Editing Dacia

{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in Southeastern Europe (168 BC–106 AD)}}
{{About|a historic region in Southeastern Europe|the Romanian automobile maker|Automobile Dacia|other uses}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = <!--Dacian Kingdom-->
| conventional_long_name = Dacian Kingdom
| common_name            = Dacia
| era                    = [[Classical antiquity]]
| status                 = 
| year_start             = {{circa|168 BC}}
| year_end               = 106 AD
| date_start             = 
| date_end               = 
| event1                 = [[Domitian's Dacian War]]
| date_event1            = 84–88 AD
| event2                 = [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]]
| date_event2            = 101–106 AD
| religion               = [[Thracian mythology|Thracian polytheism]], [[Dacian religion|Zamolxism]]||<!--- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities p1 to p5 and s1 to s5 --->
| p1                     = Dacians
| flag_p1                = 
| p2                     = Getae
| p3                     = Thracians
| s1                     = Roman Dacia
| flag_s1                = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
| border_s1              = no
| s2                     = Free Dacians
| flag_s2                = Dacian Draco.svg
| border_s2              = no
| image_flag             = Dacian Draco.svg
| flag_border            = no
| flag_size              = 160px
| flag_alt               = Dacian draco
| flag_type              = Dacian draco
| flag                   = Dacian draco
| image_map              = Dacia 82 BC.png
| image_map_caption      = Dacia under Burebista {{circa|82}} BC
| common_languages       = [[Dacian language|Dacian]]
| capital                = [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]]
| national_anthem        = 
| government_type        = Monarchy
| title_leader           = King
| leader1 = [[Rubobostes]]
| year_leader1 = early 2nd century BC
| leader2 = [[Oroles]]
| year_leader2 = first half of the 2nd century BC
| leader3 = [[Burebista]]
| year_leader3 = 82–44 BC
| leader4 = [[Deceneus]]
| year_leader4 = 44–27 BC
| leader5 = [[Comosicus]]
| year_leader5 = 27 BC – 29 AD
| leader6 = [[Scorilo]]
| year_leader6 = 29–69 AD
| leader7 = [[Duras (Dacian king)|Duras]]
| year_leader7 = 69–87 AD
| leader8 = [[Decebalus]]
| year_leader8 = 87–106 AD
| title_representative   = 
| representative1        = [[Deceneus]] ([[viceroy]]/king)
| representative2        = Comosicus (later a king)
| title_deputy           = 
| year_deputy1           = 
| deputy2                = 
| year_deputy2           = 
| stat_year1             = 
| stat_area1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 
| footnotes              = 
| demonym                = [[Dacians|Dacian]]
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
| currency               = [[Coson | Koson]]
| today                  = {{ubl|[[Romania]]|[[Moldova]]|[[Ukraine]]|[[Slovakia]]|[[Czech Republic]]|[[Poland]]|[[Hungary]]|[[Serbia]]|[[Bulgaria]]}}
}}
[[File:Sarmisegetusa Regia - Zona sacra – Gradistea Muntelui, Muntii Sureanu, Hunedoara, Romania 21.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Sarmisgetusa Regia|A section of the Sarmizegetusa ruins.]]
{{Dacia series}}

'''Dacia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|eɪ|ʃ|ə}}, {{respell|DAY|shə}}; {{IPA|la|ˈd̪aː.ki.a|lang}}) was the land inhabited by the [[Dacians]], its core in [[Transylvania]], stretching to the [[Danube]] in the south, the [[Black Sea]] in the east, and the [[Tisza]] in the west. The [[Carpathian Mountains]] were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus roughly corresponds to present-day [[Romania]], as well as parts of [[Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovakia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web |date=2024-08-08 |title=Dacia {{!}} Europe, Map, Culture, & History |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dacia |access-date=2024-09-06 |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

A '''Dacian kingdom''' that united the Dacians and the [[Getae]] was formed under the rule of [[Burebista]] in 82 BC and lasted until the Roman conquest in AD 106.  As a result of the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|wars with the Roman Empire]], after the conquest of Dacia, the population was dispersed, and the capital city, [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]], was destroyed by the Romans. However, the Romans built a settlement bearing the same name, [[Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa|Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetuza]], 40&nbsp;km away, to serve as the capital of the newly established [[Roman Dacia|Roman province of Dacia]]. A group of "[[Free Dacians]]" may have remained outside the Roman Empire in the territory of modern-day Northern Romania until the start of the [[Migration Period]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

