Editing Datura stramonium

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}
{{Redirect|Jimson Weed|the painting by Georgia O'Keeffe|Jimson Weed (painting)}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Solanum incanum]], also known by the common name "thorn apple"}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Jimsonweed
| image = Datura stramonium 2 (2005 07 07).jpg
| genus = Datura
| species = stramonium
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=POWO>{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:314738-2|title=Datura stramonium L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=24 May 2024}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true
|title={{small|Synonymy}}
|''Datura bernhardii'' {{small|(Lundstr.)}}
|''Datura bertolonii'' {{small|(Parl. ex Guss.)}}
|''Datura cabanesii'' {{small|(P.Fourn.)}}
|''Datura capensis'' {{small|(Bernh.)}}
|''Datura ferocissima'' {{small|(Cabanès & P.Fourn.)}}
|''Datura ferox'' {{small|(Nees 1834 not L. 1756)}}
|''Datura hybrida'' {{small|(Ten.)}}
|''Datura inermis'' {{small|(Juss. ex Jacq.)}}
|''Datura laevis'' {{small|(L.f.)}}
|''Datura loricata'' {{small|(Sieber ex Bernh.)}}
|''Datura lurida'' {{small|(Salisb.)}}
|''Datura microcarpa'' {{small|(Godr.)}}
|''Datura muricata'' {{small|(Godr. 1873 not Bernh. 1818 nor Link 1821)}}
|''Datura parviflora'' {{small|(Salisb.)}}
|''Datura praecox'' {{small|(Godr.)}}
|''Datura pseudostramonium'' {{small|(Sieber ex Bernh.)}}
|''Datura tatula'' {{small|(L.)}}
|''Datura wallichii'' {{small|(Dunal)}}
|''Stramonium foetidum'' {{small|(Scop.)}}
|''Stramonium laeve'' {{small|(Moench)}}
|''Stramonium spinosum'' {{small|(Lam.)}}
|''Stramonium tatula'' {{small|(Moench)}}
|''Stramonium vulgare'' {{small|(Moench)}}
|''Stramonium vulgatum'' {{small|(Gaertn.)}}
}}
}}

'''''Datura stramonium''''', known by the common names '''thornapple''', '''jimsonweed''' ('''jimson weed'''), or '''devil's trumpet''', <ref name="cabi">{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/18006|title=''Datura stramonium'' (jimsonweed) |publisher=CABI |access-date=6 May 2019 |date=21 November 2018}}</ref> is a poisonous [[flowering plant]] in the ''[[Datureae|Daturae]]'' [[Tribe (botany)|tribe]] of the nightshade family [[Solanaceae]].<ref name=GRINSpecies>{{cite web|url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/gnlist.pl?2488 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130217135241/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/gnlist.pl?2488 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-17 |title=GRIN Genera of ''Solanaceae'' tribe ''Datureae'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture
|access-date=2012-12-12 }}</ref> Its likely origin was in [[Central America]],<ref name=cabi/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200020520|title=Datura stramonium in Flora of China @ efloras.org|website=efloras.org|access-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> and it has been introduced in many world regions.<ref name= 'NPGS/GRIN'>{{GRIN | access-date=2008-02-05 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Datura%20stramonium.png|title=Biota of North America Program, 2014 county distribution map|website=bonap.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:apni.taxon:295404|title=Datura stramonium: Common thornapple {{!}} Atlas of Living Australia|last=Australia|first=Atlas of Living|website=bie.ala.org.au|language=en-AU|access-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> It is an aggressive [[invasive species|invasive weed]] in [[temperate climate]]s and [[tropical climate]]s across the world.<ref name=cabi/> ''D. stramonium'' has frequently been employed in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It has also been used as a hallucinogen (of the [[anticholinergic]]/[[antimuscarinic]], [[deliriant]] type), taken [[entheogen]]ically to cause intense, sacred or occult visions.<ref name=cabi/><ref name="Schultes, Richard Evans 1979">Schultes, Richard Evans; Albert Hofmann (1979). ''Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use'' New York: McGraw-Hill. {{ISBN|0-07-056089-7}}.</ref> It is unlikely ever to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highly [[Dysphoria|unpleasant]], giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation or [[delirium]] ([[Toxidrome#Anticholinergic|anticholinergic syndrome]]) with a potentially fatal outcome. It contains [[tropane alkaloid]]s which are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.<ref name=cabi/><ref name="Glatstein">{{cite journal | last1=Glatstein | first1=Miguel | last2=Alabdulrazzaq | first2=Fatoumah | last3=Scolnik | first3=Dennis | s2cid=10336715 | title=Belladonna Alkaloid Intoxication | journal=American Journal of Therapeutics | volume=23 | issue=1 | year=2016 | issn=1075-2765 | doi=10.1097/01.mjt.0000433940.91996.16 | pages=e74–e77|pmid=24263161}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Thorn-apple.jpg|thumb|Mature (left) and immature (right) seed capsules]]

