Editing Dicaearchus

{{Short description|4th-century BC Greek philosopher and geographer}}
{{for|the pirate|Dicaearchus of Aetolia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
[[File:Dicaearchus of Messana.png|right|thumb|200px|Dicaearchus of Messana]]
'''Dicaearchus of Messana''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|ɪ|k|eɪ|ˈ|ɑːr|k|ə|s|...|m|ə|ˈ|s|ɑː|n|ə}}; {{langx|grc|Δικαίαρχος}} ''Dikaiarkhos''; {{c.|370/350|post 323 BC}}), also written '''Dikaiarchos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|k|aɪ|ɑːr|k}}), was a [[Greeks|Greek]] philosopher, [[geographer]] and author. Dicaearchus was a student of [[Aristotle]] in the [[Lyceum (classical)|Lyceum]]. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote on [[geography]] and the history of [[Greece]], of which his most important work was his ''Life of Greece''. Although modern scholars often consider him a pioneer in the field of [[cartography]], this is based on a misinterpretation of a reference in Cicero<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', vi. 2. 3</ref> to Dicaearchus's ''tabulae'', which does not refer to any maps made by Dicaearchus but is a pun on account books and refers to Dicaearchus's ''Descent into the Sanctuary of Trophonius.''<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 34–35, 279–280.</ref> He also wrote books on ancient Greek poets, philosophy and politics.

==Life==
He was the son of one Pheidias, and born at [[Messina, Italy|Messana]] in Sicily,<ref>''Suda'', δ 1062.</ref> [[Magna Graecia]], though he passed part of his life in [[Greece]], and especially in [[Athens]] and the [[Peloponnesus]].<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', vi. 2. 3.</ref> He also travelled to make his measurements of mountains. He was a disciple of [[Aristotle]]<ref>''FGrHist'' 1400 T 7a–f.</ref> and a friend of [[Aristoxenus]] (a letter written to him is attested in Cicero<ref>Cicero, ''ad Atticum'', xiii. 32. 2.</ref>). Eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century scholarship often considered him a friend of [[Theophrastus]] as well, but this is based on the reference to a man named Theophrastus in the spurious ''Description of Greece'', which is transmitted under Dicaearchus's name but actually consists of excerpts from a geographic poem written by Dionysius, son of Calliphon, and from a prose periegesis of Greece, written by Heraclides Criticus.  It is uncertain when Dicaearchus died. The only certain terminus post quem is the death of [[Alexander the Great]] (323 BC). According to Pliny,<ref>Pliny, ''Naturalis historia'', ii. 162.</ref> Dicaearchus measured mountains "with the support of the kings" ({{Lang|la|cura regum}}). Most scholars identify these kings as [[Cassander]] and [[Ptolemy I Soter]]. If this identification is correct, this would put Dicaearchus's activity between 306 and 287 BC. However, the kings might also refer to [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrhidaeus]] and [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]], who were the nominatim kings after the death of [[Alexander the Great]]. If that identification is correct, this moves his activity to 323–317 BC.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 5, 196–198.</ref>

==Writings==
Dicaearchus was highly esteemed by the ancients as a philosopher and as a man of most extensive and learned information upon a great variety of things.<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae disputationes'', i. 41, ''De officiis'', ii. 16; Varro, ''Res rusticae,'' i. 2. 16; Pliny, ''Naturalis historia'', ii. 162.</ref> His work is known only from the many fragmentary quotations of later writers. His works were geographical, political, historical and philosophical; but it is difficult to draw up an accurate list of them, since some that are quoted as distinct works may have been only sections of greater ones, and many titles are only attested once. The fragments extant, moreover, do not always enable us to form a clear notion of the works to which they once belonged. The geographical works of Dicaearchus were, according to [[Strabo]],<ref>Strabo, ii. 4. 2.</ref> criticised in many respects by [[Polybius]], though [[Strabo]] himself was more forgiving of Dicaearchus's ignorance of western and northern Europe, since – unlike [[Polybius]] – Dicaearchus had never visited these places.