== Nomenclature ==
{{Main|Dacians#Name and etymology}}

The Dacians are first mentioned in the writings of the [[Ancient Greeks]], in [[Herodotus]] (''Histories'' Book IV XCIII: "[Getae] the noblest as well as the most just of all the Thracian tribes") and [[Thucydides]] (''Peloponnesian Wars'', Book II: "[Getae] border on the Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being all mounted archers").{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=145–146}} Some historians argue that [[Daxia]] (mentioned in [[3rd century BC]]) was the previous home of [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] [[nomad]]s{{Refn|Mainly the [[Dahae]] and [[Massagetae]]}} who later came to form the [[Getae|Geto]]-[[Dacians|Dacian]] people.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Padányi |first=Viktor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N95HAAAAMAAJ |title=Dentumagyaria |date=1963 |publisher=Editorial Transsylvania |language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hollósy |first=István |url=http://mtda.hu/books/hollosy_istvan_magyarorszag_oslakoi.pdf |title=Magyarország őslakói és az oláhok eredete |date=1913 |publisher=Mór Ráth |trans-title=Natives of Hungary and the origin of the Vlachs}}</ref>

==Geographical history==
{{Main|History of Dacia}}
[[File:Territorial_Evolution_of_the_Dacian_tribes_and_kingdoms_(Author_Portasa_Cristian)_(Platform_HistoAtlas_and_Wikipedia).webm|thumb|alt=Dacia|The territorial evolution of the Dacian tribes and kingdoms until the Roman conquest, according to ancient sources.]]
[[File:Daci Terra Getarum cf Strabo.JPG|thumb|200px|Dacia cf. [[Strabo]] ({{Circa|20}} AD){{sfn|Müller|1877|loc=tabulae XV}}]]
[[File:Harta Dacia Brue Adrien Hubert.jpg|thumb|The map of Dacia by [[Brue Adrien Hubert]] (1826)]]
[[File:Sarmizegetusa Regia 2011 2.jpg|thumb|200px|View of the sanctuary from [[Dacians]]' capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]]]]
[[File:Ptolemy Cosmographia Dacia+Danube.jpg|thumb|200px|Dacia map cf. Ptolemy (2nd century AD)]]
The extent and location of Dacia varied in its three distinct historical periods (see below):
[[File:Dacia after 100 AD..jpg|thumb|Dacia after 100 AD]]

{{For|earlier events|Prehistory of Transylvania|Prehistory of Romania|Celts in Transylvania}}

=== 1st century BC ===
The Dacia of [[Burebista|King Burebista]] (82–44 BC) stretched from the [[Black Sea]] to the river [[Tisza]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite encyclopedia|title=History of Romania – Antiquity – The Dacians |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date=15 July 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508461/Romania/214504/History#ref=ref476941}}</ref> During that period, the Getae and Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and [[Pontic Olbia]]) and from the [[Northern Carpathians]] to the Balkan Mountains.{{sfn|Murray|2001|p=1120}} After [[Burebista]]'s death in 44 BC, Dacia plunged into internal strife, resembling a [[civil war]], as his unified kingdom split into several rival states. The constant power struggle weakened Dacia, but the Dacians remained a significant force, frequently making incursions into Roman territory. Stability was only restored when [[Duras (Dacian king)|Duras]] and later [[Decebalus]] managed to reunite the kingdom.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

=== 1st century AD ===
[[File:Dacian_Kingdom_under_Burebista.png|thumb|alt=Dacia under Burebista 45 BC|The biggest extent of the Dacian Kingdom under Burebista according to Strabo]]
Strabo, in his Geography written around AD 20, says:

<blockquote>″As for the [[Southern Germany|southern part of Germany]] beyond the [[Albis]], the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the [[Suebi|Suevi]]; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the [[Getae]], which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister [<nowiki/>[[Danube]]] on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the [[Hercynian Forest]] (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the [[Tyragetae|Tyregetae]]; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries″</blockquote><ref name=Strabo1>[[Strabo]], ''Geography''</ref>

On this basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the [[Tisza]] river prior to the rise of the Celtic [[Boii]].{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}}<!-- STRABO IS A PRIMARY SOURCE: {{sfn | Strabo | VII.3.1 |ps=: As for the southern part of Germany beyond the Albis, the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae, which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyregetae; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries.}}<ref>Strabo (20 AD) v. 1.6; vii 1.3; vii 5.2</ref> --> The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and the Tisza was tenuous.{{sfn|Lengyel|Radan|1980|p=87|ps=: "No matter where the Boii first settled after they left Italia, however, when they arrived at the Danube they had to fight the Dacians who held the entire territory – or at least part of it. Strabo tells us that later animosity between the Dacians and the Boii stemmed from the fact that the Dacians demanded the land from the latter which the Dacians pretended to have possessed earlier."}} However, the archaeologist Parducz argued for a Dacian presence west of the [[Tisza|Tisa]] dating from the time of Burebista.{{sfn|Ehrich|1970|p=228}} According to [[Tacitus]] (AD 56–117) Dacians bordered Germania in the south-east, while [[Sarmatians]] bordered it in the east.{{sfn|Gruen|2011|p=204|ps=: Germany as a whole is separated from the Gauls and from the Raetians and Pannonians by the rivers Rhine and Danube, from the Sarmatians and Dacians by mutual fear or mountains; the ocean surrounds the rest of it}}