''Datura stramonium'' is an erect, [[Annual plant|annual]], freely branching herb that forms a bush {{convert|2|to|5|ft|cm|-1|abbr=on|order=flip}} tall.<ref name=Stace>{{Cite book| last = Stace | first = Clive | author-link = Clive Stace |title = New Flora of the British Isles | publisher =Cambridge University Press | page = 532 | year = 1997| isbn = 978-0-521-65315-2 }}</ref><ref name="Henkel-1911-p30">{{cite book|author=Henkel, Alice|chapter=Jimson weed|title=American Medicinal Leaves and Herbs|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1911|page=30|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppUUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30}}</ref><ref name="maud-desc">{{cite book|author=Grieve, Maud|title=A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1971|isbn=978-0-486-22799-3|page=804|url=https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/t/thorna12.html#des}}</ref>

The [[root]] is long, thick, fibrous, and white. The [[Plant stem|stem]] is stout, erect, leafy, smooth, and pale yellow-green to reddish purple in color. The stem forks off repeatedly into branches and each fork forms a leaf and a single, erect flower.<ref name="maud-desc" />

The leaves are about {{convert|3|to(-)|8|in|cm|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} long, smooth, toothed,<ref name="Henkel-1911-p30" /> soft, and irregularly undulated.<ref name="maud-desc" /> The upper surface of the leaves is a darker green, and the bottom is a light green.<ref name="Henkel-1911-p30" /> The leaves have a bitter and nauseating taste, which is imparted to extracts of the herb, and remains even after the leaves have been dried.<ref name=maud-desc/>

''Datura stramonium'' generally flowers throughout the summer. The fragrant flowers have a pleasing odour; are trumpet-shaped, white to creamy or violet, and {{convert|2+1/2|to(-)|3+1/2|in|cm|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} long; and grow on short stems from either the [[axils]] of the leaves or the places where the branches fork. The [[calyx (botany)|calyx]] is long and tubular, swollen at the bottom, and sharply angled, surmounted by five sharp teeth. The [[corolla (flower)|corolla]], which is folded and only partially open, is white, funnel-shaped, and has prominent ribs. The flowers open at night, emitting a pleasant fragrance, and are fed upon by nocturnal moths.<ref name="maud-desc" />

The egg-shaped seed [[Capsule (botany)|capsule]] is {{convert|1|to(-)|3|in|cm|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} in diameter and either covered with spines or bald. At maturity, it splits into four chambers, each with dozens of small, black seeds.<ref name="maud-desc" />

==Etymology and common names==
[[File:Datura stramonium - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-051.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Datura stramonium MHNT.BOT.2004.0.263a.jpg|thumb|Fruits and seeds – [[MHNT]]]]

The genus name is derived from the plant's [[Hindi]] name, {{transliteration|hi|dhatūra}}, ultimately from [[Sanskrit]] {{transliteration|sa|dhattūra}}, 'white thorn-apple'.<ref name="MWSD">{{MWSD}}</ref> The origin of Neo-Latin ''stramonium'' is unknown; the name ''Stramonia'' was used in the 17th century for various ''Datura'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Francis Hamilton |title=A Commentary on the Second Part of the ''Hortus Malabaricus'' |journal=[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KNbAAAAcAAJ&q=Stramonia&pg=PA233 |volume=XIV |year=1823 |page=233}}</ref> There is some evidence that ''Stramonium'' is originally from Greek {{lang|grc|[[strychnos|στρύχνον]]}}, 'nightshade' and {{lang|grc|μανικόν}}, 'which makes mad'.<ref name="Cornell">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/jimsonweed/jimsonweed.html |access-date=2010-02-12 |title=Datura species |work=Plants Poisonous to Livestock |publisher=Cornell University Department of Animal Science }}</ref> It is called {{transliteration|te|ummetta}} ({{lang|te|ఉమ్మెత్త}}) in [[Telugu language|Telugu]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=andhra-bharati|date=2024-02-01|title=ఉమ్మెత్త : శబ్దరత్నాకరము (బహుజనపల్లి సీతారామాచార్యులు) 1912|url=https://andhrabharati.com/dictionary/index.php?w=%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4|access-date=2024-02-01|website=andhrabharati.com/dictionary|language=te}}</ref> and {{transliteration|ta|umathai}} ({{lang|ta|ஊமத்தை}}) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]].;<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gnaana|date=2017-10-16|title=ஊமத்தைங்காய் கொண்டு எத்தனை விதமான நோய்கள் குணமாக்கலாம்? உங்களுக்கு தெரியுமா?|url=https://tamil.boldsky.com/health/herbs/2017/thorn-apple-can-cure-many-diseases-here-its-medicinal-uses-017753.html|access-date=2021-05-17|website=tamil.boldsky.com|language=ta}}</ref> both of which are believed to have derived from the Sanskrit word {{transliteration|sa|unmatta}} ({{lang|sa|उन्मत्तः}}), meaning 'mad' or 'insane'.

