Editing Cyril Burt

{{Short description|English educational psychologist (1883–1971)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Cyril Burt
| image             = Cyril Burt 1930s.jpg
| caption           = Cyril Burt in 1930
| birth_name        = Cyril Lodowic Burt
| birth_date        = {{Birth date|1883|3|3|df=yes}}
| birth_place       = [[Westminster]],<ref>Arthur R. Jensen, "Sir Cyril Burt (1883–1971)", Psychometrika '''37''', Number 2 (1972), 115–117.</ref> [[London]], England
| death_date        = {{Death date and age|1971|10|10|1883|3|3|df=yes}}
| death_place       = London, England
| awards            = [[E. L. Thorndike Award]] {{small|(1968)}}
| education         = [[Warwick School|King's School, Warwick]]<br />[[Christ's Hospital]]<br />[[Jesus College, Oxford]]
| academic_advisors = [[William McDougall (psychologist)|William McDougall]], [[Charles Scott Sherrington]]
| workplaces        = [[Liverpool University]], [[London County Council]] (LCC),  [[University College London]]
| notable_students  = [[Raymond Cattell]], [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Chris Brand]]
| known_for         = Twin study; fraudulent research
| footnotes         = After he died it became evident that his research on twins separated at birth was based on falsified data.
| honorific_prefix  = Sir
}}
'''Sir Cyril Lodowic Burt''', [[Fellow of the British Academy|FBA]] (3 March 1883 – 10 October 1971) was an English [[educational psychology|educational psychologist]] and geneticist who also made contributions to statistics. He is known for his studies on the [[heritability of IQ]].

Shortly after he died, his studies of inheritance of intelligence were discredited after evidence emerged indicating he had [[scientific misconduct|falsified]] research data, inventing correlations in separated twins which did not exist, alongside other fabrications.

==Childhood and education==
Burt was born on 3 March 1883, the first child of Cyril Cecil Barrow Burt (b. 1857), a medical practitioner, and his wife, Martha Decina Evans.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Hearnshaw
| first = Leslie Spencer
| title = Cyril Burt, Psychologist
| publisher = Hodder and Stoughton
| year = 1979
| location = London
| isbn = 978-0-8014-1244-8
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/cyrilburtpsychol00lshe
}}</ref> He was born in London (some sources give his place of birth as [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], probably because his entry in ''[[Who's Who (UK)|Who's Who]]'' gave his father's address as [[Snitterfield]], Stratford; in fact the Burt family moved to Snitterfield when he was ten).<ref>Hearnshaw (1979), p. 2. {{ODNBweb|id=30880|title=Burt, Sir Cyril Lodowic|last=Mazumdar|first=Pauline H.}}.
{{cite book
| last = Joynson
| first = Robert Billington
| title = The Burt Affair
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 1989
| location = London
| isbn = 978-0-415-01039-9
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/burtaffair0000joyn
}}</ref><ref>The birth of Cyril Lodowic Burt was recorded in the General Register Office (now part of the Office for National Statistics) index of births in England and Wales for the June quarter of 1883:-''BURT, Cyril Lodowic St. Geo. H. Sq. 1a 486'' (The Registration district was St. Georges, Hanover Square, which included parts of Westminster)</ref>

Burt's father initially kept a chemist shop to support his family while he studied medicine. On qualifying, he became the assistant house surgeon and obstetrical assistant at [[Westminster Hospital]], London.<ref name="Hearnshaw, 1979, p2">Hearnshaw (1979), p. 2.</ref> The younger Cyril Burt's education began in London at a [[Board school]] near [[St James's Park]].<ref name="Hearnshaw, 1979, p2"/>

In 1890, the family briefly moved to Jersey then to [[Snitterfield]], [[Warwickshire]], in 1893, where Burt's father opened a rural practice.<ref name="Hearnshaw, 1979, p2"/> Early in Burt's life he showed a precocious nature, so much so that his father often took the young Burt with him on his medical rounds.<ref>Hearnshaw (1979), p. 7.</ref>

One of the elder Burt's more famous patients was Darwin Galton, brother of [[Francis Galton]]. The visits the Burts made to the Galton estate not only allowed the young Burt to learn about the work of Francis Galton, but also allowed Burt to meet him on multiple occasions and to be strongly drawn to his ideas; especially his studies in statistics and individual differences, two defining characters of the London School of Psychology whose membership includes both Galton and Burt.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

He attended King's (now known as [[Warwick School|Warwick]]) School, in the [[county town]], from 1892 to 1895, and later won a scholarship to [[Christ's Hospital]], then located in London, where he developed his interest in psychology.<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite encyclopedia
  | title = Burt, Sir Cyril Lodowic (1883–1971)
  | encyclopedia = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
  | publisher = Oxford University Press
  | year=  2006 }}</ref>

From 1902, he attended [[Jesus College, Oxford]], where he studied Classics and took an interest in philosophy and psychology, the latter under [[William McDougall (psychologist)|William McDougall]]. McDougall, knowing Burt's interest in Galton's work, taught him the elements of psychometrics, thus helping Burt with his first steps in the development and structure of mental tests, an interest that would last the rest of his life. Burt was one of a group of students who worked with McDougall, which included [[William Brown (psychologist)|William Brown]], [[John Flügel]], and [[May Smith (psychologist)|May Smith]], who all went on to have distinguished careers in psychology.<ref>Hearnshaw (1979), p. 11.</ref>

Burt graduated with second-class honours in Literae Humaniores (Classics) in 1906, taking a special paper in psychology in his Final Examinations. He subsequently supplemented his BA with a teaching diploma.

