Editing Council–manager government

{{Short description|Form of local government}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2014}}
{{Local government forms}}
The '''council–manager government''' is a form of [[local government]] commonly used for [[Municipality|municipalities]] and [[County|counties]] in the [[United States]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]],<ref name="SvaraWinter">{{cite journal |last1=Svara |first1=James H. |title=Strengthening Local Government Leadership and Performance: Reexamining and Updating the Winter Commission Goals |journal=Public Administration Review |date=21 October 2008 |volume=68 |pages=S37–S49 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.00977.x }}</ref> in [[Local government in New Zealand|New Zealand regional councils]], and in [[municipal government in Canada|Canadian municipalities]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlc.org/resource/forms-of-municipal-government/|title=Cities 101 — Forms of Municipal Government|date=21 October 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ballotpedia.org/Council-manager_government|title=Council-manager government}}</ref> In the council-manager government, an elected [[Municipal council|city council]] hires a manager to serve as chief [[Executive (government)|executive]]; this manager can be replaced by a simple majority at any time. 
==Overview==
The council-manager system is similar to the typical governance of a [[Public company|publicly traded corporation]].<ref>[http://support.orcities.org/Portals/5/ICMA%20Why%20Local%20Government.pdf Local Government Management, ICMA]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Under the form, an elected governing body, usually called a [[city council]], board of [[aldermen]], or similar title, is responsible for [[legislative]] functions such as establishing [[policy]], passing [[local ordinance]]s, voting [[Appropriation (law)|appropriation]]s, and developing an overall vision, similar to a corporate [[board of directors]].<ref name=ICMAmain>{{Cite web |url=http://www.icma.org/main/topic.asp?hsid=1&tpid=20 |title=ICMA information brochure |access-date=2009-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904224433/http://www.icma.org/main/topic.asp?tpid=20&hsid=1 |archive-date=2006-09-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city council is accountable to the citizens of the community they represent, who play a similar role to that of shareholders in a corporation. The council or commission appoints a [[city manager]] to oversee the administrative operations, implement its policies, and advise it. The manager position is similar to that of a corporate [[chief executive officer]] appointed by a board of directors. The position of "[[mayor]]" present in this type of legislative body is a largely ceremonial title, and may be selected by the council from among its members or elected as an at-large council member with no executive functions,<ref name=5formsICMA>[https://archive.today/20130113043950/http://icma.org/main/ld.asp?ldid=11226&hsid=10&tpid=20 ICMA forms of government]</ref> similar to a non-executive [[chairperson]] in a corporation.

The [[International City/County Management Association]] (ICMA), a [[professional organization]] for city managers, has listed at least three defining characteristics that distinguish a true council–manager government:
* All governmental authority rests with the council or other elected body, except for certain executive or administrative duties that are assigned to the manager. However, the manager always is employed at the pleasure of the elected body.{{Sfn|Svara|Nelson|2008|p=7}}
* The manager is allocated their functions in codified form by the city charter or other law, not assigned them ''ad hoc'' by a mayor.{{Sfn|Svara|Nelson|2008|p=8}}
* The manager must be responsible to, hired by, and can be dismissed only by the entire council, not one individual, such as a mayor or chairperson.{{Sfn|Svara|Nelson|2008|p=8}}

As of 2019, it is used in 52.7% of American cities with populations over 10,000.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Kimberly H. |last=Nelson|chapter=The Local Government Manager|title=Managing Local Government Services|edition=4th|year=2021|publisher=ICMA|page=22}}</ref>

==History in the United States==
The concept of the council–manager form of government was a product of a confluence of the prevailing modes of thought during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name=stillman>Stillman, Richard J. (1974). ''The Rise of the City Manager: A Public Professional in Local Government.'' Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.</ref> Probably the foremost influence was the [[Progressive Era|Progressive Movement]]; following along the thought lines of the movement, the municipal reformers of that time wanted to rid municipalities of the pervasive "[[political machine]]" form of government and the abuses of the [[spoils system]]. The thought was to have a politically impartial administrator or manager to carry out the administrative function.