In the United States, the plant commonly known as "Jimsonweed" (or, more rarely, "Jamestown weed"). This name derives from [[Jamestown, Virginia]], where soldiers sent to suppress [[Bacon's Rebellion]] in the English [[colony of Virginia]] reportedly consumed the plant and spent eleven days in altered mental states:

{{Blockquote|The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. This being an early plant, was gather'd very young for a boil'd salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon; and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch [[droll]].{{pb}}In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves—though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed.|[[Robert Beverley Jr.]], ''The History and Present State of Virginia, Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither'', 1705<ref name="Beverley">{{Cite news| first=Robert | last=Beverley | author-link= Robert Beverley Jr. | title=Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither | publisher=University of North Carolina | url =http://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/beverley/beverley.html | work =The History and Present State of Virginia, In Four Parts | page = 24 (Book II) | access-date = 2008-12-15 }}</ref>}}

Common names for ''Datura stramonium'' vary by region<ref name=cabi/> and include thornapple,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs|last=Bunney|first=Sarah}}</ref> moon flower,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.herbalsafety.utep.edu/facts.asp?ID=46 |access-date=2013-02-13 |title=Jimsonweed |publisher=University of Texas El Paso / Austin Cooperative Pharmacy Program & Paso del Norte Health Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729210844/http://www.herbalsafety.utep.edu/facts.asp?ID=46 |archive-date=29 July 2013 }}</ref> hell's bells, devil's trumpet, devil's weed, ''tolguacha'', Jamestown weed, stinkweed, locoweed, pricklyburr, false castor oil plant,<ref>{{cite book|author=Joseph Henry Maiden|title=The Weeds of New South Wales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNlBAAAAIAAJ|volume=1|year=1920|publisher=W.A. Gullick, Government printer|page=76|quote= Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant)}}</ref> and devil's cucumber.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.luontoportti.com/suomi/en/kukkakasvit/jimson-weed|title=Thorn-apple, Datura stramonium – Flowers – NatureGate|work=luontoportti.com}}</ref>

==Range and habitat==
''Datura stramonium'' is native to Central America, but was spread widely to the Old World early where it has also become [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]].<ref name=cabi/> It was scientifically described and named by Swedish botanist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753, although it had been described a century earlier by [[botany|botanists]] such as [[Nicholas Culpeper]].<ref>{{citation | last = Culpeper | first = Nicholas | title = Culpeper's Complete Herbal | publisher = W Foulsham & Co Ltd | location = Slough | pages = [https://archive.org/details/culpeperscomplet00culp/page/368 368–369] | date = 1653 | isbn = 978-0-572-00203-9 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/culpeperscomplet00culp/page/368 }}</ref> Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and temperate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures.<ref name="Preissel" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Veblen|first=K.E.|title=Savanna glade hotspots: Plant community development and synergy with large herbivores|journal=Journal of Arid Environments|year=2012|volume=78|pages=119–127|doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.016|bibcode=2012JArEn..78..119V|url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1315&context=wild_facpub}}</ref><ref>Oudhia P., Tripathi R.S.(1998).Allelopathic potential of ''Datura stramonium'' L.. Crop. Res. 16 (1) : 37-40.</ref> In Europe, it is found as a weed in garbage dumps and wastelands,<ref name="Preissel">{{Cite book| author1 = Preissel, Ulrike  |author2=Hans-Georg Preissel | title = Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples | publisher = Firefly Books | year = 2002 | pages = 124–125 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fRlIAAAAYAAJ| isbn = 978-1-55209-598-0 }}</ref> and is toxic to animals consuming it.<ref name="Cor">{{cite journal | last1=Cortinovis | first1=Cristina | last2=Caloni | first2=Francesca | title=Alkaloid-containing plants poisonous to cattle and horses in Europe | journal=Toxins| volume=7 | issue=12 | date=8 December 2015 | issn=2072-6651 | pmid=26670251 | pmc=4690134 | doi=10.3390/toxins7124884 | pages=5301–5307| doi-access=free }}</ref> In South Africa, it is colloquially known by the [[Afrikaans]] name {{lang|af|malpitte}} ('mad seeds').<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/samj/article/view/171665/161066 |title=Malpitte Madness |date=1974-12-21 |access-date=2022-01-29 |journal=S. A. Medical Journal}}</ref>