In 1907, McDougall invited Burt to help with a nationwide survey of physical and mental characteristics of the British people, proposed by Francis Galton, in which he was to work on the standardization of psychological tests. This work brought Burt into contact with [[eugenics]], [[Charles Spearman]], and [[Karl Pearson]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

In the summer of 1908, Burt visited the [[University of Würzburg]], Germany, where he first met the psychologist [[Oswald Külpe]].<ref>Hearnshaw (1979), p. 13.</ref>

==Work in educational psychology==
[[File:Picture of Dr. Cyril Burt.jpg|thumb|upright=1.55|Burt (at the time psychologist to the London County Council) measuring the speed of the thought of a child with a chronoscope]]

In 1908, Burt took up the post of Lecturer in Psychology and Assistant Lecturer in Physiology at Liverpool University, where he was to work under the famed physiologist [[Sir Charles Sherrington]].<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> In 1909 Burt made use of [[Charles Spearman]]'s model of general intelligence to analyse his data on the performance of schoolchildren in a battery of tests. This first research project was to define Burt's life's work in quantitative [[intelligence testing]], [[eugenics]], and the [[inheritance of intelligence]]. One of the conclusions in his 1909 paper was that upper-class children in private preparatory schools did better in the tests than those in the ordinary elementary schools, and that the difference was innate.

In 1913, Burt took the part-time position of a [[school psychology|school psychologist]] for the [[London County Council]] (LCC), with the responsibility of picking out the "feeble-minded" children, in accordance with the Mental Deficiency Act of 1913.<ref name="Oxford University Press"/><ref>{{cite book|first=Christopher|last=Arnold|editor=Arnold, Christopher |editor2=Hardy, Julia|chapter=The Rise of Education|title=British Educational Psychology: The First Hundred Years|publisher=The British Psychological Society|year=2013|pages=19–20|isbn=978-1-85433-720-7}}</ref> He notably established that girls were equal to boys in general intelligence. The post also allowed him to work in Spearman's laboratory, and receive research assistants from the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, including [[Winifred Raphael]].

Burt was much involved in the initiation of child guidance in Great Britain and his 1925 publication ''The Young Delinquent'' led to opening of the London Child Guidance Clinic in [[Islington]] in 1927.<ref>Hearnshaw (1979) p. 44.</ref> In 1924 Burt was also appointed part-time professor of [[educational psychology]] at the [[London Day Training College]] (LDTC), and carried out much of his child guidance work on the premises.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Aldrich
| first = Richard
| title = The Institute of Education 1902–2002 : a centenary history
| publisher = Institute of Education
| year=  2002
| location = London
| isbn = 978-0-85473-635-5}}</ref>

==Later career==
In 1931 Burt resigned his position at the LCC and the LDTC after he was appointed professor and Chair of Psychology at [[University College London]], taking over the position from Charles Spearman, thus ending his almost 20-year career as a school psychological practitioner. One of his students, Reuben Conrad, recalled that he once arrived at the university with a chimpanzee that he had borrowed from London Zoo, though Conrad could not recall what point Burt was trying to make.<ref>D. Bishop, July 2016 The Psychologist Vol.29 (pp.578–579) https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-29/july/quality-and-longevity</ref> While at London, Burt influenced many students, including [[Raymond Cattell]] and [[Hans Eysenck]], and toward the end of his life, [[Arthur Jensen]] and [[Chris Brand]]. Burt was a consultant with the committees that developed the [[Eleven-plus exam|11-plus]] examinations. This issue, and the allegations of fraudulent scholarship against him, are discussed in various books and articles listed [[#Readings on the Burt Affair|below]], including ''Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed'' and ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]''.

Despite his lasting reputation as a statistical psychologist Cyril Burt was also involved in psychoanalysis. He was a member of the [[Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust|Tavistock Clinic]] Council in the early 1930s<ref>Henry Dicks, ''50 years of the Tavistock Clinic''. Routledge 1970, p. 47.</ref> and of the [[British Psychoanalytical Society]].<ref>Malcolm Pines, "The Development of the Psychodynamic Movement", in: ''150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841–1991''.</ref> In ''The Young Delinquent'',<ref>C. Burt, ''The Young Delinquent'', London: University of London Press, 1925.</ref> he expressed the view that "nearly every tragedy of crime is in its origin a drama of domestic life."<ref>Quoted by Adrian Wooldridge, ''Measuring the Mind: Education and Psychology in England, c. 1860 – c. 1990''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 99.</ref>

