Editing Cyrenaica

{{Short description|Eastern coastal region of Libya}}
{{other uses}}
{{Redirect|Pentapolis (North Africa)||Pentapolis}}
{{Redirect|Barqa|the ancient city|Barca (ancient city)|other uses|Barka (disambiguation){{!}}Barka}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Cyrenaica
| other_name         = 
| native_name        = برقة
| native_name_lang   = ar
| settlement_type    = Region
| government_type    = {{ubl|[[Monarchy|Kingdom]] (632–440 BC; 276–249 BC; 163–96 BC; 34–30 BC)|[[Republic]] (440–322 BC; 249–246 BC)|[[Nome (Egypt)|Nome]] (322–276 BC; 246–96 BC)|[[Roman province]] (74 BC-643 AD)|[[Vilayet]] (1879–1888 AD)|[[Mutasarrıf]] (1888–1911 AD)
|[[Italian Cyrenaica|Italian colony]] (1911–1934 AD)|[[British Military Administration (Libya)|Military administration]] (1943–1949 AD)|[[Emirate of Cyrenaica|Emirate]] (643–? AD; 1949–1951 AD)|[[Provinces of Libya|Province]] (1951–1963 AD)}}
| image_map          = File:Map of Cyrenaica (cropped).png
| map_alt            = 
| map_caption        = The traditional region of Cyrenaica (dark green), and the modern expansion (light green)
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = {{LBY}}
| subdivision_type1  = 
| area_total_km2     = 
| subdivision_name1  = 
| iso_code           = 
| website            = 
| footnotes          = 
| area_code_type     = 
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}}

'''Cyrenaica''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|aɪ|r|ə|ˈ|n|eɪ|.|ɪ|k|ə|,|ˌ|s|ɪr|-}} {{respell|SY|rə|NAY|ik|ə|,|SIRR|ə||}}) or '''Kyrenaika''' ({{langx|ar|برقة|Barqah}}, {{langx|grc-x-koine|Κυρηναϊκή [ἐπαρχία]|Kūrēnaïkḗ [eparkhíā]}}, after the city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]]), is the eastern region of [[Libya]]. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the [[16th meridian east|16th]] and [[25th meridian east|25th]] meridians east, including the [[Kufra District]]. The coastal region, also known as ''[[Pentapolis]]'' ("Five Cities") in [[Ancient Libya|antiquity]], was part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Crete and Cyrenaica]], later divided into ''Libya Pentapolis'' and ''Libya Sicca''. During the Islamic period, the area came to be known as ''Barqa'', after the city of [[Barca (ancient city)|Barca]].

Cyrenaica became [[Italian Cyrenaica|an Italian colony in 1911]]. After the 1934 formation of [[Italian Libya]], the [[Cyrenaica province]] was designated as one of the three primary [[Provinces of Libya|provinces of the country]]. During World War II, it fell under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in the [[Kingdom of Libya]] from 1951 until 1963. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially until 1963 has formed several [[shabiyah|shabiyat]], the [[districts of Libya|administrative divisions of Libya]], since 1995. The [[2011 Libyan Civil War]] started in Cyrenaica, which came largely under the control of the [[National Transitional Council]] (headquartered in [[Benghazi]]) for most of the war.<ref>
[http://www.economist.com/node/18239888?story_id=18239888 "Endgame in Tripoli".] ''[[The Economist]]''. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
</ref> In 2012, a body known as the [[Cyrenaica Transitional Council]] unilaterally declared Cyrenaica to be an [[autonomous region]] of Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/11/east-libya-declares-self-government-2013113195259621122.html|title=East Libya declares self-government|work=aljazeera.com}}</ref><ref name="edition.cnn.com">{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/06/world/africa/libya-benghazi/index.html|title=Eastern Libyan leaders declare semi-autonomy|date=7 March 2012|work=CNN}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Libya BMNG.png|thumb|Satellite image of Libya with Cyrenaica on the right side, showing the green Mediterranean coast in the north and the large desert in the centre and south]]
Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on a mass of [[Miocene]] [[limestone]] that tilts up steeply from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and falls inland with a gradual descent to [[sea level]] again.