Dicaearchus wrote on cultural history, music and literature:
*''Life of Greece'' ({{lang|el|Βίος Ἑλλάδος}}) – The ''Bios Hellados'', in three books<ref>Mirhady 1.7a</ref> is Dicaearchus's most famous work. It inspired the ''Bios Hellados'' of Jason (identified as [[Jason of Nysa]] by the ''Suda''<ref>''Suda'', ι 52.</ref> but perhaps a different historian with the same name<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 9–10.</ref>) and [[Varro]]'s ''De vita populi Romani'' and ''De gente populi Romani''. Only a few fragments actually cite the title,<ref>''FGrHist'' 1400 F 1–9.</ref> but there are many fragments on cultural history that cite no title and might belong to this work.<ref>''FGrHist'' 1400 F 24–35.</ref> Dicaearchus apparently attempted to write a biography of the Greek nation from earliest times to the reign of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]. The most famous passages are those cited by Varro<ref>Varro, ''Res rusticae'', i. 2. 15–16, ii. 1. 3–5 = Mirhady 54–55.</ref> and [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]<ref>Porphyry, ''[[On Abstinence from Eating Animals|De abstinentia]]'', iv. 2. 1–9 = Mirhady 56A.</ref> on early history, which suggest a dualistic view of progress. His anthropological theory combined elements from the Hesiodic tradition of decay with progressivist theories. From [[Hesiod]], he adopted the concept of a "golden race", which led a life of bliss but ultimately degenerated because humans became greedy, which led to war. This is combined with progressivist ideas, such as the harsh life of early man and the gradual invention of the arts. In his reconstruction, Dicaearchus distinguished three stages: the golden race, in which man lived off the spontaneously grown fruits of the earth, the pastoral life, in which man started domesticating and hunting animals, and the agricultural life, in which agriculture was introduced.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 9, 231–241.</ref> Dicaearchus apparently also explained the saying, "sharing stops choking", as a reference to how humans learned to distribute surplus fairly.<ref>Zenobius, v. 23 = Mirhady 57</ref> Dicaearchus also discussed the origin of the [[polis]], which he derived from the expansion of families through marriage and the kinship of brothers and sisters.<ref>Stephanus Byzantius, π 68.</ref> According to Dicaearchus, various stages of this evolution were reflected in ''patrae'', [[Phratry|phratries]] and [[Phyle|phylae]], which were social organisations into which citizens were grouped in many cities. Another remarkable feature of the ''Life of Greece'' is that the first book discussed [[Egypt]] and [[Babylon]], probably as cultural predecessors of the Greeks. In the ''Life of Greece'', Dicaearchus also stated that [[Euripides]]' ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'' plagiarised the ''Medea'' play of the obscure tragedian [[Neophron]].<ref>Hypothesis A 2 on Euripides' ''Medea'' (Dain-Mazon-Irigoin).</ref>