In 1942 Burt was elected president of the [[British Psychological Society]]. In 1946 he became the first British psychologist to be [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] for his contributions to psychological testing and for making educational opportunities more widely available, according to an account by [[J. Philippe Rushton]].<ref name="Rushton 1994">{{cite journal|url=http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/rushton-burt?embedded=yes&cumulative_category_title=J.+Phillipe+Rushton&cumulative_category_id=Rushton |title=Victim of Scientific Hoax (Cyril Burt and the Genetic IQ Controversy)|doi=10.1007/BF02693229|via=Upstream|access-date=2 October 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041013222543/http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/rushton-burt?embedded=yes&cumulative_category_title=J.+Phillipe+Rushton&cumulative_category_id=Rushton |archive-date=13 October 2004 |author=J. Philippe Rushton|journal=Society|date=March–April 1994|volume=31|issue=3|pages=40–44|s2cid=144482788}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2018}} Burt was a member of the [[London School of Differential Psychology]], and of the [[British Eugenics Society]]. Because he had suggested on radio in 1946 the formation of an organization for people with high [[IQ]] scores, he was made honorary president of [[Mensa International|Mensa]] in 1960. He officially joined Mensa soon thereafter.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mensa – The Society for the Highly Intelligent |page=65 |author=Victor Serebriakoff |publisher=Stein and Day |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8128-3091-0}}</ref>

Burt retired in 1951 at the age of 68, but continued writing articles and books. He died of cancer at age 88 in London on 10 October 1971.

==Scientific misconduct==
Burt published numerous articles and books on a host of topics ranging from [[psychometrics]] through [[philosophy of science]] to [[parapsychology]]. It is his research in [[quantitative genetics|behaviour genetics]], most notably in studying the heritability of intelligence (as measured in IQ tests) using [[twin study|twin studies]], that has created the most controversy, frequently referred to as "the Burt Affair."<ref>
{{cite web
  | last =Plucker
  | first =Jonathan
  | title =The Cyril Burt Affair
  | work =Human Intelligence
  | publisher =Indiana University
  | url =http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/burtaffair.shtml
  | access-date = 16 May 2018 }}
{{cite journal
  | last = Samelson
  | first =F.
  | title = What to do about fraud charges in science; or, will the Burt affair ever end?
  | journal = Genetica
  | volume = 99
  | issue = 2–3
  | pages = 145–51
  | year=  1997
  | doi =10.1023/A:1018302319394
  | pmid = 9463070 | s2cid =23231496
 }}<!--| access-date = July 2007-->
{{cite journal
  | author = Thomas J. Bouchard
  | author2 = Donald D. Dorfman
  | name-list-style = amp
  | title = Two Views of The Bell Curve
  | journal =Contemporary Psychology
  | volume =40
  | issue =5
  |date=May 1995
  | url = http://felix.unife.it/Root/d-Mensa-files/d-Intelligence/t-Bell-curve-reviews
  | access-date = 16 May 2018}}
</ref><ref>Joynson, R. B. (1989). The Burt Affair. London: Routledge.</ref><ref>Fletcher, Ronald (1991). ''Science, Ideology and the Media: The Cyril Burt Scandal''. New Brunswick, US: Transaction Publishers.</ref><ref>Mackintosh, N. J. (1995). ''Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed? Oxford'' Oxford University Press.</ref>

Shortly after Burt died it became known that all of his notes and records had been burnt, and he was accused of [[scientific misconduct|falsifying]] research data. From the late 1970s, it has been generally accepted that "he had fabricated some of the data, though some of his earlier work remained unaffected by this revelation."<ref name="Encyclopedias" /> This was due in large part to research by [[Oliver Gillie]] (1976) and [[Leon Kamin]] (1974).<ref>[[Leon Kamin|Kamin, L. J.]] (1974). ''[[The Science and Politics of IQ]]''. Potomac, Maryland: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</ref><ref>Gillie, O. (24 October 1976). ''Crucial data was faked by eminent psychologist.'' London: Sunday Times.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gillie | first1 = O | year = 1977 | title = Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence, Part I? | journal = The Phi Delta Kappan | volume = 58 | issue = 6| pages = 469–471 }}</ref>

The 2007 ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' noted it is widely acknowledged that his later work was flawed and many academics agree that data were falsified, though his earlier work is generally accepted as valid.<ref name=Encyclopedias>[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9358363/Sir-Cyril-Burt "Sir Cyril Burt."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208093254/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9358363/Sir-Cyril-Burt |date=8 December 2007 }}  Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Britannica Concise Encyclopædia. 19 April 2007. [http://www.bartleby.com/65/bu/Burt-Cyr.html "Burt, Cyril Lodowic"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109002413/http://www.bartleby.com/65/bu/Burt-Cyr.html |date=9 January 2009 }} The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2005.</ref>

The possibility of fabrication was first brought to the attention of the scientific community when Kamin noticed that Burt's correlation coefficients of [[Twin#Monozygotic twins|monozygotic]] and [[Twin#Dizygotic twins|dizygotic]] twins' IQ scores were the same to three decimal places, across articles – even when new data were twice added to the sample of twins. [[Leslie Hearnshaw]], a close friend of Burt and his official biographer, concluded after examining the criticisms that most of Burt's data from after World War II were unreliable or fraudulent.<ref>Hearnshaw, L.S. (1979). ''Cyril Burt: Psychologist''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.</ref> [[William H. Tucker (psychologist)|William H. Tucker]] argued in a 1997 article that: "A comparison of his twin sample with that from other well documented studies, however, leaves little doubt that he committed fraud."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tucker | first1 = William H | year = 1997 | title = Re-reconsidering Burt: Beyond a Reasonable Doubt | journal = Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences | volume = 33 | issue = 2| pages = 145–162 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1520-6696(199721)33:2<145::aid-jhbs6>3.3.co;2-g| pmid = 9149386 }}</ref>