This mass is divided into two blocks. The [[Jebel Akhdar, Libya|Jebel Akhdar]] extends parallel to the coast from the [[Gulf of Sidra]] to the [[Gulf of Bomba]] and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra past [[Benghazi]] to [[Tolmeita]]. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at [[Susa, Libya|Susa]] and [[Derna, Libya|Derna]], the shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range.<ref name="Gimingham, C. H. 1954">Gimingham, C. H. and K. Walton (1954). "Environment and the Structure of Scrub Communities on the Limestone Plateaux of Northern Cyrenaica." ''Journal of Ecology,'' Vol. 42, No. 2, Jul., 1954</ref>

The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the [[Mediterranean woodlands and forests]] [[ecoregion]] and have a [[Mediterranean climate]] of hot, dry summers and relatively mild and rainy winters.<ref>"Mediterranean woodlands and forests". WWF Scientific Report [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1214_full.html]. Accessed 27 March 2011</ref> The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest, woodland, [[maquis shrubland|maquis]], [[garrigue]], [[steppe]] and [[oak savanna]]. Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, with ''[[Sarcopoterium spinosum]]'', along with ''[[Asphodelus ramosus]]'' and ''[[Artemisia herba-alba]]'', as the predominant species.<ref name="Gimingham, C. H. 1954"/><ref name="El-Darier, S. M 2009 pp 353–360">El-Darier, S. M. and F.M. El-Mogaspi (2009). "Ethnobotany and Relative Importance of Some Endemic Plant Species at El-Jabal El-Akhdar Region (Libya)". ''World Journal of Agricultural Sciences'' 5 (3): 353–360, 2009, pp 353–360.</ref> Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming more extensive on the lower plateau. ''[[Juniperus phoenicea]], [[Pistacia lentiscus]], [[Quercus coccifera]]'' and ''[[Ceratonia siliqua]]'' are common tree and large shrub species in the maquis.<ref name="Gimingham, C. H. 1954"/><ref name="El-Darier, S. M 2009 pp 353–360"/> The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one dominated by ''Pistacia lentiscus'' and the other a mixed maquis in which the endemic ''[[Arbutus pavarii]]'' is prominent, and forests of ''[[Cupressus sempervirens]], Juniperus phoenicea, [[Olea europaea]], Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua,'' and ''[[Pinus halepensis]].''<ref name="Gimingham, C. H. 1954"/>

Areas of [[Terra rosa (soil)|red soil]] are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops of [[wheat]] and [[barley]] from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to the flocks and herds of the local [[Bedouin]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Cyrenaica", from ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition, 1911</ref> Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops.<ref name="El-Darier, S. M 2009 pp 353–360"/> The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.<ref>''The Report: Libya 2008,'' p. 134. Oxford Business Group.</ref>

The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by the [[Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe]], a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-arid [[Sahara]].<ref>"North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1321_full.html]. Accessed 27 March 2011.</ref>

The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times as [[Marmarica]], is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture. [[Bomba, Libya|Bomba]] and [[Tobruk]] have good harbors.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as the [[Libyan Desert]], and includes the [[Great Sand Sea]] and the [[Calanshio Sand Sea]]. The Libyan Desert is home to a few [[oasis|oases]], including [[Awjila]] and [[Jaghbub]].

== History ==
===Berber people===
The [[Berbers]] were the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPCY9ZHBBgC&pg=PA1|title=Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie|last=Simons|first=Geoff|date=2003|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781860649882|page=1}}</ref>

=== Ancient Egyptian Era ===
Egyptian records mention that during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] (thirteenth century BC), the [[Libu]] and [[Meshwesh]] tribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Greek colonization ===
Cyrenaica was [[Greek colonisation|colonized by the Greeks]] beginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known as '''Kyrenaïka'''. The first and most important colony was that of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of [[Santorini|Thera]], which they had abandoned because of a severe famine.<ref name="Ring">Ring, Trudy ''et al.'' (1996) "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)" ''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Volume 4: Middle East and Africa'' Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2aOpeBnbxvsC&pg=PA194 p. 194], {{ISBN|1-884964-03-6}}</ref> Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos.<ref>Details of the founding are contained in Book IV of ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'', by [[Herodotus|Herodotus of Halicarnassus]]</ref> His descendants, known as the [[Battiadae]], persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.