In the 1st century AD, the [[Iazyges]] settled West of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisa rivers, according to the scholars' interpretation of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s text: "The higher parts between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest, as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnutum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss".{{sfn|Hrushevskyi|1997|p=93}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1980|p=60}}<!-- PLINY IS A PRIMARY SOURCE: {{sfn|Pliny's Natural History|2000|p=179}} -->{{sfn|Carnap-Bornheim|2003|p=228}}{{sfn|Shelley|1997|p=10}}

=== 2nd century AD ===
{{Main|Trajan's Dacian Wars|Roman Dacia}}

Starting with AD 85, Dacia was once again reunified under [[Decebalus|King Decebalus]]. Following an incursion into Roman [[Moesia]], which resulted in the death of its governor, [[Gaius Oppius Sabinus]], a series of conflicts between the Romans and Dacians ensued. Although the Romans gained a major strategic victory at [[Tapae]] in AD 88, [[Domitian|Emperor Domitian]] offered the Dacians favourable terms, in exchange for which Roman suzerainty was recognised. However, [[Trajan|Emperor Trajan]] restarted the conflicts in AD 101-102 and then again in AD 105–106, which ended with the annexation of most of Dacia and its reorganisation as a [[Roman province|Roman Province]], [[Roman Dacia|Dacia Felix]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Written a few decades after Emperor [[Trajan]]'s Roman conquest of parts of Dacia in AD 105–106,{{sfn|Mattern|2002|p=61}} Ptolemy's ''[[Geographia]]'' included the boundaries of Dacia. According to the scholars' interpretation of Ptolemy (Hrushevskyi 1997, Bunbury 1879, Mocsy 1974, Bărbulescu 2005) Dacia was the region between the rivers [[Tisza]], Danube, upper Dniester, and Siret.{{sfn|Hrushevskyi|1997|p=97|ps=: "Dacia, as described by Ptolemy, occupied the region between the Tisa, Danube, upper Dnister, and Seret, while the Black Sea coast – namely, the Greek colonies of Tyras, Olbia, and others – were included in Lower Moesia."}}{{sfn|Bunbury|1979|p=517}}{{sfn |Mocsy|1974|p=21}}{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=71}} Mainstream historians accept this interpretation: Avery (1972) Berenger (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006).{{sfn|Berenger|1994|p=25}}{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}}{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=205}}{{sfn|Avery|1972|p=113}}{{sfn|Fol|1996|p=223}}

Ptolemy also provided a couple of Dacian [[toponyms]] in south Poland in the Upper [[Vistula]] (Polish: Wisla) river basin: [[Susudava]] and [[Setidava]] (with a manuscript variant [[Getidava]]).{{sfn|Dobiáš|1964|p=70}}{{sfn|Berindei|Candea|2001|p=429}}{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}}{{sfn|Giurescu|Giurescu|1974|p=31}} This could have been an "echo" of Burebista's expansion.{{sfn|Berindei|Candea|2001|p=429}} It seems that this northern expansion of the Dacian language, as far as the Vistula river, lasted until AD 170–180 when the migration of the Vandal [[Hasdingi]] pushed out this northern Dacian group.{{sfn|Childe|1930|p=245}}{{sfn|Schütte|1917|pp=109 & 143}} This Dacian group, possibly the [[Costoboci]]/[[Lipitsa culture|Lipița culture]], is associated by [[Gudmund Schütte]] with towns having the specific Dacian language ending "[[Dava (Dacia)|dava]]" i.e. [[Setidava]].{{sfn|Schütte|1952|p=270}}

After the [[Marcomannic Wars]] (AD 166–180), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion. So too were the 12,000 Dacians "from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country". Their native country could have been the Upper Tisa region, but other places cannot be excluded.{{sfn|Opreanu|1997|p=249}}

The later Roman province ''[[Dacia Aureliana]]'', was organized inside former [[Moesia Superior]] after the retreat of the Roman army from Dacia, during the reign of emperor [[Aurelian]] during AD 271–275. It was reorganized as [[Dacia Ripensis]] (as a military province) and [[Dacia Mediterranea]] (as a civil province).{{sfn|Odahl|2003}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}