Two other psychologists [[Arthur Jensen]] and [[J. Philippe Rushton]], themselves involved in controversy for their views on race,<ref name="Jensen">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/science/arthur-r-jensen-who-set-off-debate-on-iq-dies.html|title=Arthur R. Jensen Dies at 89; Set Off Debate About I.Q. |quote=Arthur R. Jensen, an educational psychologist who ignited an international firestorm with a 1969 article suggesting that the gap in intelligence-test scores between black and white students might be rooted in genetic differences between the races ...|date=1 November 2012|newspaper=The New York Times |last1=Fox |first1=Margalit }}</ref><ref>See, for example:
*{{cite journal|last=Graves|first=J. L.|author-link=Joseph L. Graves|title=What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies and Rushton's life history theory|journal=Anthropological Theory|volume=2|issue=2|year=2002|pages=131–154|issn=1463-4996|doi=10.1177/1469962002002002627|s2cid=144377864}}
*{{cite journal |first=C. Loring |last=Brace |author-link=C. Loring Brace|title=Review: Racialism and Racist Agendas |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=176–177 |date=March 1996 |jstor=682972 |doi=10.1525/aa.1996.98.1.02a00250}}
*Francisco Gil-White, [http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrchap10.htm Resurrecting Racism, Chapter 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618042900/http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrchap10.htm |date=18 June 2012 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Judith L.|s2cid=54854642|title=Rushton's racial comparisons: An ecological critique of theory and method.|journal=Canadian Psychology|volume=32|issue=1|year=1991|pages=51–62|issn=1878-7304|doi=10.1037/h0078956}}
*Douglas Wahlsten (2001) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060226020150/http://www.cjsonline.ca/articles/wahlsten.html Book Review of Race, Evolution and Behavior]
*{{cite book | last = Leslie | first = Charles | title = New Horizons in Medical Anthropology | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-415-27793-8 |page=17}}
*{{cite book | last = Kuznar | first = Lawrence | title = Reclaiming a Scientific Anthropology | publisher = AltaMira Press | location = Walnut Creek | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-7619-9114-4 |page=104}}</ref> have claimed that the contentious correlations reported by Burt are in line with the correlations found in other twin studies.<ref name="Rushton 1994"/><ref name="miele">Miele, Frank (2002). ''Intelligence, Race, And Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen'', pp. 99–103. Oxford: Westview Press; {{ISBN|0-8133-4274-0}}</ref>

Rushton (1997) wrote that five different studies on twins reared apart by independent researchers corroborated Cyril Burt's findings and had given almost the same heritability estimate (average estimate 0.75 vs. 0.77 by Burt).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rushton | first1 = J. P. | year = 1997 | title = Race, Intelligence, And The Brain | url = http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Gould.pdf | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 23 | pages = 169–180 | doi = 10.1016/s0191-8869(97)80984-1 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050310013515/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Gould.pdf | archive-date = 10 March 2005}}</ref> Jensen argued that "[n]o one with any statistical sophistication, and Burt had plenty, would report exactly the same correlation, 0.77, three times in succession if he were trying to fake the data."<ref name="miele"/> Burt's statistical sophistication was, however, called into question by his student Charlotte Banks, who in a foreword to Burt's last book, published posthumously, wrote that he combined samples gathered from schoolchildren in different earlier years in his later papers without comment. A paper Burt published in 1943, Burt states an average IQ of 153.2 for the parents in the higher professional or administrative classes, at a time when there were no standardised IQ tests for adults in the upper ranges of IQ. In 1961, Burt revised this figure to 139.7 and, in other papers, noted that he had arrived at such figures by "assessment", or guesswork, rather than testing.<ref name="Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research">{{cite journal | last1 = Gillie | first1 = O | year = 1977 | title = Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part 1 | journal = The Phi Delta Kappan | volume = 58 | issue = 6| page = 470 }}</ref>

According to [[Earl B. Hunt]], it may never be found out whether Burt was intentionally fraudulent or merely careless. Noting that other studies on the heritability of IQ have produced results very similar to those of Burt's, Hunt argues that Burt did not harm science in the narrow sense of misleading scientists with false results, but that in the broader sense science in general and behaviour genetics in particular were profoundly harmed by the Burt Affair, leading to a general rejection of genetic studies of intelligence and a drying up of funding for such studies.<ref>Hunt, Earl (2011). ''Human Intelligence''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 234–235.</ref>