*''On Musical Contests'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ μουσικῶν ἀγώνων}}) and ''On Dionysiac Contests'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ Διονυσιακῶν ἀγώνων}}) – These works discussed innovations in Greek music and drama. In ''On Dionysiac Contests'', Dicaearchus probably also treated the story that, when competing at the [[Dionysia]] with the [[Oedipus Rex|Oedipus Tyrannus]], [[Sophocles]] was defeated by the tragedian [[Philocles]],<ref>Hypothesis 2 on Sophocles' ''Oedipus Tyrannus'' (Dain-Mazon-Irigoin).</ref> and that [[Aristophanes]]' ''[[The Frogs|Frogs]]'' was staged twice.<ref>Hypothesis 1 on Aristophanes' ''Frogs'' (Wilson).</ref> In this work, Dicaearchus probably also stated that the third actor was introduced to Athenian tragedy by [[Sophocles]].<ref>Vita of Aeschylus, 15 (Radt).</ref>
*''On Alcaeus'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ Ἀλκαίου}}) – This was a monograph on the Lesbian poet [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus of Mitylene]].
*Works on [[Homer]] and [[Euripides]] – Plutarch<ref>Plutarch, ''Non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum'', xii. 1095a.</ref> cites Dicaearchus alongside [[Aristotle]] and [[Heraclides Ponticus]] as men who wrote on [[Homer]] and [[Euripides]]. Dicaearchus's works were probably either monographs on these poets (like his work ''On Alcaeus'') or belonged to ''Problemata'' literature (both [[Aristotle]] and [[Heraclides Ponticus]] wrote works on Homeric problems).
Among his geographical works may be mentioned:
*''Circuit of the Earth'' ({{lang|el|Γῆς περίοδος}})<ref>[[John the Lydian|Lydus]], ''de Mensibus'', iv. 107.</ref> – This work was a geographical description of the world as it was then known. Dicaearchus divided the inhabited world into a northern and southern part, separated by a line running from the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] through [[Sicily]] to the [[Himalayas|Himalaya]].<ref>Agathemerus, ''Geographiae informatio'', 5.</ref> He attempted to calculate the distances between various points on this line. In the ''Circuit of the Earth'', Dicaearchus also treated the famous problem of the [[flooding of the Nile]].
*''Measurements of Mountains''<ref>[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], [[Natural History (Pliny)|''H. N.'']] ii. 65; [[Geminus]], ''Elem. Astron.'' 14.</ref> – The ''Suda''<ref>''Suda'', δ 1062.</ref> cites the work as ''Measurements of Mountains in the Peloponnese'' ({{Lang|el|Καταμετρήσεις τῶν ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ ὀρῶν}}), but other fragments show that Dicaearchus also measured mountains in Thessaly<ref>Pliny, ''Naturalis historia'', ii. 162.</ref> and on Rhodes.<ref>Geminus, ''Elementa astronomiae'', xvii. 5.</ref> The work may have been part of his ''Circuit of the Earth''. It was the earliest known attempt to measure the heights of various mountains by [[triangulation]], for which he used a [[dioptra]] instrument. Dicaearchus's goal was to show that mountains were not as high as people believed and therefore did not impact the sphericity of the earth. Many of his results were later adopted by [[Eratosthenes]].