The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was called [[Marmarica]]; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port of [[Apollonia, Cyrenaica|Apollonia]] (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe or [[Taucheira]] (Tocra), [[Euesperides]] or Berenice (near modern [[Benghazi]]), Balagrae ([[Bayda, Libya|Bayda]]) and [[Barca (ancient city)|Barce]] ([[Marj]])&nbsp;– of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.<ref name="Ring"/> The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of [[Siwa Oasis|Ammonium]].

The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle, and [[silphium]], a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name="Ring, Trudy 1996">Ring, Trudy, Robert M. Salkin and Sharon La Boda (1996). "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)" in ''International Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 4: Middle East and Africa''. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago and London.</ref>

Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic style]]. The [[Cyrenaics]], a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by [[Aristippus]] of Cyrene.<ref>"Cyrenaica and the Greeks" from ''The Library of Congress Country Studies: Libya''. 2001. [http://workmall.com/wfb2001/libya/libya_history_cyrenaica_and_the_greeks.html]. Accessed 27 March 2011.</ref> Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poet [[Callimachus]] and the mathematicians [[Theodorus of Cyrene|Theodorus]] and [[Eratosthenes]].<ref name="Ring, Trudy 1996"/>

=== Persian rule ===
{{main|Libya (satrapy)}}

In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid (Persian)]] army of [[Cambyses II]] seized the Pentapolis, and [[Libya (satrapy)|established a satrapy]] (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries.

=== Hellenistic era ===
The Persians were followed by [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt.<ref name="Ring" /> The Pentapolis was formally annexed by [[Ptolemy I Soter]], and through him passed to the [[Diadochi|diadoch]] dynasty of the Lagids, better known as the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. It briefly gained independence under [[Magas of Cyrene]], stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the main [[Ptolemaic Egypt|kingdom]] by [[Ptolemy VIII]] and given to his son [[Ptolemy Apion]], who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to the [[Roman Republic]].

=== Roman province ===
{{main|Crete and Cyrenaica|Praetorian prefecture of the East|Diocese of Egypt}}
[[File:Creta et Cyrene SPQR.png|thumb|[[Crete and Cyrenaica]], 2nd century [[Roman Empire]]]]
[[File:Cyrenaica Marmarica.jpg|thumb|Map of {{legend0|#f1d2d0|Cyrenaica}} and {{legend0|#f7d1bc|[[Marmarica]]}} in the Roman era ([[Samuel Butler (schoolmaster)|Samuel Butler]], 1907)]]

The Latin name ''Cyrenaica'' (or ''Kyrenika'') dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together with [[Crete]]. It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighbor [[Africa proconsularis]], and unlike [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] itself, which became an imperial domain ''sui generis'' (under a special governor styled ''[[praefectus augustalis]]'') in 30 BC.

[[File:Ptolemais Villa of Columns.JPG|thumb|Roman ruins of [[Ptolemais, Cyrenaica]]]]

[[Diocletian]]'s [[Tetrarchy]] reforms of 293 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces: '''Libya Superior''' or '''Libya Pentapolis''', comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as its capital, and '''Libya Inferior''' or '''Libya Sicca''', comprising Marmarica, with the important port city of [[Paraetonium]] as its capital. Each came under a governor holding the modest rank of ''[[praeses]]''. Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to the [[Diocese of Egypt (Late Antiquity)|Diocese of Egypt]], within the [[Praetorian prefecture]] of [[Praetorian prefecture of the East|Oriens]]. Its western neighbor [[Tripolitania]], the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of the [[Diocese of Africa]], subordinate to the [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|prefecture of ''Italia et Africa'']]. Following the [[365 Crete earthquake|Crete earthquake of 365]], the capital was moved to [[Ptolemais, Cyrenaica|Ptolemais]]. After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire ([[Byzantine Empire]]), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the [[Vandal Kingdom]] to the west, until its [[Vandalic War|reconquest by Belisarius]] in 533.

