atallah2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Atallah R, Filion KB, Wakil SM, Genest J, Joseph L, Poirier P, Rinfret S, Schiffrin EL, Eisenberg MJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Long-term effects of 4 popular diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | journal = Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 815–827 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25387778 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.113.000723 | type = Systematic review of RCTs | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Johnstone2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnston BC, Kanters S, Bandayrel K, Wu P, Naji F, Siemieniuk RA, Ball GD, Busse JW, Thorlund K, Guyatt G, Jansen JP, Mills EJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Comparison of weight loss among named diet programs in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis | journal = JAMA | volume = 312 | issue = 9 | pages = 923–933 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25182101 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2014.10397 | type = Meta-analysis | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Ignatius2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zarraga IG, Schwarz ER | title = Impact of dietary patterns and interventions on cardiovascular health | journal = Circulation | volume = 114 | issue = 9 | pages = 961–973 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16940205 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.603910 | type = Review | doi-access = free }}</ref> As weight maintenance depends on [[calorie]] intake,<ref name="Thom2017"/><ref name="JAMA Dieting Patient Page"/> diets emphasising certain [[macronutrient]]s (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.) have been shown to be no more effective than one another and no more effective than diets that maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g. low-fat milk, or less salad dressing).<ref name=obes>{{cite journal | vauthors = Churuangsuk C, Kherouf M, Combet E, Lean M | title = Low-carbohydrate diets for overweight and obesity: a systematic review of the systematic reviews | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 19 | issue = 12 | pages = 1700–1718 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30194696 | doi = 10.1111/obr.12744 | type = Systematic review | s2cid = 52174104 | url = http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/168899/1/168899.pdf | access-date = 23 September 2019 | archive-date = 23 September 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190923071822/http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/168899/1/168899.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="sacks"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schooff M | title = Are low-fat diets better than other weight-reducing diets in achieving long-term weight loss? | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 67 | issue = 3 | pages = 507–508 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12588072 | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030201/cochrane.html | access-date = 5 November 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080515220502/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030201/cochrane.html | archive-date = 15 May 2008 }}</ref> A [[meta-analysis]] of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between low-calorie, low-carbohydrate, and low-fat diets in terms of short-term weight loss, with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss over 12–18 months in all studies.<ref name=Strychar/> Diets that severely restrict calorie intake do not lead to long term weight loss.<ref name="Mann2007"/> Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition.

A major challenge regarding weight loss and dieting relates to compliance.<ref name="Thom2017" /> While dieting can effectively promote weight loss in the short term, the intervention is hard to maintain over time and suppresses skeletal muscle [[thermogenesis]]. Suppressed thermogenesis accelerates weight regain once the diet stops, unless that phase is accompanied by a well-timed exercise intervention, as described by the [[Summermatter cycle]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Summermatter S, Handschin C | title = PGC-1α and exercise in the control of body weight | journal = International Journal of Obesity | volume = 36 | issue = 11 | pages = 1428–1435 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22290535 | doi = 10.1038/ijo.2012.12 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Most diet studies do not assess long-term weight loss.<ref name="Thom2017" />

Some studies have found that, on average, short-term dieting results in a "meaningful" long-term weight-loss, although limited because of gradual 1 to 2&nbsp;kg/year weight regain.<ref name="USGuidelines2013" /><ref name="Thom2017" /><ref name="Anderson 579–584"/> Because people who do not participate in weight-loss programs also tend to gain weight over time, and baseline data from such "untreated" participants are typically not included in diet studies, it is possible that diets do result in lower weights in the long-term relative to people who do not diet.<ref name="Thom2017" /> Others have suggested that dieting is ineffective as a long-term intervention.<ref name="Mann2007" /> For each individual, the results will be different, with some even regaining more weight than they lost, while a few others achieve a tremendous loss, so that the "average weight loss" of a diet is not indicative of the results other dieters may achieve.<ref name="Thom2017" /><ref name="Mann2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mann T, Tomiyama AJ, Westling E, Lew AM, Samuels B, Chatman J | title = Medicare's search for effective obesity treatments: diets are not the answer | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–233 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17469900 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.62.3.220 | quote = In sum, there is little support for the notion that diets ["severely restricting one's calorie intake"] lead to lasting weight loss or health benefits. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.666.7484 | s2cid = 4006392 }}</ref> A 2001 meta-analysis of 29 American studies found that participants of structured weight-loss programs maintained an average of 23% (3&nbsp;kg) of their initial weight loss after five years, representing a sustained 3.2% reduction in body mass.<ref name="Anderson 579–584"/> Unfortunately, patients are generally unhappy with weight loss of <10%,<ref name="Thom2017" /> and reductions even as high as 10% are insufficient for changing someone with an "obese" BMI to a "normal weight" BMI.