Of a political nature was:
*''Tripolitikos'' ({{lang|el|Τριπολιτικός}})<ref>Athenaeus, iv. 141a–c; Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', xiii. 32. 2.</ref> – A work which has been the subject of much dispute. It was probably a political dialogue (perhaps to be identified with the "political meeting" mentioned by Cicero<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', xiii. 30. 2.</ref>) or a speech. Since the only extant fragment discusses the Spartan [[Syssitia|public meals]], some scholars identify it with the ''Spartan Constitution''. Many scholars consider it a work on the [[Mixed government|mixed constitution]], but this is based on a misinterpretation of the {{Lang|el|εἶδος δικαιαρχικόν}}, mentioned in Photius;<ref>Photius, ''Bibliotheca'', codex 37 p. 8a Bekker.</ref> the word {{Lang|el|δικαιαρχικός}} does not refer to Dicaearchus but simply means "relating to a just government."<ref>Fotiou, A. S. (1981), "Dikaiarchos and the mixed constitution in sixth century Byzantium: new evidence from a treatise on "political science."” Byzantion 51: 533–547; Verhasselt 2018, pp. 24–25, 581–583.</ref>
*''Constitutions'' – Dicaearchus is said to have written a ''Spartan Constitution'' ({{lang|el|Πολιτεία Σπαρτιατῶν}}), ''Pellenian Constitution'' ({{Lang|el|Πελληναίων πολιτεία}}), ''Corinthian Constitution'' ({{Lang|el|Κορινθίων πολιτεία}}) and ''Athenian Constitution'' ({{Lang|el|Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία}}).<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', ii. 2. 2.</ref> No fragments survive of these works. The ''Spartan Constitution'' was apparently read annually in the council of the [[ephor]]s in [[Sparta]], in the presence of the Spartan youth.<ref>''Suda'', δ 1062.</ref>
Among his other philosophical works may be mentioned:
*''On the Soul'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ ψυχῆς}}) ''–'' Dicaearchus wrote two works on the soul: the ''Lesbian Dialogue'' ({{lang|el|Λεσβιακός}}) and the ''Corinthian Dialogue'' ({{Lang|el|Κορινθιακός}}), both in three books. The titles refer to the scene where the philosophical dialogue was set, viz. at [[Mytilene]] in [[Lesbos]] and at [[Corinth]], respectively. The general title for these two works was ''On the Soul'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ ψυχῆς}}). In the ''Lesbian Dialogue'', Dicaearchus endeavoured to prove that the soul was mortal.<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae disputationes'', i. 77.</ref> In the ''Corinthian Dialogue'', Dicaearchus argued that the soul has no existence outside the body. The first book presented a discussion of learned men about the soul. In the subsequent two books, a man named Pherecrates argued for the non-existence of the soul.<ref>Cicero, ''Tusculanae disputationes'', i. 21.</ref>
*On the Destruction of Men ({{langx|la|De interitu hominum}})<ref>Cicero, ''De officiis'', ii. 16.</ref> – This work collected the causes of human destruction and concluded that man himself was the greatest threat. It is uncertain whether "De interitu hominum" is a book title or merely describes the content of the work.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 12–13.</ref>
*''Descent into Sanctuary of Trophonius'' ({{lang|el|Εἰς Τροφωνίου κατάβασις}})<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', vi. 2. 3, xiii. 31. 2, xiii. 32. 2, xiii. 33. 2; Athenaeus, xiii. 594e, xiv. 641e.</ref> – A work which consisted of several books. It appears to have been a work on luxury.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 14–15.</ref> The title refers to the oracle of [[Trophonius]] in [[Livadeia|Lebadea]], where people who wished to consult the oracle had to descend into a cave. [[Cicero]] informs us that he translated a section from this work in his ''De re publica''.<ref>Cicero, ''Ad Atticum'', vi. 2. 3. The passage is ''De re publica'', ii. 7–9.</ref> The work may have also contained an account of the degenerate and licentious proceedings of the priests in the cave of [[Trophonius]].
*''On Lives'' ({{Lang|el|Περὶ βίων}}) – This was probably a philosophical work on the right way of life.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 21–24.</ref> The title is only attested once.<ref>Diogenes Laertius, iii. 4–5.</ref> The fragments on philosophers (the [[Seven Sages of Greece|Seven Sages]], [[Pythagoras]] and [[Plato]]) are usually attributed to this work, though they may belong to other works such as the ''Life of Greece'' or the ''Circuit of the Earth'' as well. Of particular interest is the fragment on the death of [[Pythagoras]], for which Dicaearchus claims to rely on local oral sources from [[Southern Italy]].<ref>Porphyry, ''Vita Pythagorae'', 56–57.</ref>
* ''On the Sacrifice at Ilium'' ({{lang|el|Περὶ τῆς ἐν Ἰλίῳ ϑυσίας}})<ref>Athenaeus, xiii. 603a–b.</ref> – The title refers to the sacrifice which [[Alexander the Great]] performed at [[Troy|Ilium]] at the start of his expedition against [[Darius III]]. Together with his beloved [[Hephaestion]], he paid honours on the tombs of [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]] at [[Troy]], probably as a proclamation of their own relationship, which was mirrored on these two mythical heroes. The sole fragment that remains of this work discusses the story that, after the march through the [[Gedrosia|Gedrosian Desert]], [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] passionately kissed the eunuch [[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]] in a full theatre, to great applause. This suggests that the work may have treated [[Alexander the Great|Alexander's]] relationships, perhaps as part of a more general discussion on love.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 13–14, 272–273.</ref>