Gillie's 1976 article in ''[[The Sunday Times]]'', reprinted in The Phi Delta Kappan in 1977, summarised attempts to trace two of Burt's supposed collaborators, Margaret Howard and J. Conway. Publications attributed to these two were published in a journal edited by Burt between 1952 and 1959, including a joint paper of Burt and Howard,<ref>Burt, C., & Howard, M. (1956). The multifactorial theory of inheritance and its application to intelligence. ''British Journal of Statistical Psychology'', 9, pp. 95–131.</ref> remarkable as one of the few, if not the only, research paper not authored solely by Burt.<ref name="Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research"/> The papers in the names of Howard or Conway were published after Burt's retirement from University College although their affiliations were said to be with University College, Howard's specifically with its Psychology Department. No-one with these names was registered as a member of staff or student at University College between 1914 and 1976, or in any other institution within the [[University of London]], and its Psychology Department could not trace either of them. Between 1952 and 1959, Burt lived in London and had two associates, Charlotte Banks and Gertrude Keir, neither of who ever met Howard or Conway. Although they suggested to Gillie that Burt may have corresponded with the two, there was no trace of any such correspondence in Burt's papers. Burt's housekeeper from 1950 recalled to Gillie that she had questioned Burt on why he had written papers in the names of Howard and Conway; his response was that they had done the research and should be credited. He explained their absence and lack of contact by adding that both had emigrated and he had lost their addresses. Based on his investigation, Gillie considered it likely that neither Howard nor Conway existed, but were a fantasy of the ageing Burt himself.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gillie | first1 = O | year = 1977 | title = Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part I | journal = The Phi Delta Kappan | volume = 58 | issue = 6| page = 470 }}</ref>

Arthur Jensen was given the opportunity to respond to Gillie's article in the same issue of the same journal, and described the claims as libellous, without evidence and driven by opposition to Burt's theories. However, he does not address the central issue, that Burt wrote scientific papers and published them as editor of a journal under false names and without the consent of the supposed authors.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jensen | first1 = A | year = 1977 | title = Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part II | journal = The Phi Delta Kappan | volume = 58 | issue = 6| pages = 491–492 }}</ref>

In response to articles by Fletcher, claiming that his biography of Burt and attacks by others were motivated by ideological or political malice, Hernshaw added to Gillie's claims by stating that Burt's detailed records of visitors contained no records of visits by Howard or Conway in the years they were supposed to have collaborated with him on collecting and testing 32 pairs of separated monozygotic twins, that his papers contained no correspondence with or written material from them, and that no one close to Burt had met them. He added that testing separated twins was expensive: Burt had no research funds to pay research workers and his own finances were too stretched to pay for it himself. Further, he instanced two other example of what he terms Burt's deviousness ignored by Fletcher. The first was Burt's falsification of the early history of factorial analysis and his untruthful claim to have been the first to use that technique. The second was that Burt could not have obtained the results on the declining levels of scholastic attainments in the 1950s and 1960s that he claimed to have. Finally, Hernshaw claimed that Burt's failings in his years of retirement went far beyond carelessness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hernshaw | first1 = L | year = 1992 | title = Burt Redivivus| journal = The Psychologist | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 169–170 }}</ref>

In his 1991 book, Fletcher questioned Gillie's claim of the lack of independent articles published by Howard or Conway in scientific journals other than the ''Journal of Statistical Psychology'' edited by Burt, claiming Howard was also said to be mentioned in the membership list of the British Psychological Society, John Cohen was said to have remembered her well during the 1930s,<ref>Fletcher, Ronald (1991). ''Science, Ideology & the Media: The Cyril Burt Scandal''. New Brunswick, N J: Transaction Publishers, p. 392.</ref> and Donald MacRae had personally received an article from her in 1949 and 1950. According to Ronald Fletcher, there is documentary evidence of the existence of Conway {{citation needed|date=September 2018}}. Other writers have suggested that Howard and Conway may have existed, but that Burt had simply used their names to support his research, as he had been shown to have done with another named so-called researcher.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://drgeoffnutrition.wordpress.com/2016/05/24/sir-cyril-burt-1883-1971-and-the-heritability-of-intelligence-debate/ | title=Sir Cyril Burt (1883–1971) and the heritability of intelligence debate| date=24 May 2016}}</ref>

Robert Joynson (in 1989) and Ronald Fletcher (in 1991) published books in support of Burt. However Joynson accepted that Burt frequently used assumed names to publish (in the journal Burt edited, the Journal of Statistical Psychology) papers that Burt had written himself: the names he used included those of Howard and Conway.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fancher|first=Raymond|title=Fixing it For Heredity|pages=19–20|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v11/n21/raymond-fancher/fixing-it-for-heredity|newspaper=London Review of Books|access-date=7 December 2012|date=9 November 1989}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Science, Ideology and the Media|url=https://archive.org/details/scienceideologyt00flet|url-access=registration|author=Fletcher, Ronald|year=1991|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9780887383762}}</ref> Burt's defenders have claimed that everyone knew that, after his retirement, Burt's data was flawed and that he published articles under pseudonyms, adding that the British Psychological Society could have stopped this if it had violated accepted ethical norms of the time.<ref>L. J. Cronbach (1979), Hearnshaw on Burt, ''Science'', Vol. 206, p. 1392</ref> However, although it is clear that some individual members of the British Psychological Society were aware of Burt's questionable conduct, the reason why he was not censured were as likely to be that it would have been in bad taste to call such a great man to public account, a fault of a profession and its members that could tolerate at the time, and apologise later, for Burt's behaviour.<ref>C. Karier (1980). "In Praise of Great Men": essay review of Cyril Burt, Psychologist. ''History of Education Quarterly'', Vol. 20, No. 4, p. 481.</ref>