== Cities ==
{{Main|Davae|List of Dacian towns}}

Ptolemy gives a list of 43 names of towns in Dacia, out of which arguably 33 were of Dacian origin. Most of the latter included the added suffix "dava" (meaning settlement, village). But, other Dacian names from his list lack the suffix (e.g. Zarmisegethusa regia = Zermizirga). In addition, nine other names of Dacian origin seem to have been Latinised.{{sfn|Oltean|2007|p=114}}

The cities of the Dacians were known as ''-dava'', ''-deva'', -δαυα ("-dawa" or "-dava", [[Ancient Greek|Anc. Gk.]]), -δεβα ("-deva", [[Byzantine Greek|Byz. Gk.]]) or -δαβα ("-dava", [[Byzantine Greek|Byz. Gk.]]), etc. .

#In Dacia: ''[[Acidava]]'', ''[[Argedava]]'', ''[[Buridava]]'', ''Dokidava'', ''Carsidava'', ''Clepidava'', ''[[Cumidava]]'', ''Marcodava'', ''Netindava'', ''Patridava'', ''[[Craiova|Pelendava]]'', ''*Perburidava'', ''Petrodaua'', ''Piroboridaua'', ''Rhamidaua'', ''Rusidava'', ''Sacidava'', ''Sangidava'', ''Setidava'', ''Singidava'', ''Tamasidava'', ''Utidava'', ''Zargidava'', ''[[Ziridava]]'', ''Sucidava''{{snd}}26 names altogether.
# In Lower Moesia (the present Northern [[Bulgaria]]) and Scythia minor ([[Dobrudja]]): ''[[Aedeba]]'', ''*Buteridava'', ''*Giridava'', ''Dausadava'', ''Kapidaua'', ''Murideba'', ''Sacidava'', ''Scaidava'' (''Skedeba''), ''Sagadava'', ''Sukidaua'' (''Sucidava''){{snd}}10 names in total.
#In Upper Moesia (the districts of Nish, Sofia, and partly Kjustendil): ''[[Aiadaba]]'', ''Bregedaba'', ''Danedebai'', ''Desudaba'', ''Itadeba'', ''Kuimedaba'', ''Zisnudeba''{{snd}}seven names in total.

''Gil-doba'', a village in [[Thracia]], of unknown location.

''Thermi-daua'', a town in [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]]. Probably a Grecized form of ''*Germidava''.

''Pulpu-deva'', (Phillipopolis) today [[Plovdiv]] in [[Bulgaria]].

== Political entities ==

=== Rubobostes ===
{{Main|Rubobostes}}

Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic [[Boii]] and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista. It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership in military-political and ideological-religious domains.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}} At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, under the rule of [[Rubobostes]], a Dacian king in modern [[Transylvania]], Dacian power in the [[Carpathian basin]] increased after they defeated the [[Celts]], who previously held power in the region.

=== Oroles ===
{{Main|Oroles}}

A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under King [[Oroles]]. Conflicts with the [[Bastarnae]] and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the [[Scordisci]] and [[Dardani]], greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians.

=== Burebista ===
{{Main|Burebista}}

[[Burebista]] (Boerebista), a contemporary of [[Julius Caesar]], ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He thoroughly reorganised the army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to cut their vines and give up drinking wine.<ref name="StraboVII.3.11">Strabo, ''Geography'', VII:3.11</ref> During his reign, the Dacian Kingdom expanded to its maximum extent. The [[Bastarnae]] and [[Boii]] were conquered, and even the Greek towns of [[Pontic Olbia|Olbia]] and [[Apollonia, Thrace|Apollonia]] on the [[Black Sea]] (''Pontus Euxinus'') recognized [[Burebista]]'s authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the [[Hercynian Forest]].{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}}

Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}} During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital from [[Argedava]] to [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]].{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|p=48}}{{sfn|Goodman|Sherwood|2002|p=227}} For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King [[Decebalus]]. The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year, Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers.

=== Cotiso ===
{{Main|Cotiso}}

One of these entities was [[Cotiso]]'s state, to whom Augustus betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in [[Horace]] (''Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen'', Odes, III. 8. 18).

The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the province of [[Moesia]], which was under Roman occupation.

Strabo testified: "although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans."<ref name=Strabo1/>

In fact, this occurred because [[Burebista]]'s empire split after his death into four and later five smaller states, as Strabo explains, "only recently, when [[Augustus Caesar]] sent an expedition against them, the number of parts into which the empire had been divided was five, though at the time of the insurrection it had been four. Such divisions, to be sure, are only temporary and vary with the times".