Partly because diets do not reliably produce long-term positive health outcomes, some argue against using weight loss as a goal, preferring other measures of health such as improvements in [[cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular biomarkers]],<ref name="harrington">{{cite journal |author1= Harrington M |author2=Gibson S |author3=Cottrell RC |title= A review and meta-analysis of the effect of weight loss on all-cause mortality risk |journal=Nutr Res Rev |year=2009 |volume=22|issue=1|pages=93–108 |pmid=19555520 |doi=10.1017/S0954422409990035|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mann|first1=Traci|last2= Tomiyama|first2=Janet A.|last3=Westling|first3=Erika|last4=Lew|first4=Ann-Marie|last5=Samuels|first5=Barbra|last6=Chatman|first6=Jason|title=Medicare's search for effective obesity treatments: Diets are not the answer.|journal=American Psychologist|date=April 2007|volume=62 | issue = 3|series=Eating Disorders|pages=220–233 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.62.3.220|pmid=17469900|citeseerx=10.1.1.666.7484|s2cid=4006392 }}</ref> sometimes called a [[Health at Every Size]] (HAES) approach<ref name="weight science">{{cite journal |title= Weight science: evaluating the evidence for a paradigm shift |author= Bacon L, Aphramor L. |journal=Nutr J |year=2011 |volume=10|pmc=3041737 |pmid=21261939 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-10-9 |pages=9|last2= Aphramor |doi-access= free }}</ref> or a "weight neutral" approach.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mensinger |first1=JL |last2=Calogero |first2=RM |last3=Stranges |first3=S |last4=Tylka |first4=TL |title=A weight-neutral versus weight-loss approach for health promotion in women with high BMI: A randomized-controlled trial |journal=Appetite |date=2016 |volume=105|pages=364–374 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2016.06.006 |pmid=27289009 |s2cid=205613776 }}</ref>

Long term losses from dieting are best maintained with continuing professional support, long term increases in physical activity, the use of anti-obesity medications, continued use of meal replacements, and additional periods of dieting to undo weight regain.<ref name="Thom2017" /> The most effective approach to weight loss is an in-person, high-intensity, comprehensive lifestyle intervention: overweight or obese adults should maintain regular (at least monthly) contact with a trained interventionalist who can help them engage in exercise, monitor their body weight, and reduce their calorie consumption.<ref name="USGuidelines2013"/> Even with high-intensity, comprehensive lifestyle interventions (consisting of diet, physical exercise, and bimonthly or even more frequent contact with trained interventionists), gradual weight regain of 1–2&nbsp;kg/year still occurs.<ref name="USGuidelines2013"/> For patients at high medical risk, bariatric surgery or medications may be warranted in addition to the lifestyle intervention, as dieting by itself may not lead to sustained weight loss.<ref name="USGuidelines2013"/>

Many studies overestimate the benefits of calorie restriction because the studies confound exercise and diet (testing the effects of diet and exercise as a combined intervention, rather than the effects of diet alone).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mann T, Tomiyama AJ, Westling E, Lew AM, Samuels B, Chatman J | title = Medicare's search for effective obesity treatments: diets are not the answer | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–233 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17469900 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.62.3.220 | series = Eating Disorders | citeseerx = 10.1.1.666.7484 | s2cid = 4006392 }}</ref>

=== Adverse effects ===
==== Increased mortality rate ====
A number of studies have found that intentional weight loss is associated with an increase in [[Mortality rate|mortality]] in people without weight-related health problems.<ref name="weight science2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bacon L, Aphramor L | title = Weight science: evaluating the evidence for a paradigm shift | journal = Nutrition Journal | volume = 10 | pages = 9 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21261939 | pmc = 3041737 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-10-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gaesser GA | title = Thinness and weight loss: beneficial or detrimental to longevity? | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1118–1128 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10449013 | doi = 10.1097/00005768-199908000-00007 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sørensen TI, Rissanen A, Korkeila M, Kaprio J | title = Intention to lose weight, weight changes, and 18-y mortality in overweight individuals without co-morbidities | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = e171 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15971946 | pmc = 1160579 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020171 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ingram DD, Mussolino ME | title = Weight loss from maximum body weight and mortality: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Linked Mortality File | journal = International Journal of Obesity | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 1044–1050 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20212495 | doi = 10.1038/ijo.2010.41 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2009 meta-analysis of 26 studies found that "intentional weight loss had a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy (with obesity-related risk factors), especially unhealthy obese, but appeared to be associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals, and for those who were overweight but not obese."<ref name="harrington2"/>