[[Nicholas Mackintosh]] edited ''Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed?'', which was presented by the publisher as arguing that "his defenders have sometimes, but by no means always, been correct, and that his critics have often jumped to hasty conclusions. In their haste, however, these critics have missed crucial evidence that is not easily reconciled with Burt's total innocence, leaving the perception that both the defence and prosecution cases are seriously flawed."<ref>Publisher's book description. https://www.amazon.com/Cyril-Burt-N-J-Mackintosh/dp/019852336X the first use of "critics" refers to Burt's attackers; the second use of "critics" refers to Burt's defenders, so is confusing</ref> [[W. D. Hamilton]] claimed in a 2000 book review shortly before Hamilton's death that the claims made by his detractors in the so-called "Burt Affair" had been either wrong or grossly exaggerated.<ref>{{Cite journal
 | author = W. D. Hamilton
 | author-link = W. D. Hamilton
 | title = A Review of Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations
 | doi = 10.1046/j.1469-1809.2000.6440363.x
 | journal = [[Annals of Human Genetics]]
 | volume = 64
 | issue = 4
 |date=July 2000
 | pages = 363–374
 | doi-access = free
 }}</ref>

However, Mackintosh himself, then emeritus professor of Experimental Psychology at the [[University of Cambridge]], summed up the evidence against Burt in 1995, saying that the data Burt presented were "so woefully inadequate and riddled with error", that consequently "no reliance (could) be placed on the numbers he present(ed)", and went on to confirm his agreement with Kamin's original conclusion, that Burt had fabricated his data.<ref>Mackintosh, 1995.</ref>

==Further reading==

===Biographies===
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1949 | title = An autobiographical sketch | journal = Occupational Psychology | volume = 23 | pages = 9–20 }}
* Valentine, Charles (1965). "Cyril Burt: A Biographical Sketch and Appreciation." In C. Banks, & P. L. Broadhurst (eds), ''Stephanos: Studies in Psychology Present to Cyril Burt'' (pp.&nbsp;11–20). London: University of London. 
* Hearnshaw, L.S. (1979). ''Cyril Burt: Psychologist''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Also published London: Hodder and Stoughton.
* (1983) "Sir Cyril Burt". ''AEP (Association of Educational Psychologists) Journal'', 6 (1) [Special issue].
* Fancher, R.E. (1985) ''The Intelligence Men: Makers of the I.Q. Controversy''. New York: Norton.
* Scarr, S. (1994). "Burt, Cyril L.", in R.J. Sternberg (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Intelligence'' (Vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;231–234). New York: Macmillan.

===Books by Burt===
* Burt, C.L. (1917). [https://archive.org/stream/distributionrela00burtrich#page/n5/mode/2up ''The Distribution and Relations of Educational Abilities'']. London: The Campfield Press.
* Burt, C.L. (1921). [https://archive.org/stream/mentalscholastic00burt#page/n7/mode/2up ''Mental and Scholastic Tests'']. London: P. S. King. Republished and revised (4th ed.). London: Staples (1962).
* Burt, C.L. (1923). ''Handbook of Tests for Use in Schools''. London: P. S. King. Republished (2nd ed.) London: Staples (1948).
* Burt, C.L. (1925). [https://archive.org/stream/youngdelinquent001158mbp#page/n7/mode/2up ''The Young Delinquent'']. London: University of London Press. Republished and revised (3rd ed.) London: University of London Press (1938); (4th ed.) Bickley: University of London Press (1944).
* Burt, C.L. (1930). ''The Study of the Mind''. London: BBC.
* Burt, C.L. (1934). [https://archive.org/stream/howmindworks00burt#page/n5/mode/2up ''How the Mind Works'']. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company. Republished London: Allen & Unwin (1945).
* Burt, C.L. (1935). ''The Subnormal Mind''. London: Oxford University Press. Republished London: Oxford University Press (1937).
* Burt, C.L. (1937). ''The Backward Child''. London: University of London Press. Republished (5th ed.) London: University of London Press (1961).
* Burt, C.L. (1940). [https://archive.org/stream/factorsofthemind032090mbp#page/n7/mode/2up ''The Factors of the Mind: An Introduction to Factor Analysis in Psychology'']. London: University of London Press.
* Burt, C.L. (1946). ''Intelligence and Fertility''. London.
* Burt, C.L. (1957). ''The Causes and Treatments of Backwardness'' (4th ed.). London: University of London Press.
* Burt, C.L. (1959). ''A Psychological Study of Typography''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Burt, C.L. (1968). ''Psychology and Psychical Research: the Seventeenth Frederic W. H. Myers Memorial Lecture'', The Society for Psychical Research.
* Burt, C.L. (1975). ''The Gifted Child''. New York: Wiley and London: Hodder and Stoughton
* Burt, C.L. (1975). ''ESP and Psychology''. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Edited by Anita Gregory.