The [[Tabula Peutingeriana]] shows ''Pentapolites'' to the east of ''[[Syrtes Maiores]]'', indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Taucheira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis, [[Balagrae|Balacris]] and Cyrene.<ref>Agricole Joseph F.X.P.E.S.P.A. Fortia d'Urban (marq. de), Bénigne Emmanuel C. Miller, ''Recueil des itinéraires anciens, comprenant l'itinéraire d'Antonin, la table de Peutinger, et un choix des périples grecs'', 1845, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yi4VAAAAQAAJ&dq=ptolomaide+Tauchira&pg=PA287 p. 286]</ref>

==== Christianization ====
{{See also|Early centers of Christianity#Cyrene}}

According to the [[Synoptic Gospels]], [[Simon of Cyrene]] carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion.

According to one tradition, [[Mark the Evangelist]] was born in the Pentapolis, and later returned after preaching with [[Paul the Apostle]] in [[Colosse]] (Col 4:10) and [[Rome]] (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to [[Alexandria]].<ref>[http://www.suscopts.org/coptic-orthodox/church/saint-mark/ "St. Mark the Apostle, the Founder of the Coptic Church"], Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States, accessed 19 May 2009</ref>

[[Early Christianity]] spread to Pentapolis from Egypt; [[Synesius of Cyrene]] (370–414), bishop of [[Ptolemais, Cyrenaica|Ptolemais]], received his instruction at Alexandria in both [[Catechetical School of Alexandria|the Catechetical School]] and the [[Mouseion]], and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for [[Hypatia]], the last pagan [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]], whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate by [[Theophilus I of Alexandria|Theophilus]], patriarch of Alexandria, in 410. Since the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the [[Patriarchate of Alexandria|See of Alexandria]], per the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers.[[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|The patriarch of the Coptic Church]] to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.<ref>[http://www.coptic.net/articles/CoptsAndChristendom.txt "Atiya, Aziz S. "The Copts and Christian Civilization] Coptic.net</ref>

The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]], as the [[Pope of Alexandria]] was the Pope of Africa. The most senior position in [[The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church]] after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as a major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days of [[Pope John VI of Alexandria]], it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese.

After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop, [[Zopyrus (Bishop of Barca)|Zopyrus]], was present at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325. The subscriptions at [[Ephesus]] (431) and [[Chalcedon]] (451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus.

Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].

=== Arab and Ottoman rule ===
{{main|History of Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica|Ottoman Tripolitania|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate|Arab migrations to the Maghreb}}

Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command of [[Amr ibn al-As]] during the tenure of the second caliph, [[Omar]], in {{circa|642}},<ref>{{EI3|last=Krais|first=Jakob|title=Barqa (Cyrenaica)|year=2021|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/barqa-cyrenaica-COM_40395}}</ref> and became known as '''Barqah''' after its provincial capital, the ancient city of [[Barca (ancient city)|Barce]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0XO3fLn6wpcC&pg=PA109 |title=The History of al-Tabari: Index |volume=XL |first1=Alex V. |last1=Popovkin |first2=Everett K. |last2=Rowson |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=7 June 2007 |page=109 |isbn=9780791472514}}</ref> After the breakdown of the [[Ummayad caliphate]] it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the [[Fatimid]] caliphs. The region became a base for piracy, and many of the pirates acted as [[Privateer|privateers]] for the Fatimids.<ref name="Goitein">{{cite book |last1=Goitein |first1=S. D. |title=A Mediterranean Society The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. I: Economic Foundations |date=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520221581 |pages=327–328}}</ref> Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from the Fatimids to the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]].