=== Decebalus ===
{{Main|Decebalus}}

Decebalus ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east.{{sfn|Vico|Pinton|2004|p=325}} His name translates into "''strong as ten men''".

== Roman conquest ==
[[File:032 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XXXII.jpg|thumb|308x308px|Fiery battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies, [[Trajan's Column]], Rome]]
{{Main|Domitian's Dacian War|Trajan's Dacian Wars|Roman Dacia}}

When [[Trajan]] turned his attention to Dacia, it had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of [[Julius Caesar]] when a Roman army had been beaten at the [[Battle of Histria]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=322}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=213}}{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=215}}

From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under [[Decebalus]] were engaged in two wars with the Romans.

In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia.{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=216}}{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=53}} In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under [[Cornelius Fuscus]], were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus.{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=217}} After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of ''Decebalus'', but the Romans were victorious in the [[Battle of Tapae (88)|Battle of Tapae]] in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up.<ref name="Romanis REquote01">{{cite encyclopedia
|access-date=2007-11-08
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|encyclopedia=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions
|quote= Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), AD 105. During Trajan's reign Rome achieved victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians took place in the year AD 87 and was initiated by Domitian. The [[praetorian prefect]] [[Cornelius Fuscus|Cornelius]] led five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towards [[Banat]] (in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village of [[Băuțar|Bucova]], in Romania). Legion V Alaude was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious general was originally known as [[Diurpaneus]] (see Manea, p. 109), but after this victory he was called Decebalus (the brave one).}}</ref> The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under [[Tettius Julianus]], gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make peace following the defeat of [[Domitian]] by the [[Marcomanni]], leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome. To Rome, Domitian brought Italian peasants in Dacian clothing because he couldn't take slaves in the war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=Nándor |url=https://adt.arcanum.com/hu/collection/MTA_TolnaiVilagtortenelme/ |title=Tolnai Világtörténelme |editor-last=Mangold |editor-first=Lajos |location=[[Budapest]] |page=180 |language=hu |trans-title=World history of Tolnai |editor-last2=Horváth |editor-first2=Cirill |editor-last3=Ballagi |editor-first3=Aladár}}</ref>

To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines of [[Transylvania]]. The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles,{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=219}} and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital [[Sarmizegethusa]], Decebalus once more sought terms.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=329}}

[[File:Roman province of Dacia (106 - 271 AD).svg|thumb|[[Roman Dacia]] and [[Moesia Inferior]]]]
Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia,{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=222}} attacking the Dacian capital in the [[Siege of Sarmizegethusa]], and razing it to the ground;{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=223}} the defeated Dacian king [[Decebalus]] committed suicide to avoid capture.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=54}} With part of Dacia quelled as the [[Roman province]] [[Roman Dacia|Dacia Traiana]].{{sfn|Stoica|1919|p=52}} Trajan subsequently [[Trajan's Parthian War|invaded the Parthian empire]] to the east. His conquests brought the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of [[client states]], which led to less direct campaigning than in the west.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=39}}

Some of the history of the war is given by [[Cassius Dio]].<ref>J. Bennett. ''Trajan Optimus Princips'', Routledge, London and New York, 1997, pp. xii–xiii</ref> Trajan erected the [[Trajan's Column|Column of Trajan]] in [[Rome]] to commemorate his victory.<ref>Sinnegen & Boak. ''A History of Rome to A.D. 565'', 6th ed. MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, 1977 p. 312</ref>

===Provincial history===
Although the Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, a large remainder of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. Additionally, the conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of the Dacians became Romanised (see also [[Origin of Romanians]]). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor [[Commodus]], [[Clodius Albinus]] and [[Pescennius Niger]], both distinguished themselves in the campaign.

According to [[Lactantius]],<ref>"Of the Manner in which the persecutors died" by [[Lactantius]] (early Christian author AD 240–320)</ref> the Roman emperor [[Decius]] (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the [[Carpo-Dacians]] of [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] "having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia".

[[File:Rome-JA1.jpg|thumb|200px|Tarabostes on the [[Arch of Constantine]]]]
Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the [[Gothic tribes]], slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the [[Goths]] succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor [[Aurelian]]'s withdrawal, in 275.

In AD 268–269, at [[Naissus]], [[Claudius II]] (Gothicus Maximus) obtained a decisive victory over the Goths. Since at that time Romans were still occupying [[Roman Dacia]] it is assumed that the Goths didn't cross the Danube from the Roman province. The Goths who survived their defeat didn't even attempt to escape through Dacia, but through [[Thrace]].<ref>[[Battle of Naissus]] and [[Cladius Gothicus]]. Beside Zosimuss account there is also Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius.</ref> At the boundaries of [[Roman Dacia]], [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]] ([[Free Dacians]]) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom [[Constantine the Great]] fought.