===Articles by Burt===
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1909 | title = Experimental Texts of General Intelligence | url = https://archive.org/stream/britishjournalof03brituoft#page/94/mode/2up | journal = The British Journal of Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 1–2| pages = 94–177 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1909.tb00197.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1915 | title = Mental Tests | url = https://archive.org/stream/childstudyjourna08chiluoft#page/n15/mode/2up | journal = Child Study | volume = 8 | pages = 8–13 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1920 | title = "The Definition and Diagnosis of Mental Deficiency" "Part II"|url=https://archive.org/stream/studiesinmentali11920cent#page/n73/mode/2up  | journal = Studies in Mental Inefficiency | volume = 1 | pages = 47–54, 69 & 77}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1920 | title = The Neurotic School Child | url = https://archive.org/stream/studiesinmentali11920cent#page/n291/mode/2up | journal = Studies in Mental Inefficiency | volume = 4 | issue = 1| pages = 7–12 | pmid = 28909975 | pmc = 5109117 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1923 | title = The Causal Factors of Juvenile Crime | url = https://archive.org/stream/britishjournal0304brit#page/n13/mode/2up | journal = British Journal of Medical Psychology | volume = 3 | pages = 1–33 | doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8341.1923.tb00430.x }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1923 | title = Delinquency and Mental Defect | url = https://archive.org/stream/britishjournal0304brit#page/n181/mode/2up | journal = British Journal of Medical Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 3| pages = 168–178 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8341.1923.tb00446.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1949 | title = Alternative Methods of Factor Analysis and their Relations to Pearson's Method of 'Principal Axes' | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 98–121 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1949.tb00271.x}}
* Burt, C. L. (1951). [https://archive.org/stream/centuryofscience029484mbp#page/n279/mode/2up/search/burt "General Psychology"]. In Dingle, Herbert (ed.), ''A Century of Science'' (pp.&nbsp;272–286). Hutchinson's Scientific And Technical Publications.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1954 | title = The Differentiation of Intellectual Ability | journal = The British Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 76–90 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8279.1954.tb02882.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1955 | title = The Evidence for the Concept of Intelligence | journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 158–177 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8279.1955.tb03305.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1958 | title = Definition and Scientific Method in Psychology | journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 11 | pages = 31–69 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1958.tb00190.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | last2 = Gregory | first2 = W.L. | year = 1958 | title = Scientific Method in Psychology: II | journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 105–128 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1958.tb00007.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1958 | title = The Inheritance of Mental Ability | pmid = 21260739| pmc = 2973696 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 1–15 | doi=10.1037/h0049002}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1959 | title = General Ability and Special Aptitudes | journal = Educational Research | volume = 1 | issue = 2| pages = 3–16 | doi=10.1080/0013188590010201}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1959 | title = The Examination at Eleven Plus | journal = British Journal of Educational Studies | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 99–117 | doi=10.1080/00071005.1959.9973017}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1960 | title = The Mentally Subnormal | journal = Medical World | volume = 93 | pages = 297–300 | pmid = 13689249 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1961 | title = Factor Analysis and its Neurological Basis | journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 14 | pages = 53–71 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1961.tb00067.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1962 | title = Francis Galton and his Contributions to Psychology | journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 1–49 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1962.tb00081.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | last2 = Williams | first2 = E.L. | year = 1962 | title = The Influence of Motivation on the Results of Intelligence Tests | journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 129–135 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1962.tb00094.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1963 | title = Is Intelligence Distributed Normally? | url = http://www.abelard.org/burt/burt-ie.asp| journal = British Journal of Statistical Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 2| pages = 175–190 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1963.tb00208.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1966 | title = The Genetic Determination of Differences in Intelligence: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Together and Apart | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 57 | issue = 1–2| pages = 137–153 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1966.tb01014.x| pmid = 5949392 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1966 | title = Parapsychology and its Implications | journal = International Journal of Neuropsychiatry | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 363–377 | pmid = 5339556 }}
* Burt, C.L. (1968). "An Illustration of Factor Analysis". In Butcher, Harold J. ''Human Intelligence: Its Nature and Assessment'' (pp.&nbsp;66–71). London: Methuen. 
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1969 | title = Intelligence and Heredity: Some Common Misconceptions | journal = Irish Journal of Education | volume = 3 | pages = 75–94 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1971 | title = Quantitative Genetics in Psychology | journal = British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8317.1971.tb00447.x| pmid = 5557516 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Burt | first1 = C.L. | year = 1972 | title = Inheritance of General Intelligence | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 27 | issue = 3| pages = 175–190 | doi=10.1037/h0033789| pmid = 5009980 }}