Through observation, the seed is thought to be carried by birds and spread in their droppings.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} Its seeds can lie dormant underground for years and germinate when the soil is disturbed. The [[Royal Horticultural Society]] has advised worried gardeners to dig it up or have it otherwise removed,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hortweek.com/deadly-harry-potter-plant-devils-snare-turns-suffolk-pensioners-garden/landscape/article/925855|title=Deadly Harry Potter plant devil's snare turns up in Suffolk pensioner's garden|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref> while wearing gloves to handle it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawlishnewspapers.co.uk/article.cfm?id=279&headline=There's%20a%20devil%20in%20my%20garden...&sectionIs=news&searchyear=2009|title=There's a devil in my garden...|work=Dawlish Newspapers|access-date=2017-08-30|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Toxicity==
All parts of ''Datura'' plants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloids [[atropine]], [[hyoscyamine]], and [[scopolamine]], all of which are classified as [[deliriants]], or [[anticholinergic]]s.<ref name=cabi/><ref name=Glatstein/> The risk of fatal [[overdose]] is high among uninformed users, and many hospitalizations occur among recreational users who ingest the plant for its [[psychoactive]] effects.<ref name=Glatstein/><ref name="Preissel" /><ref>AJ Giannini,''Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition''. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Corporation, pp.48-51.  {{ISBN|1-57066-053-0}}.</ref> Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|author=Pennachio, Marcello|title=Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-537001-0|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pr9fgQIr5LkC&pg=PA7|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Numerous other alkaloids have been detected at lower levels in the plant including [[methylecgonine]] in the roots, [[apoatropine]] in the stems, leaves, and other parts, and [[tropine]] in the flowers and other parts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=El Bazaoui |first1=Ahmed |last2=Bellimam |first2=My Ahmed |last3=Soulaymani |first3=Abdelmajid |title=Nine new tropane alkaloids from ''Datura stramonium'' L. identified by GC/MS |journal=Fitoterapia |date=March 2011 |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=193–197 |doi=10.1016/j.fitote.2010.09.010|pmid=20858536 }}</ref>

The amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 20:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions.<ref name="Preissel" /> A particularly strong difference has been found between plants growing in their native ranges and plants that have adjusted to growing in non-native ranges: in the latter, the atropine and scopolamine concentration may be up to 20–40 times lower than in the native range. It is suspected that this is an evolutionary response to lower predatory pressures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castillo |first1=Guillermo |last2=Calahorra-Oliart |first2=Adriana |last3=Núñez-Farfán |first3=Juan |last4=Valverde |first4=Pedro L. |last5=Arroyo |first5=Juan |last6=Cruz |first6=Laura L. |last7=Tapia-López |first7=Rosalinda |date=23 August 2019 |title=Selection on tropane alkaloids in native and non-native populations of Datura stramonium |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=10176–10184 |doi=10.1002/ece3.5520 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=6787939 |pmid=31632642|bibcode=2019EcoEv...910176C }}</ref> Additionally, within a given plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Nellis, David W.|title=Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean|publisher=Pineapple Press|year=1997|isbn=978-1-56164-111-6|page=237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8xJE2NfQpIC&pg=PA237}}</ref> In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm.<ref name="Preissel" /> An individual seed contains about 0.1&nbsp;mg of atropine, and the approximate fatal dose for adult humans is >10&nbsp;mg atropine or >2–4&nbsp;mg scopolamine.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Arnett AM|title=Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium) poisoning |journal=Clinical Toxicology Review |date=December 1995 |volume=18 |issue=3 |url=http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura_info5.shtml}}</ref>