Dicaearchus also wrote speeches:

* ''Olympikos'' ({{lang|el|Ὀλυμπικός}}),<ref>Athenaeus, xiv. 620d.</ref> ''Panathenaikos'' ({{lang|el|Παναθηναϊκός}})<ref>Scholion ''ad Aristophanis Vespis'' 544b (Koster).</ref> – These are usually considered either works on contests held at the [[Olympic Games]] and the [[Panathenaic Games]] or philosophical dialogues. However, the most plausible interpretation is that they were speeches.<ref>Verhasselt 2018, pp. 15–17.</ref> Indeed, the ''Suda'' explicitly calls Dicaearchus an orator ({{Lang|el|ῥήτωρ}}).<ref>''Suda'', δ 1062.</ref>

There is lastly one spurious work and one doubtful work:

* ''Description of Greece'' ({{lang|el|Ἀναγραφὴ τῆς Ἑλλάδος}}) – This work is spurious. Although it is transmitted under Dicaearchus's name, it actually consists of excerpts from two separate works. One is a geographic work dedicated to "Theophrastus", and consisting of 150 [[Iamb (foot)|iambic]] lines; the [[acrostic]] of the first twenty-three lines shows that it was really the work of one "Dionysius, son of Calliphon". The other work is a prose periegesis entitled ''On the Cities in Greece'' and was written by Heraclides Criticus.<ref>''FGrHist'' 2022 = ''BNJ'' 369A.</ref>
* ''Summaries of the Tales from Euripides and Sophocles'' ({{lang|el|ὑποθέσεις τῶν Εὐριπίδου καὶ Σοφοκλέους μύθων}})<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Adversus mathematicos'', iii. 3.</ref> – This was a collection of plot summaries of the plays of [[Euripides]] and [[Sophocles]]. Many of these summaries survive in papyri or have been prefaced to the plays of [[Euripides]] in medieval manuscripts. This work is unlikely to have been written by the Peripatetic Dicaearchus. It was probably either wrongly attributed to him or was the work of another man named Dicaearchus, a [[Philologist|grammarian]] of [[Lacedaemon]], who, according to the ''[[Suda]]'',<ref>''Suda'', δ 1063.</ref> was a disciple of [[Aristarchus of Samothrace|Aristarchus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verhasselt|date=2015|title=The Hypotheses of Euripides and Sophocles by 'Dicaearchus'|url=https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/15331/6735|journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies|volume=55|pages=608–636}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*David C. Mirhady, "Dicaearchus of Messana: The Sources, Texts and Translations," in Fortenbaugh, W., Schütrumpf, E., (editors) ''Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion''. Transaction Publishers. (2001). {{ISBN|0-7658-0093-4}}
*{{SmithDGRBM|title=Dicaearchus (Δυκαίαρχος)|pages=1000–1002|volume=1}}

== Further reading ==
; Editions
* Fortenbaugh, W., [[Eckart Schütrumpf|Schütrumpf, E.]], (editors) ''Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion''. Transaction Publishers. (2001). {{ISBN|0-7658-0093-4}}
* Verhasselt, G. ''Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Continued. IV. Biography and antiquarian literature, B. History of literature, music, art and culture. Fasc. 9 Dikaiarchos of Messene No. 1400''. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2018. {{ISBN|9789004357419}}
* Wehrli, F., ''Dikaiarchos. Die Schule des Aristoteles. Texte und Kommentar, Hft. 1''. Schwabe. 2nd edition (1967)

; Studies
* Alonso-Núñez, J.M., 'Approaches to world history in the Hellenistic period: Dicaearchus and Agatharchides' ''Athenaeum'' 85 (1997) 53–67
* Bodei Giglioni, G., 'Dicearco e la riflessione sul passato' ''Rivista Storica Italiana'' 98 (1986) 629–652
* Cooper, C., 'Aristoxenus, Περὶ Βίων and Peripatetic biography' ''Mouseion'' 2(3) (2002) 307–339
* Purcell, N., 'The way we used to eat: diet, community, and history at Rome' ''American Journal of Philology'' 124 (2003) 329–358
*Verhasselt, G., ᾿Dicaearchus on Alcaeus: A Peripatetic approach to archaic poetry' ''Rivista di filologia e istruzione classica'' 144 (2016) 266–299
*Verhasselt, G., 'What were works Περὶ βίων? A study of the extant fragments' ''Philologus'' 160 (2016) 59–83

==External links==
*''[https://books.google.com/books?id=S4HKGb7P2AsC Fragments des poemes géographiques de Scymnus de Chio et du faux Dicéarque]'', M. Letronne (ed.), Paris, Librairie de Gide, 1840.

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[[Category:4th-century BC Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:350s BC births]]
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[[Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers]]
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[[Category:Scientists from Messina]]
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[[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]]
[[Category:Philosophers of Magna Graecia]]
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[[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]]
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