==== Dietary supplements ====
Due to extreme or unbalanced diets, dietary supplements are sometimes taken in an attempt to replace missing vitamins or minerals. While some supplements could be helpful for people eating an unbalanced diet (if replacing essential nutrients, for example), overdosing on any dietary supplement can cause a range of side effects depending on the supplement and dose that is taken.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Office of Dietary Supplements - Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/WYNTK-Consumer/|access-date=2021-05-03|website=ods.od.nih.gov|language=en|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424203351/https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/WYNTK-Consumer/|url-status=live}}</ref> Supplements should not replace foods that are important to a healthy diet.<ref name=":0" />

====Eating disorders====
In an editorial for ''[[Psychological Medicine]]'', George Hsu concludes that dieting is likely to lead to the development of an [[eating disorder]] in the presence of certain risk factors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hsu LK | title = Can dieting cause an eating disorder? | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 509–513 | date = May 1997 | pmid = 9153671 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291797004753 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A 2006 study found that dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were predictive of obesity and eating disorders five years later, with the authors recommending a "shift away from dieting and drastic weight-control measures toward the long-term implementation of healthful eating and physical activity".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Guo J, Story M, Haines J, Eisenberg M | title = Obesity, disordered eating, and eating disorders in a longitudinal study of adolescents: how do dieters fare 5 years later? | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 106 | issue = 4 | pages = 559–568 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16567152 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2006.01.003 | author2-link = Melanie Wall }}{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Mechanism==
When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is [[glycogen]] (by [[glycogenolysis]]). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 [[kcal]] in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested [[nutrients|macronutrients]], mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins [[lipolysis]], the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or [[fat cells]], are broken down into [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acids]], which can be used to generate energy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Rourke B, Cortassa S, Aon MA | title = Mitochondrial ion channels: gatekeepers of life and death | journal = Physiology | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 303–315 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16174870 | pmc = 2739045 | doi = 10.1152/physiol.00020.2005 }}</ref> The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.

=== Set-Point Theory ===
{{see also|Energy homeostasis#Imbalance}}
The Set-Point Theory, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate. This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures. A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change procedures, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding but also exercise and overeating, found systematic "energetic errors" for all these procedures. This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, countering the Set-Point Theory and potentially explaining both [[weight loss]] and weight gain such as [[obesity]]. This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levitsky DA, Sewall A, Zhong Y, Barre L, Shoen S, Agaronnik N, LeClair JL, Zhuo W, Pacanowski C | display-authors = 6 | title = Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake | journal = Appetite | volume = 133 | pages = 337–343 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30476522 | doi = 10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017 | s2cid = 53712116 }}</ref>

==Methods==
===Meal timing===
A meal timing schedule is known to be an important factor of any diet. Recent evidence suggest that new scheduling strategies, such as [[intermittent fasting]] or skipping meals, and strategically placed snacks before meals, may be recommendable to reduce cardiovascular risks as part of a broader lifestyle and [[healthy diet|dietary change]].<ref name="AHA2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, Chiuve SE, Johnson HM, Kris-Etherton P, Varady K | title = Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association | journal = Circulation | volume = 135 | issue = 9 | pages = e96–e121 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28137935 | pmc = 8532518 | doi = 10.1161/cir.0000000000000476 | publisher = Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | doi-access = free | author7-link = Krista Varady }}</ref>

===Food diary===
A 2008 study published in the [[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]] showed that dieters who kept a daily food [[Personal journal|diary]] (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.<ref>{{cite news | title= Using food diaries doubles weight loss, study shows | url= https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/weightloss/2008-07-08-food-diaries%5FN.htm | date= 8 July 2008 | work= USA Today | vauthors= Hellmich N | access-date= 1 May 2010 | archive-date= 14 March 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120314035350/http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/weightloss/2008-07-08-food-diaries%5FN.htm | url-status= live }}</ref>

===Water===
{{Main | Weight loss effects of water}}
A 2009 review found limited evidence suggesting that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate [[weight management]]. A 2009 article found that drinking 500&nbsp;ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction. (References given in [[Weight loss effects of water|main article]].)