''Datura'' [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]] typically produces delirium, hallucination, [[hyperthermia]], [[tachycardia]], bizarre behavior, [[urinary retention]], and severe [[mydriasis]], with resultant painful [[photophobia]] that can last several days.<ref name=Glatstein/> Pronounced [[amnesia]] is another commonly reported effect.<ref name="Freye">{{Cite book| last = Freye | first = Enno | title = Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs | publisher = Springer Netherlands | date = 21 September 2009 | pages = 217–218 | doi = 10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34| isbn = 978-90-481-2447-3 }}</ref> The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last as long as two weeks.<ref name="auto"/>

As with other cases of anticholinergic poisoning, intravenous [[physostigmine]] can be administered in severe cases as an antidote.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Goldfrank, Lewis R.  |author2=Flommenbaum, Neil|title=Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2006|isbn=978-0-07-147914-1|page=677|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvJuLqBxGUcC&pg=PA677}}</ref>

=== Natural defenses ===
These chemical production responses present in ''Datura stramonium'' function as a natural defense for the plant against dangers.<ref name="Valverde-2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Valverde |first1=P. L. |last2=Fornoni |first2=J. |last3=Nunez-Farfan |first3=J. |date=11 December 2002 |title=Evolutionary ecology of Datura stramonium: equal plant fitness benefits of growth and resistance against herbivory |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=127–137 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00482.x |pmid=14635887 |s2cid=43040585 |issn=1010-061X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Such dangers can range from biotic factors such as [[herbivore]]s, [[pathogen]]s, [[virus]]es, [[Fungus|fungi]] and [[oomycete]]s to abiotic conditions such as drought, light, temperature, and nutrient deprivation. ''Datura stramonium'' can adjust to all these conditions through protein activity that is correlated with specific domains. Examples of this are [[terpenoid]] production to target herbivores present in multiple sites and abiotic stress responses. The abiotic responses are driven primarily by protein [[kinase]] regulatory subunits which are over-represented, expanded, and positively selected. These traits also show signs of [[physicochemical]] divergence, which put emphasis on the plant's overall adaptability.<ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=De-la-Cruz |first1=I. M. |last2=Hallab |first2=A. |last3=Olivares-Pinto |first3=U. |last4=Tapia-López |first4=R. |last5=Velázquez-Márquez |first5=S. |last6=Piñero |first6=D. |last7=Oyama |first7=K. |last8=Usadel |first8=B. |last9=Núñez-Farfán |first9=J. |date=2021-01-13 |title=Genomic signatures of the evolution of defence against its natural enemies in the poisonous and medicinal plant Datura stramonium (Solanaceae) |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=882 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79194-1 |pmid=33441607 |pmc=7806989 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> In addition to this, terpenoids play a key role in mediating plant defense responses, as they trigger terpene [[metabolite]] activity.<ref name="Jirschitzka-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Jirschitzka |first1=Jan |last2=Schmidt |first2=Gregor W. |last3=Reichelt |first3=Michael |last4=Schneider |first4=Bernd |last5=Gershenzon |first5=Jonathan |last6=D’Auria |first6=John Charles |date=2012-06-26 |title=Plant tropane alkaloid biosynthesis evolved independently in the Solanaceae and Erythroxylaceae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=26 |pages=10304–10309 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1200473109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3387132 |pmid=22665766 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10910304J |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" /> Such activity has the effect of defending against herbivore damage through a [[wikt:sulfakinin|sulfakinin]] (SK) domain that reduces sensitivity of taste receptors for certain insects that come into contact with the plant. Additionally, terpenoids serve as attractants for carnivorous entities that would then attack these same herbivores. Gene domains relating to this [[immune response]] have been seen in positively selected and expanded proteins in Datura stramonium.<ref name="Jirschitzka-2012" /> Overall, these compounds target the central nervous systems of organisms that ingest them, to deter the herbivorous behavior.<ref name="maud-desc" /> Terpenoids are also used for plant-to-plant communication, which could be used for a community-wide threat response.<ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" /> ''Datura stramonium'' also features leaf trichomes as a defensive trait to prevent herbivory.<ref>Castillo, G., Cruz, L. L., Tapia-López, R., Olmedo-Vicente, E., Carmona, D., Anaya-Lang, A. L., Fornoni, J., Andraca-Gómez, G., Valverde, P. L., & Núñez-Farfán, J. (2014). Selection mosaic exerted by specialist and generalist herbivores on chemical and physical defense of Datura stramonium. PLoS ONE, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102478</ref>