In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the Bedouin [[Banu Hilal]] confederation devastated the North African coast under Zirid control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by the [[Banu Sulaym]] while the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1UGhbZ40EI8C&q=banu+hilal+linya+ravaged&pg=PA9|title=Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction|isbn=9004109552|last1=Khalilieh|first1=Hassan Salih|year=1998|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> Up to 200,000 Hilalian families migrated into Cyrenaica from Egypt. As a result of the migration by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became more Arab than any place in the [[Arab world]] except for the interior of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=John |title=A History of Libya |date=2012 |publisher=Hurst |isbn=978-1-84904-227-7 |page=xv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WB50sqpZKk8C |language=en}}</ref> The [[Ayyubid]] emir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders of [[Saladin]] who wanted to use the province as an agricultural base.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvTjCQAAQBAJ&q=ayyubid+cyrenaica&pg=PA114|title=Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries)|isbn=9789004298576|last1=Baadj|first1=Amar S.|date=19 June 2015|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> The [[Mamluks]] were seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with the resident Bedouins to accept their [[suzerainty]] indirectly while paying taxes.<ref name="books.google.com" /> The [[Ottoman Empire]] later claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed into [[Ottoman Libya]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93IgAwAAQBAJ&q=mamluk+cyrenaica+ottomans+claim&pg=PA406|title = Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History|isbn = 9781139851121|last1 = Lapidus|first1 = Ira M.|date = 22 October 2012| publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

In 1879, Cyrenaica became a [[wilayah]] of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0fz_AwAAQBAJ&q=cyrenaica+1879&pg=PA90|title = The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980|isbn = 9781400859023|last1 = Anderson|first1 = Lisa|date = 14 July 2014| publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> In 1888, it became a {{lang|tr|mutasarrıfiyya}} under a ''mutasarrif'' and was further divided into five qadaas. The [[Wali (administrative title)|wali]] of [[Ottoman Tripolitania]], however, looked after the military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pWOAwAAQBAJ&q=cyrenaica+ottomans+1888&pg=PA33|title=The Origins of the Libyan Nation: Colonial Legacy, Exile and the Emergence of a New Nation-State|isbn=9781135245023|last1=Baldinetti|first1=Anna|date=12 May 2014|publisher=Routledge }}</ref>

=== Italian colonial rule ===
{{main| Italian Cyrenaica}}
[[File:Government of Cyrenaica 1949.jpg|thumb|Emir [[Idris I of Libya|Idris as-Senussi]] (left), and behind him (from left) [[Hussein Maziq]], [[Muhammad Sakizli]] and [[Mustafa Ben Halim]], formed the government of Cyrenaica in late 1940s]]
[[File:Cyrenaica Parliament.jpg|thumb|Littorio Palace in Benghazi was the seat of the Cyrenaican assembly]]

The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the [[Italo-Turkish War]] in 1911 and declared it an Italian [[protectorate]] on 15 October 1912. Three days later, the [[Ottoman Empire]] officially ceded the province to the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica was established as an [[Italian Cyrenaica|Italian colony]], and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognized [[Idris I of Libya|Sheikh Sidi Idriss]] as the leader of the [[Senussi]], who was granted the princely rank of [[emir]] until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, [[Tripolitania]], Cyrenaica, and [[Fezzan]] were united as the Italian colony of [[Italian Libya|Libya]].

The Italian fascists constructed the [[Marble Arch (Libya)|Marble Arch]] as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.

{{anchor|British administration}}

There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during [[World War II]] on the part of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] against the [[Italian Army]] and the [[Nazi German]] [[Afrika Korps]]. In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and the [[British Military Administration (Libya)|United Kingdom administered most of Libya]] through 1951, when the [[Kingdom of Libya]] was established and granted independence.<ref>Stewart, John (1996) "Cyrenaica" ''The British Empire: An Encyclopedia of the Crown's Holdings, 1493 through 1995'' McFarland & Co., Jefferson, North Carolina, p. 125, {{ISBN|0-7864-0177-X}}</ref>

=== Emirate of Cyrenaica ===
{{main|Emirate of Cyrenaica}}
[[File:Flag of Cyrenaica.svg|thumb|Flag of the short-lived [[emirate of Cyrenaica]], 1949–1951]]

In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independent [[Emirate of Cyrenaica]]. This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris.