[[Staunton, Virginia]], is credited as the first American city to appoint a city manager, which it did in 1908.<ref name=SVAmanager>{{cite web|url=http://www.staunton.va.us/default.asp?pageID=B94197C5-F4F9-427D-938A-4CFCCF4929DF |title=Staunton, Virginia: Birthplace of the Council Manager Form of Government |publisher=City of Staunton |access-date=2008-11-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051120051230/http://www.staunton.va.us/default.asp?pageID=B94197C5-F4F9-427D-938A-4CFCCF4929DF |archive-date=November 20, 2005 }}</ref> This appointment attracted attention to the fledgling profession and caught the eye of [[Richard S. Childs]], who would become known as the "father" of the council–manager form of government.<ref name=stillman/><ref>Ammons, David N. and Charldean Newell. (1989). ''City Executives: Leadership Roles, Work Characteristics, and Time Management.'' State University of NY Press.</ref> The first large city to adopt the council–manager form was [[Dayton, Ohio]], in 1913. [[Ohio]] [[Progressivism in the United States|Progressives]] organizing for the city manager plan also prioritized [[proportional representation]] with adoption in [[Ashtabula, Ohio|Ashtabula]], [[Cincinnati]], [[Cleveland]], [[Hamilton, Ohio|Hamilton]], and [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barber |first=Kathleen L.|author-link=Kathleen L. Barber |title=Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio |year=1995 |pages=59–60}}</ref>

The council–manager form of government developed, at least in part, as a response to some perceived limitations of the [[city commission government]] form. Since it relies on candidates being elected at-large, minority populations are often unable to elect candidates of their choice. In addition, it may concentrate too much power in individual commissioners, who also manage city departments. The council–manager form became the preferred alternative for progressive reform. After [[World War I]], few cities adopted the commission form and many cities using the commission plan switched to the council–manager form.<ref name="texashandbook">[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/moc01 ''Handbook of Texas Online'', s.v. "COMMISSION FORM OF CITY GOVERNMENT,"] (accessed May 26, 2009).</ref>

By 2001 there were 3,302 cities with a population over 2,500 and 371 counties using the council–manager system. [[Phoenix, Arizona]], is the largest city in the United States to retain a council–manager government.<ref name=PHOMayor>{{cite web | url=http://www.phoenixoregon.net/mayorcouncil/mayorbios.htm | title=From the Mayor's Office | publisher=City of Phoenix| access-date=2008-09-04 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080822212231/http://www.phoenixoregon.net/mayorcouncil/mayorbios.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2008-08-22}}</ref>

Since the turn of the 21st century, there have been studies about hybrid forms of local governments that take elements of both council–manager and [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council]] forms. The cities that have modified their organizational structure from one of the pure forms have been called "adaptive" forms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Jered B. |author-link1=Jered Carr |last2=Karuppusamy |first2=Shanthi |title=The Adapted Cities Framework |journal=Urban Affairs Review |date=July 2008 |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=875–86 |doi=10.1177/1078087407311396 |s2cid=153593604 }}</ref>

==History in the Republic of Ireland==
{{Main article|Council Manager (Republic of Ireland)}}
Following the turmoil of [[World War I]] (1914–1918), the [[1916 rising]], the [[Irish War of Independence]] (1919–1921), and the [[Irish Civil War]] (1921–1923), the Irish government found it necessary to remove the members of several local authorities and replace them temporarily by paid commissioners.

Both Dublin and Cork city councils were so removed. In both cities, there was a body of opinion that the services provided by the councils were delivered more efficiently and fairly under the commissioners than under the previous system, where the executive function had been, in effect, vested in the councils and their committees.

In 1926, a committee of commercial and industrial interests in Cork came together to consider a scheme of city government. Having regard to the city's experience of commissioners and recent experience in the United States a council–manager plan of city government was proposed.

After discussion between the minister for local government and local representatives, the minister, Richard Mulcahy, introduced as a government measure, the ''Cork City Management Bill 1929'' and it became law despite opposition. The minister proposed and the [[Oireachtas]] enacted similar provision for Dublin City in 1930. Similar laws were passed for Limerick in 1934 and Waterford in 1939 under the [[Fianna Fáil]] government.