The physiology of the plant itself is important for understanding patterns of defense as its status as an annual plant limits opportunities for biomass regrowth post-destruction, due to its inability to engage regrowth [[meristem]]s. This results in the leaves being susceptible to injury from even small instances of attacks. To compensate, they have a large initial size for redundancy. These leaves also have a greater longevity and ability to [[Metabolism|metabolize]] even when damaged. However, the way these plants have evolved to display these characteristics differs from traditional defense mechanisms, as ''Datura stramonium'' uses a combination of both resistance and growth simultaneously to address these issues, instead of relying exclusively on one or the other. It has been hypothesized that this is due to the fact that these two methods have no negative correlation between them in experimental conditions. However, resource limitations may result in a tradeoff between one method of defense versus the other. In addition, herbivores are not solely the driving force that triggers these responses within the plant. Another factor that impacts behavior is the fact that due to the wide habitat range, a number of different, region-specific response patterns have been observed. However, these defensive responses have been observed to have varying impacts on growth and fitness when put to the test against predators. Studies in ecological reserves have shown that herbivore presence can either increase or decrease plant growth, fitness, and resistance. These results can be attributed to the significant genetic variation of the individual variants present in testing.<ref name="Valverde-2002" />

=== Regional variation ===
The ''Datura'' genus itself has seen little research done in regards to its various genomic sequences. As such, it is difficult to track the evolution of its traits (aside from a few instances of model species), which results in a limited understanding of how it has evolved to adapt to various environmental conditions. However, some limited studies have been done into ''Datura'' diversity. ''Datura stramonium'' diverged from the rest of the ''Datura'' genus around 30{{nbsp}}million years ago. This terminal branch has the most rapidly significant, evolving gene families compared to other members of the Solanaceae family. The most recent contractions in the tree also correspond with the [[most recent common ancestor]] of the ''Datura'' species [[clade]]. However, the subspecies of ''Datura stramonium'' tend to vary greatly in regards to both gene family contractions and expansions. Variables such as immunity, response to abiotic stress, and defense against biotic threats determine [[Insertion (genetics)|gene expansion]] signaling, positive selection, and [[physicochemical]] divergence. Despite this, ''Datura'' genomes have high amounts of repetitive DNA elements even compared to other Solanaceae species' genomes, in addition to a recent, yet independent surge in [[retrotransposon]] expansion. Major genomic variations have been witnessed, most likely through the rapid spread of the plant's range due to human behavior. An example of this is a 59-fold difference in [[tropane alkaloid]] concentration present in different regions of Mexico.<ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" /> ''Datura stramonium'' regional variants have been observed to have an overall similar genome size to each other.<ref name="Valverde-2002" /><ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" />

=== Tropane alkaloid evolution and implementation ===
Tropane alkaloid [[biosynthesis]] is another avenue of defense with [[codons]] positively selected and expanded in the ''Datura'' branch. It is aided by the tropane alkaloid [[Littorine]] rearrangement which is very important to [[scopolamine]] and [[atropine]]/[[hyoscyamine]] production, all of which serve to debilitate any organism that would come into contact with them. ''Datura stramonium'' has the highest tropane alkaloid production level in all the Solanaceae family, with scopolamine, atropine, and [[anisodamine]] being the primary tropane alkaloids found in the plant that inhibit [[neurotransmitter]]s. The ''[[PMT (gene)|pmt]]'' gene family responsible for tropane alkaloid development has been observed to have significant gene expansion in the ''Datura'' genus evolution. The least common ancestor had only one gene copy, while modern variants have a range of three to two present, which results in higher mutation rates for traits involved with these various alkaloids.<ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" /> Use of tropane alkaloids, however, has had development spread out around many [[angiosperm]] families and evolutionary distances. Their presence has been reported to have arisen multiple times in Solanaceae lineages, some instances of which being independent of each other. This gives credence to the same diversification of tropane alkaloid production witnessed in the ''Datura stramonium'' regional variants.<ref name="Jirschitzka-2012" /> Another aspect of these varying Solanaceae lineages is that [[enzyme]]s from completely different protein groups have been observed to be utilized to form similar biosynthesis reactions. In addition to this, differing [[protein folds]] and domain expressions correlate to different levels of tropane alkaloid production.<ref name="De-la-Cruz-2021" />

===Poisoning incidents===
In Australia in December 2022, around 200 people reported becoming ill after eating products containing spinach, sold mostly through [[Costco]]. ''Datura stramonium'' was identified as the contaminant, whose young leaves had been picked alongside the spinach leaves. The weed had spread due to increased rainfall. The grower, Riviera Farms, is from the [[Gippsland]] region of [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]], and acted promptly to eradicate the weed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-22/noxious-weed-spinach-poison-thornapple-explainer/101800170 |title=Noxious weed thornapple responsible identified as spinach contaminant, after about 200 Australians became ill |date=22 December 2022 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation }}</ref>

==Uses==
===Traditional medicine===
[[File:Datura str tat5.JPG|''D. stramonium'' var. ''tatula'', flower (front)|thumb|right]]

One of the primary active agents in ''Datura'' is [[atropine]], which has been used in [[traditional medicine]] and for recreation over centuries.<ref name=cabi/><ref name=Glatstein/> The leaves are generally smoked, either in a cigarette or a pipe.