The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the ''Breviarium historiae Romanae'' by [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|title=Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History (Historiae Romanae Breviarium)|last=Eutropious |website=www.ccel.org|access-date=2008-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220200338/http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|archive-date=2009-02-20|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Under [[Diocletian]], c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the [[Danube]].{{sfn|Odahl|2003}}

=== Late Roman Age (''c.''&nbsp;270&ndash;''c.''&nbsp;700)===

==== Constantinian reconquest ====
[[File:Dacia 337 AD.png|thumb|Gothic, Sarmatian and Dacian conquests of [[Constantine the Great]]]]
In 328 the emperor [[Constantine the Great]] inaugurated the [[Constantine's Bridge (Danube)]] at Sucidava, (today Corabia in Romania){{sfn|Madgearu|2008|pp=64–126}} in hopes of reconquering [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]], a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the [[Sarmatian]]s against the [[Goths]]. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In celebration of this victory Constantine took the title ''Gothicus Maximus'' and claimed the subjugated territory as the new province of Gothia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |title=The Goths |date=1996 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |pages=62, 63 }}</ref> In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.<ref>Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). ''Constantine and Eusebius''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-16531-1}}. p. 250.</ref> Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the [[Brazda lui Novac]] line supported by [[Castra of Hinova]], [[Rusidava]] and [[Castra of Pietroasele]].{{sfn|Madgearu|2008|pp=64–126}} The [[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]] passed to the north of [[Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși]] and ended at [[Sasyk Lagoon]] near the [[Dniester|Dniester River]].<ref>Costin Croitoru, (Romanian) Sudul Moldovei în cadrul sistemului defensiv roman. Contribuții la cunoașterea valurilor de pământ. Acta terrae septencastrensis, Editura Economica, Sibiu, 2002, {{ISSN|1583-1817}}, p. 111.</ref> Constantine took the title ''Dacicus maximus'' in 336.<ref>Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: [[Routledge]], 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}, p. 261.</ref> 

Before 300, the Romans erected small forts at [[Dierna (castra)|Dierna]] and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern-day Banat.{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=185}}{{sfn|Curta|2005|p=178}} In their wider region, Roman coins from the period{{mdash}}mostly of bronze{{mdash}}have been found.{{sfn|Ellis|1998|pp=231-232}} The Huns destroyed Drobeta and Sucidava in the 440s, but the forts were restored under Emperor [[Justinian I]] (527&ndash;565).{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|pp=165-166, 222}} [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] coins from the first half of the 6th&nbsp;century suggest a significant military presence in [[Oltenia]]{{mdash}}a region also characterized by the predominance of pottery with shapes of Roman tradition.{{sfn|Teodor|2005|pp=216, 223-224}}

==== Scythia Minor ====

[[File:Scythia Minor map.jpg|190px|thumb|right|alt=Map of Scythia Minor|[[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]]: a [[List of Late Roman provinces|Late Roman province]] formed through the division of the former province of [[Lower Moesia]] around 293]]

The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea (today [[Dobrogea]] in Romania) remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire, even after the abandonment of Trajan's Dacia.{{sfn|Opreanu|2005|pp=110-111}} It was transformed into a separate province under the name of [[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]]{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|pp=55-56, 221}} around 293.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=17-18}} 

The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor [[Diocletian]] (284&ndash;305).{{sfn|Opreanu|2005|p=115}} He and [[Tetrarchs|his co-emperors]] ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire, causing the death of many between 303 and 313.{{sfn|Opreanu|2005|p=115}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=33}} Under Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] (306&ndash;337), a [[Constantine's Bridge (Danube)|bridge across the Danube]] was constructed at [[Sucidava]], a new fort ([[Constantiana Daphne]]) was built, and ancient roads were repaired in [[Oltenia]].{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|pp=165, 221}}{{sfn|Wolfram|1988|p=61}} The Lower Danube again became the empire's northern boundary in 369 at the latest, when Emperor [[Valens]] met [[Athanaric]]{{mdash}}the head of the Goths{{mdash}}in a boat in the middle of the river because the latter had taken an oath "never to set foot on Roman soil".{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=72, 75}}<ref>''Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire'' (27.5.), p. 337.</ref>

Although [[Eastern Roman emperors]] made annual payments to the neighboring peoples in an attempt to keep the peace in the Balkans, the Avars regularly invaded Scythia Minor from the 580s.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=54-55, 64-65}} The Romans abandoned Sucidava in 596 or 597,{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|p=166, 222}} but [[Constanța|Tomis]], which was the last town in Scythia Minor to resist the invaders, only fell in 704.{{sfn|MacKendrick|1975|pp=178, 222}}