Under the ''County Management Act 1940'', which was brought into operation in August 1942, a ''county manager'' is the manager of every [[borough]] or [[town]] in that county, but since the 1990s, has the power to delegate these functions to any other officer of that borough or town council.

The system was modified also in subsequent legislation, particularly the ''City and County Management (Amendment) Act 1955'', which made some adjustments to give greater power to the council members, and the ''Local Government Act 1985'', which provided for the council–manager system in [[Galway City]] once detached for local government purposes from [[County Galway]].

The above acts have been replaced since that time, in substantially the same form, by the ''[[Local Government Act 2001]]''.

==History in Germany==
The council-manager form of local government was originally introduced into the West German states of [[Lower Saxony]] and [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] by post-WWII legislation. It was abolished in the mid-1990s when changes to local government law resulted in the adoption of the mayor-council system. The equivalent German term for the position of city manager was ''[[w:de:Oberstadtdirektor|Oberstadtdirektor]]''.

== Criticism ==

The council–manager form of local government has been criticized as being extremely [[bureaucratic]].<ref>{{cite web
 |url= https://www.abqjournal.com/news/council-manager-system-would-weaken-democracy-in-abq/article_d2422e5b-9313-5b29-a356-d6971d0c471e.html
 |title= Council–manager system would weaken democracy in ABQ
 |website= Albuquerque Journal
 |access-date= 2025-05-18
}}</ref> The city manager is typically hired or fired by the city council rather than being elected by the public. Because city managers are generally not subject to the same political pressures that elected officials face, they may be less responsive to the concerns and needs of the public. Removing a city manager usually requires a majority vote from council members, meaning that a significant shift in council leadership (or an entirely new council) may be needed before action can be taken. This process can take several years—or even a decade or more—to remove a poor‑performing city manager, compared to the relative ease of voting out a poor‑performing mayor in an election.<ref>{{cite web
 |url= https://icma.org/documents/council-manager-form-government-what-it-how-it-works-and-benefits-your-community-brochure
 |title= Council–Manager Form of Government: What it is, how it works, and the benefits to your community
 |publisher= International City/County Management Association
 |access-date= 2025-05-18
}}</ref>

By isolating the executive role from political pressures, the council–manager form of local government can also extend that isolation to various city departments. As the chief administrative officer, the city manager often holds the same hiring and firing powers that are typically scrutinized when concentrated in a single office. This insulation from political oversight can create opportunities for nepotism or bureaucratic favoritism, allowing the same potential for patronage to persist.<ref>{{cite web
 |url= https://rm.coe.int/booklet-a6-combattre-le-nepotisme-coll-public-ethic-fr/168097a4e3
 |title= Fighting Nepotism within Local and Regional Authorities
 |publisher= Council of Europe
 |date= 2019-04-02
 |access-date= 2025-05-18
}}</ref> Critics further argue that such unchecked authority undermines transparency and efficiency, potentially leading to inefficiencies and a lack of accountability in city governance.<ref>{{cite web
 |url= https://www.governing.com/assessments/is-there-a-single-best-way-to-manage-a-city
 |title= Is There a Single Best Way to Manage a City?
 |website= Governing
 |date= 2022-12-05
 |access-date= 2025-05-18
}}</ref> In essence, the council–manager system shifts hiring authority from an elected mayor to an appointed city manager, which can perpetuate the very favoritism and patronage it was designed to eliminate.<ref>{{cite web
 |url= https://www.nationalcivicleague.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Guide-to-Charter-Commissions.pdf
 |title= Guide for Charter Commissions
 |publisher= National Civic League
 |date= 2017
 |access-date= 2025-05-18
}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite journal|last1=Svara|first1=James H.|last2=Nelson|first2=Kimberly L.|year=2008|title=Taking Stock of the Council-Manager Form at 100|url=https://icma.org/documents/taking-stock-council-manager-form-100|journal=Public Management|volume=August 2008|pages=6–15|via=}}

==External links==
*[http://citymayors.com/government/council_managers.html City Mayors feature on US council managers]
*[https://www.icma.org/ International City/County Management Association]
*[https://www.nationalcivicleague.org/ National Civic League]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Council-Manager Government}}
[[Category:Forms of local government]]
[[Category:Local government in the United States]]
[[Category:Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]