During the late 18th century, James Anderson, the English Physician General of the [[East India Company]], learned of the practice and popularized it in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |author=Barceloux, Donald G. |chapter=Cáscara |title=Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-118-38276-9 |page=1877 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTTBPedwFfAC&pg=PT1877}}</ref><ref name="Pennachio-2010-p6">{{Cite book |author=Pennachio, Marcello |title=Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-537001-0 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pr9fgQIr5LkC&pg=PA6 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The Chinese also used it as a form of [[anesthesia]] during surgery.<ref name="Nellis-1997-p238">{{Cite book|author=Nellis, David W. |title=Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean |publisher=Pineapple Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-56164-111-6 |page=238 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8xJE2NfQpIC&pg=PA238}}</ref>

===Early folk medicine===
[[John Gerard]]'s ''Herball'' (1597) states,<ref name="maud-desc" />
{{Blockquote|[T]he juice of Thornapple, boiled with hog's grease, cureth all inflammations whatsoever, all manner of burnings and scaldings, as well of fire, water, boiling lead, gunpowder, as that which comes by lightning and that in very short time, as myself have found in daily practice, to my great credit and profit.|sign=|source=}}
[[William Lewis (scientist)|William Lewis]] reported, in the late 18th century, that the juice could be made into "a very powerful remedy in various convulsive and spasmodic disorders, epilepsy and mania," and was also "found to give ease in external inflammations and [[haemorrhoids]]".<ref>[[William Lewis (scientist)|William Lewis]], [https://chestofbooks.com/health/materia-medica-drugs/Experimental-History-Materia-Medica/Stramonium.html "An Experimental History Of The Materia Medica: Stramonium"]</ref>

Henry Hyde Salter discusses ''D. stramonium'' as a treatment for [[asthma]] in his 19th-century work ''On Asthma: its Pathology and Treatment''. Smoking of herbs, including ''D. stramonium'', was thought to provide relief for [[asthma]]tics since [[Ancient History|antiquity]] and into the early 20th century.<ref name="von MutiusDrazen2012">{{cite journal|last1=von Mutius|first1=Erika|last2=Drazen|first2=Jeffrey M.|title=A Patient with Asthma Seeks Medical Advice in 1828, 1928, and 2012|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=366|issue=9|year=2012|pages=827–834|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1102783|pmid=22375974|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Jackson2011" /> The  use of smoking ''D. stramonium'' to treat asthma would later wane following new understandings of [[asthma]] as an allergic inflammatory reaction, and developments in pharmacology that provided more effective treatments.<ref name="Jackson2011">{{cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Mark|title="Divine Stramonium": The Rise and Fall of Smoking for Asthma|journal=Medical History|volume=54|issue=2|year=2011|pages=171–194|issn=0025-7273|doi=10.1017/S0025727300000235|pmid=20357985|pmc=2844275|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Spiritualism and the occult===
[[File:Datura stramonium Bieluń dziędzierzawa Seed 01.jpg|thumb|right|Seed capsule, showing [[dehiscence (botany)|dehiscence]] of the four valves to release seeds]]

Across the Americas, indigenous peoples, such as the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]], [[Aztecs]], [[Navajo]], [[Cherokee]], [[Luiseño]] and the indigenous peoples of [[Marie-Galante]] used this plant or other ''Datura'' species in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.<ref name="Biaggioni-2011-p77">{{cite book |author=Biaggioni, Italo |title=Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System |publisher=Academic Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-12-386525-0 |page=77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FycmOkb-T1gC&pg=PA77 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="Pennachio-2010-pp82-83">{{Cite book |author=Pennachio, Marcello |title=Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-537001-0 |pages=82–83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pr9fgQIr5LkC&pg=PA82 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Davis, Wade |title=The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83929-5 |page={{page needed |date=July 2012}} |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAs-JZ1MhoMC}}</ref> In [[Ethiopia]], some students and [[debtera|''debtrawoch'']] (lay priests), use ''D. stramonium'' to "open the mind" to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking.<ref>{{cite book |author=Molvaer, Reidulf Knut |title=Socialization and Social Control in Ethiopia |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1995 |isbn=978-3-447-03662-7 |page=259 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F6dW0EPJiVAC&pg=PA259}}</ref>