====North of the ''limes'' (c.&nbsp;270 – c.&nbsp;330) ====
[[Transylvania]] and northern Banat, which belonged to Dacia before Trajan conquest, had no direct contact with the Roman Empire from the 270s.{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=181}} There is no evidence that they were invaded in the following decades.{{sfn|Haynes|Hanson|2004|p=24}} Towns, including [[Apulum (castra)|Apulum]] and [[Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa]], and the surrounding areas{{sfn|Haynes|Hanson|2004|p=24}} continued to be inhabited but the urban areas diminished.{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=183}} The existence of local Christian communities can be assumed in [[Porolissum]], [[Potaissa]] and other settlements.{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|pp=186-187}} On the other hand, evidence{{spaced ndash}}mainly pottery with "[[Chi (letter)|Chi]]-[[rho]]" ''(Χ-Ρ)''  signs and other Christian symbols{{spaced ndash}}is "shadowy and poorly understood", according to archaeologists Haynes and Hanson.{{sfn|Haynes|Hanson|2004|pp=22-24}}

Urns found in late 3rd-century cemeteries at [[Bezid]], [[Mediaş]], and in other Transylvanian settlements had clear analogies in sites east of the Carpathians, suggesting that the [[Carpians]] were the first new arrivals in the former province from the neighboring regions.{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=185}}{{sfn|Bóna|1994|p=65}} Other Carpian groups, pressured by the Goths, also departed from their homeland and sought refuge in the Roman Empire around 300.{{sfn|Wolfram|1988|pp=56-57}} Nevertheless, "[[Carpo-Dacians]]" were listed among the peoples "mixed with the Huns"<ref>{{Citation|last = Zosimus|title = The History |year = 2002 |url = http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus04_book4.htm | access-date = 18 July 2012}}</ref> as late as 379.{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=166, 660}}{{sfn|Thompson|2001|p=30}} The [[Sarmatians]] of the Banat{{sfn|Bărbulescu|2005|p=185}} were allies of the empire, demonstrated by a Roman invasion in 332 against the Goths, their enemies.{{sfn|Heather|2010|p=168}}{{sfn|Wolfram|1988|p=61}} Sarmatians were admitted into the empire in 379, but other Sarmatian groups remained in the Tisa plains up until the 460s.{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=330}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|p=151}}

== Dacia after the Romans ==
{{Main|Romania in the Early Middle Ages}}
{{fix|text=The paragraphs below may present political opinion and not historical consensus as they are different from the Main: Romania in the Early Middle Ages. Please improve this section by adding reliable sources|date=October 2024}}
The [[Victohali]], [[Taifals]], and [[Tervingi|Thervingians]] are tribes mentioned for inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that [[Gepids]] were disputing [[Transylvania]] with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia, became federati of the Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle in [[Oltenia]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In 376, the region was conquered by [[Huns]], who kept it until the death of [[Attila]] in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by [[Ardaric]], used it as their base, until in 566, when it was destroyed by the [[Lombards]]. Lombards abandoned the country and the [[Avar Khaganate|Avars]] (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom was destroyed by [[Charlemagne]] in 791. At the same time, [[Slavs|Slavic people]] arrived.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

== The name's usage in modern culture ==
[[S.C. Automobile Dacia S.A.]], also known as Dacia, is a Romanian [[car manufacturer]] that takes its name from the historical kingdom. It is Romania's largest company by revenue,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zf.ro/auto/topul-celor-mari-corporatii-lume-treime-cele-mari-100-prezente-local-primele-sapte-venituri-mari-cifra-afaceri-totala-companiilor-romania-14678641|title=Topul celor mai mari corporaţii din lume. Doar o treime din cele mai mari 100 sunt prezente şi local. Fiecare din primele şapte are venituri mai mari decât cifra de afaceri totală a companiilor din România – Ziarul Financiar|website=www.zf.ro|access-date=15 May 2017}}</ref> and sells its products mainly in Europe and North Africa. {{Citation needed|date=October 2024 |reason=Claim taken from manufacturer's article page, but sources there are inadequate.}}