=== Gaddafi's Arab republic ===
{{see also|History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi}}

Since 1 September 1969, when the [[Senussi]] dynasty was overthrown by Colonel [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's [[military dictatorship]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}, including a military rebellion at [[Tobruk]] in 1980.<ref>Associated Press, 'Libyan Opposition to Khadafy Growing but Fragmented Says Expert,' 17 April 1986.</ref>

In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firm [[Foster and Partners]]. The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as a [[Cultural tourism|cultural]] and [[eco-tourism]] destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene.<ref>Rose, Steve. "Gadafy's green vision". ''[[The Guardian]]'' 12 September 2007. Accessed 2 April 2011.[https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/sep/12/architecture.culturaltrips]</ref>

For much of the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan civil war]], Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the [[National Transitional Council]] while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state,<ref>{{cite news|title=Two-state solution for Libya?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_9435000/9435826.stm|publisher=BBC Today programme|access-date=24 December 2011|date=25 March 2011}}</ref> but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.

== Episcopal sees ==
Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of '''Libya Superior''' or '''Libya Pentapolitana''' listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s:<ref name=AP>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819–1013</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Barca (ancient city)#Barca and Christianity|Barca]]
*[[Berenice, Cyrenica|Berenice]] ([[Benghazi]])
*[[Boreum, Cyrenaica|Boreum]] (Tabibbi)
*[[Cyrene (city)#Christianity|Cyrene]]
*[[Dystis]]
*[[Erythrum]] ([[Athrun, Libya|Uaili-Et-Trun]])
*[[Olbia, Libya|Olbia]]
*[[Ptolemais, Cyrenaica#Bishopric|Ptolemais in Libya]]
*[[Apollonia, Cyrenaica|Sozusa in Libya]]
}}

''For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior, see [[Marmarica]].''<br />''For those of Creta, see [[Byzantine Crete]].''

== See also ==

* [[Cyrenaics]] philosophical school
* [[List of kings of Cyrene]]
* [[List of Catholic dioceses in Libya]]
* [[List of colonial heads of Cyrenaica]]
* [[Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Cyrenaica]]
* [[History of Libya]]
* [[Christianity in Libya]]
* [[Islam in Libya]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
*Westermann ''Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' (in German).<!-- Please link this reference properly as a citation within the main text of the article-->

== Further reading==
*''Cyrenaica in Antiquity'' (Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers). Graeme Barker, John Lloyd, Joyce Reynolds {{ISBN|0-86054-303-X}}
*Sandro Lorenzatti, ''Note archeologiche e topografiche sull’itinerario da Derna a Cirene seguito da Claude Le Maire (1706)'', in "L'Africa romana XX", Roma 2015, vol. 2, pp.&nbsp;955–970.

== Sources and external links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.cyrenaica.org/ Cyrenaica Archaeological Project.]
* [http://ircyr.kcl.ac.uk/ Inscriptions of Roman Cyrenaica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218163746/http://ircyr.kcl.ac.uk/ |date=18 December 2009 }}
* [http://lexicorient.com/e.o/cyrenaica.htm Lexiorient.com's article on Cyrenaica.]
* [https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&t=h&om=1&z=7&ll=32.333559,21.610107&spn=2.487696,3.768311 Dynamic map of Cyrenaica on Google Maps.]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Libya.htm#Cyrenaica Worldstatesmen.org's History and list of rulers of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070126171230/http://www.hostkingdom.net/noafrica.html#Cyrenaica Hostkingdom.net's History and list of rulers of Cyrenaica.]
* [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/northafrica/xcyrenaica.html Zum.de's History of Cyrenaica.]

{{Regions of Libya}}
{{Roman provinces AD 117}}
{{Late Roman Provinces|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cyrenaica| ]]
[[Category:Countries in ancient Africa]]
[[Category:Crete and Cyrenaica]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geography of North Africa]]