The common name "datura" has its origins in [[India]], where the sister species ''[[Datura metel]]'' is considered particularly sacred – believed to be a favorite of [[Shiva]] in [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Pennachio, Marcello |title=Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-537001-0 |pages=6 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Both ''Datura stramonium'' and ''D. metel'' have reportedly been used by some [[sadhus]] and [[charnel ground]] ascetics, such as the [[Aghori]], as both an [[entheogen]] and ritual poison. It was sometimes mixed with [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], as well as highly poisonous plants like ''[[Aconitum ferox]]'', to intentionally create dysphoric experiences.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants : Ethnopharmacology and its Applications'', Rätsch, Christian, pub. Park Street Press U.S.A. 2005</ref> The ascetics have used unpleasant or toxic plants such as these in order to achieve spiritual liberation (''[[moksha]]''), in settings of extreme horror and discomfort.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.today.com/popculture/indian-doc-focuses-hindu-cannibal-sect-wbna9842124|title=Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect|publisher=Today (American TV program)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Svoboda|first= Robert |year=1986|title= Aghora: At the Left Hand of God {{!}} Brotherhood of Life|publisher= Brotherhood of Life |isbn=0-914732-21-8}}</ref>

Among its visionary purposes, jimsonweed also garnered a reputation for supposed magical uses in various cultures throughout history. In his book, [[The Serpent and the Rainbow (book)|''The Serpent and the Rainbow'']], [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]] identified ''D. stramonium'', called "zombi cucumber" in [[Haiti]], as a central ingredient of the concoction [[Haitian Vodou|vodou]] priests use to create [[zombie]]s.<ref>[[Clairvius Narcisse]]</ref><ref>Davis, Wade (1985), ''The Serpent and the Rainbow'', New York: Simon & Schuster</ref> However, it has been noted that the process of ''zombification'' is not directly performed by vodou priests of the [[loa]] but rather by ''[[bokor]]s''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Wade |year=1988 |title=Passage of Darkness: The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie |others=Robert F. Thompson, Richard E. Schultes |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-1776-7}}</ref> In European witchcraft, ''D. stramonium'' was also supposedly a common ingredient used for making [[Flying ointment|witches' flying ointment]] along with other poisonous plants of the [[nightshade family]].<ref>Rätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications'' pub. Park Street Press 2005</ref> It was often responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of magical or [[lycanthropic]] salves and potions.<ref name="Schultes, Richard Evans 1979"/><ref>Hansen, Harold A. ''The Witch's Garden'' pub. Unity Press 1978 {{ISBN|978-0913300473}}</ref> During the [[witch]]-phobia craze in [[Early Modern]] times in England and parts of the colonial [[Northeastern United States]], it was often considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow the plant in one's garden, as it was considered to be an aid to [[incantations]].<ref name="maud-desc"/>

==Cultivation==
''Datura stramonium'' prefers rich, [[calcareous]] soil. Adding [[nitrogen fertilizer]] to the soil increases the concentration of [[alkaloid]]s present in the plant. ''D. stramonium'' can be grown from seed, which is sown with several feet between plants. It is sensitive to frost, so should be sheltered during cold weather. The plant is harvested when the fruits are ripe, but still green. To harvest, the entire plant is cut down, the leaves are stripped from the plant, and everything is left to dry. When the fruits begin to burst open, the seeds are harvested. For intensive plantations, leaf yields of {{convert|1100|to|1700|kg/ha|lb/acre|-2}} and seed yields of {{convert|780|kg/ha|abbr=on}} are possible.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chopra, I.C.|title=Indigenous Drugs of India|publisher=Academic Publishers|year=2006|isbn=9788185086804|page=143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HyC4-GJ50YC&pg=PA134}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline}}
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DAST USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Profile: ''Datura stramonium'' L.]
* [http://www.liberherbarum.com/Pn0303.HTM ''Datura stramonium'' at Liber Herbarum II]
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/ ''Datura'' spp.] at [[Erowid]]
* [http://naturdata.com/Datura-stramonium-4861.htm ''Datura stramonium'' Pictures and information]

{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Cholinergics}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q30959}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Datura|stramonium]]
[[Category:Deliriants]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of North America]]
[[Category:Native American religion]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Flora of Mexico]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]