==Society==
It is estimated that about 1 out of 3 Americans is dieting at any given time. 85% of dieters are women. Approximately sixty billion dollars are spent every year in the USA on diet products, including "diet foods", such as light sodas, gym memberships or specific regimes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2013/01/02/the-heavy-price-of-losing-weight|title=The Heavy Price of Losing Weight|vauthors=Williams G|date=2 January 2013|website=US News|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814231213/https://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2013/01/02/the-heavy-price-of-losing-weight|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://slate.com/technology/2015/03/diets-do-not-work-the-thin-evidence-that-losing-weight-makes-you-healthier.html|title=Planning to Go on a Diet? One Word of Advice: Don't.|vauthors=Brown H|date=2015-03-24|website=Slate Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-11-11|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111182011/https://slate.com/technology/2015/03/diets-do-not-work-the-thin-evidence-that-losing-weight-makes-you-healthier.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 80% of dieters start by themselves, whereas 20% see a professional or join a paid program. The typical dieter attempts 4 tries per year.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Berger AA |title=Perspectives on everyday life : a cross disciplinary cultural analysis |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Pivot, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-99794-0}}</ref>

===Weight loss groups===
Some weight loss groups aim to make money, others work as charities. The former include [[WW International|Weight Watchers]] and [[Peertrainer]]. The latter include [[Overeaters Anonymous]], [[TOPS Club]] and groups run by local organizations.

These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on [[twelve-step program]]s, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Attending group meetings for [[Weight loss|weight reduction]] programmes rather than receiving one-on-one support may increase the likelihood that [[Obesity|obese]] people will lose weight. Those who participated in groups had more treatment time and were more likely to lose enough weight to improve their health. Study authors suggested that one explanation for the difference is that group participants spent more time with the clinician (or whoever delivered the programme) than those receiving one-on-one support.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021-08-27 |title=Group programmes for weight loss may be more effective than one-to-one sessions |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/group-weight-loss-programmes-more-effective-than-one-to-one-sessions/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |type=Plain English summary |language=en |doi=10.3310/alert_47460 |s2cid=241732368 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=22 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622083140/https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/group-weight-loss-programmes-more-effective-than-one-to-one-sessions/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abbott |first1=S. |last2=Smith |first2=E. |last3=Tighe |first3=B. |last4=Lycett |first4=D. |date=2020-12-28 |title=Group versus one-to-one multi-component lifestyle interventions for weight management: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jhn.12853 |journal=Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics |language=en |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=485–493 |doi=10.1111/jhn.12853 |pmid=33368624 |s2cid=229691531 |issn=0952-3871 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=22 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622083106/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jhn.12853 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
<!-- Please maintain alphabetical order -->
{{div col}}
*[[Body image]]
*[[Carbon footprint]]
*[[Dietary Guidelines for Americans]]
*[[Food faddism]]
*[[High residue diet]]
*[[Intuitive eating]]
*[[List of diets]]
*[[National Weight Control Registry]]
*[[Nutrigenomics]]
*[[Nutrition psychology]]
*[[Nutrition scale]]
*[[Nutritional rating systems]]
*[[Online weight loss plans]]
*[[Superfood]]
*[[Table of food nutrients]]
*[[Underweight]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | author = American Dietetic Association | title = Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 103 | issue = 6 | pages = 748–765 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12778049 | doi = 10.1053/jada.2003.50142 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Cheraskin E | year = 1993 | title = The Breakfast/Lunch/Dinner Ritual | journal = Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 1}}
* {{cite conference | vauthors = Dansinger ML, Gleason JL, Griffith JL, Li WJ, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ | title = One Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk | conference = American Heart Association Scientific Sessions | location = Orlando, Florida | date = 12 November 2003 }}
*[[Hillel Schwartz (historian)|Schwartz, Hillel]]. ''Never Satisfied: A Cultural History of Diets, Fantasies, and Fat''. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1986.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote|Diet}}
<!-- Do not post links to commercial sites. They will be removed immediately.  -->
*[https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-weight/diet-reviews/ Diet reviews by the Harvard School of Public Health]

{{Diets}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Diets]]