== See also ==
* [[Dacians]]
** [[Dacian warfare]]
*** [[Falx]] (weapon)
** [[List of Dacian kings]]
** [[List of Dacian cities]]
** [[List of Dacian tribes]]
*** [[Getae]]
*** [[Carpians]]
*** [[Costoboci]]
** [[Dacian bracelets]]
** [[Dacian draco]]
** [[Dacian language]]
*** [[List of Dacian names]]
*** [[List of Dacian plant names]]
* [[History of Dacia]]
* [[Trajan's Column]]
* [[Trajan's Bridge]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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 | title = Dacia: landscape, colonisation and romanisation
 | publisher = [[Routledge]]
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wgvH2j7dWuEC
 | isbn = 978-0-415-41252-0
}}
* {{cite book
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 | year = 1997
 | chapter = Roman Dacia and its barbarian neighbours. Economic and diplomatic relations
 | title = Roman frontier studies 1995: proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies
 | pages = 247–252
 | publisher = Oxbow
 | isbn = 978-190018847-0
}}
* {{cite book |last=Opreanu |first=Coriolan Horaţiu |editor1-last=Pop|editor1-first=Ioan-Aurel |editor2-last=Bolovan |editor2-first=Ioan | title=History of Romania: Compendium |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies) |year=2005 |pages=59–132 |chapter=The North-Danube Regions from the Roman Province of Dacia to the Emergence of the Romanian Language (2nd&ndash;8th&nbsp;Centuries&nbsp;AD) |isbn=978-973-7784-12-4}}
* {{cite book
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 | year = 1917
 | title = Ptolemy's maps of northern Europe: a reconstruction of the prototypes
 | url = https://archive.org/details/ptolemysmapsofno00schrich
 | publisher = H. Hagerup
 | location = Copenhagen
}}
* {{cite book
 | first = Gudmund
 | last = Schütte
 | year = 1952
 | chapter = A Ptolemaic Riddle Solved p. 236 
 | title = [[Classica et Mediaevalia]], Volume 13 
 | publisher = Gyldendal 
 | orig-year = 1952
 | volume = 13
 | edition = 1
}}
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* {{cite book
 |last1 = Stoica
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 |title = The Roumanian Question: The Roumanians and their Lands
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 | title = 'Northeastern European Iron Age' and 'East Central European Iron Age'
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* {{cite book |last=Teodor |first=Eugen S. |editor-last=Curta |editor-first=Florin | title=Borders, Barriers, and Ethnogenesis: Frontiers in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages |publisher=Brepols |year=2005 |pages=205–245 |chapter=The Shadow of a Frontier: The Wallachian Plain during the Justinian Age |isbn=2-503-51529-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=E. A. |year=2001 |title=The Huns |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |isbn=0-631-15899-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/hunspeoplesofeur00eath }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Wolfram |first=Herwig |year=1988 |title=History of the Goths |publisher= University of California Press |isbn=0-520-06983-8}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Dacia}}
* {{cite web | title=SOLTDM Index | website=soltdm.com | date=28 November 2006 | url=https://soltdm.com/index.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219011916/https://soltdm.com/index.htm | archive-date=19 February 2015 | url-status=dead | access-date=27 May 2023}} &ndash; ''Sorin Olteanu's Thraco-Daco-Moesian Languages Project'' (SoLTDM) (sources, thesaurus, textual criticism, phonetics and morphology, substratum, historical geography a.o.)
* [https://groups.google.com/a/googleproductforums.com/group/gec-history-illustrated-moderated/attach/a0f3eeea10158c1/Dacia%20-%20The%20historic%20region%20in%20East-Central%09Europe.kmz?part=3 Dacia – The historic region in East-Central Europe (includes Roman Castra)]
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/3/5*.html Ptolemy's ''Geography'', book III, chapter 5]
* [http://www.unrv.com/provinces/dacia.php/ UNRV Dacia article]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090601095450/http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/299_Arch_of_Constantine-all.html sights.seindal.dk] – Dacians as they appear on the Arch of Constantine
* [http://www.fectio.org.uk/articles/draco.htm www.fectio.org.uk] – Draco Late Roman military standard
* [http://www.stoa.org/trajan www.stoa.org/trajan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041011151253/http://www.stoa.org/trajan/ |date=2004-10-11 }} – Dacian Wars on [[Trajan's Column]]
* [http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/ThracoGetae/ThracoGetae01-00.html Journey to the Land of the Cloud Rovers] – photographic slide show of Sarmizegetusa.
* [http://tjbuggey.ancients.info/dacian.html Dacia on coins].
* [http://rrimitations.ancients.info/index.html Dacian coins]

{{sequence
| prev = [[Prehistory of the Balkans]]
| list = [[History of Romania]] 
| next = [[Roman Dacia]] 
}}
{{Dacia topics}}
{{Dacian cities}}
{{Romanian topics}}
{{Authority control}}{{coord|45.7|26.5|dim:500000|display=title}}

[[Category:Dacia| ]]
[[Category:82 BC]]
[[Category:80s BC establishments]]
[[Category:1st century BC]]
[[Category:1st century]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Romania|Dacia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]]
[[Category:Muntenia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 1st century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century]]