===Readings on the Burt Affair===
* {{cite journal | last1 = Blinkhorn | first1 = S.F. | author-link = Steve Blinkhorn | year = 1989 | title = Was Burt Stitched Up? | journal = Nature | volume = 340 | issue = 6233| pages = 439–440 | doi=10.1038/340439a0| bibcode = 1989Natur.340..439B | s2cid = 4282529 | doi-access = free }}
* [[Steve Blinkhorn|Blinkhorn, S. F.]] (1995). "Burt and the Early History of Factor Analysis", in N.J. Mackintosh, ''Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed?'', Oxford University Press.
* [[C. Loring Brace|Brace, C. Loring]] (2005). "Sir Cyril Burt: Scientific Fraud", in ''Race is a Four Lettered Word, the Genesis of the Concept'', Oxford University Press.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Butler | first1 = Brian E. | last2 = Petrulis | first2 = Jennifer | year = 1999 | title = Some Further Observations Concerning Sir Cyril Burt | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 90 | pages = 155–160 | doi=10.1348/000712699161206}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = John | year = 1977 | title = The Detractors| journal = Encounter | volume = 48 | issue = 3| pages = 86–89 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Eysenck | first1 = H.J. | author-link = Hans Eysenck | year = 1977 | title = The Case of Sir Cyril Burt | journal = Encounter | volume = 48 | issue = 1| pages = 19–23 | bibcode = 1976Sci...194.1377P | doi = 10.1126/science.194.4272.1377 | pmid = 17819262 }}
* Fletcher, Ronald (1991). ''Science, Ideology, and the Media''. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.
* [[Stephen Jay Gould|Gould, S. J.]] (1996). "The Real Error of Cyril Burt Factor Analysis and the Reification of Intelligence," in ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', W. W. Norton & Company.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hartley | first1 = James | author-link2 = Donald Rooum | last2 = Rooum | first2 = Donald | year = 1983 | title = Sir Cyril Burt and Typography: A Re-evaluation | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 74 | issue = 2| pages = 203–212 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1983.tb01856.x}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Gillie | first1 = O. | year = 1977 | title = Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part I  | journal = The Phi Delta Kappan | volume = 58 | issue = 6| pages = 469–71}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hernshaw | first1 = L. | year = 1992 | title = Burt Redivivus | journal = The Psychologist | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 169–70 }}
* Joynson, R.B. (1989). ''The Burt Affair''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-01039-X}}.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Karier | first1 = C. | year = 1980 | title = In Praise of Great Men: essay review of Cyril Burt, Psychologist | journal = History of Education Quarterly | volume = 20 | issue = 4| pages = 473–86 | doi = 10.2307/367859 | pmid = 11617058 | jstor = 367859 | s2cid = 43365768 }}
* {{Cite book
 |editor=Mackintosh, Nicholas
 |editor-link=Nicholas Mackintosh
 | year = 1995
 | title = Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed?
 | place = New York
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | isbn =  978-0-19-852336-9
}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Rowe | first1 = D. | last2 = Plomin | first2 = R. | year = 1978 | title = The Burt Controversy: The Comparison of Burt's Data on IQ with Data from Other Studies | journal = Behavior Genetics | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 81–83 | doi=10.1007/bf01067708| pmid = 637830 | s2cid = 19858214 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Tizard | first1 = Jack | year = 1976 | title = Progress and Degeneration in the IQ Debate: Comments on Urbach | journal = The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | volume = 27 | issue = 3| pages = 251–258 | doi=10.1093/bjps/27.3.251| s2cid = 120887693 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Tucker | first1 = W. H. | author-link = William H. Tucker (psychologist) | year = 1994 | title = Fact and Fiction in the Discovery of Sir Cyril Burt's Flaws | journal = Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 335–347 | doi=10.1002/1520-6696(199410)30:4<335::aid-jhbs2300300403>3.0.co;2-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Tucker | first1 = W. H. | author-link = William H. Tucker (psychologist) | year = 1997 | title = Re-reconsidering Burt: Beyond a Reasonable Doubt | journal = Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences | volume = 33 | issue = 2| pages = 145–162 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1520-6696(199721)33:2<145::aid-jhbs6>3.3.co;2-g| pmid = 9149386 }}
* [[Adrian Wooldridge|Woolridge, Adrian]] (1994). ''Measuring the Mind: Education and Psychology in England, c.1860-c.1990''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

==Primary sources==
Archival collections related to Burt in the United Kingdom.<ref>National Register of Archives [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/nra/searches/subjectView.asp?ID=P4317], Accessed 18 August 2007.</ref>
* Liverpool University Special Collection and Archives holds Burt's personal papers (Ref: D191), and the papers of his secretary Margarethe Archer (Ref: D432).
* The British Psychological Society History of Psychology Centre holds Burt's correspondence and reprints, c1920–1971 [http://www.bps.org.uk/hopc].
* Oxford University: Bodleian Library, Special Collections and Western Manuscripts holds Burt's correspondence with CD Darlington, 1960–1966, and correspondence with Society for Protection of Science and Learning, 193–1934 (Ref: SPSL) [http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/].
* Imperial College, University of London, Archives and Corporate Records Unit holds Burt's correspondence with Herbert Dingle, 1951–1959 (Ref: H Dingle collection) [http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/recordsandarchives].
* University College London (UCL), University of London, Special Collections holds letters from Burt to LS Penrose,

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=au%3A%22Cyril+Burt%22&wc=on&fc=on Works by Cyril Burt], at [[JSTOR]]
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/?term=cyril+burt Works by Cyril Burt], at Eugenics Review
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/burt.shtml Concise summary of Cyril Burt]
*[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9358363/Sir-Cyril-Burt "Sir Cyril Burt." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208093254/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9358363/Sir-Cyril-Burt |date=8 December 2007 }}.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041026005255/http://www.individualdifferences.info/LondonBurt.htm The London School of Differential Psychology: Cyril L. Burt]
*[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/nra/default.asp National Register of Archives].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20000919121629/http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk/collections/archive/burt.html The Cyril Burt Archives at University of Liverpool Special Collections].
*[http://www.bps.org.uk/history/resources/resources_home.cfm The British Psychological Society History of Psychology Centre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517061820/http://www.bps.org.uk/history/resources/resources_home.cfm |date=17 May 2011 }}.
*[http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/ Oxford University: Bodleian Library, Special Collections and Western Manuscripts]
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Library/special-coll/ University College London (UCL), University of London, Special Collections].
*[http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/recordsandarchives Imperial College London Archives and Corporate Records].
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?search=ss&sText=cyril+burt&LinkID=mp58783 Likenesses of Burt in the National Portrait Gallery].

{{E. L. Thorndike Award |state=autocollapse}}
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