Editing Continental Army

{{Short description|Colonial army during the American Revolutionary War}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}

{{Infobox war faction
| war              = the [[American Revolutionary War]]
| image            = Seal of the United States Board of War and Ordnance.svg
| image_size       = 250
| name             = Continental Army
| caption          = Seal of the [[Board of War|Board of War and Ordnance]]
| active           = {{Start date|1775|06|14}} – {{end date|1783}}
| allegiance       = {{Nowrap|[[United Colonies]] (1775–1776)}}<br />[[United States]] (1776–1783)
| founder          = [[Second Continental Congress]]
| leader_title     = Commander-in-Chief
| leader           = [[George Washington]]
| successor        = [[Legion of the United States]]<br />[[United States Army]]
| allies           = [[Kingdom of France]]
| opponents        = [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] government, [[British Army]], [[Germans in the American Revolution#European allies of Britain|German auxiliaries]]
| size             = 48,000 at peak (231,000 served in total) <ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2017 |title=American Revolution Facts |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/american-revolution-faqs |website=The American Battlefield Trust}}</ref>
| colors           = {{Color box|#00008B}} Dark blue
| battles          ={{tree list}}
*[[American Revolutionary War]]
** [[Siege of Boston]]
** [[Battle of Long Island]]
** [[Battle of Harlem Heights]]
** [[Battle of White Plains]]
** [[Battle of Trenton]]
** [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek]]
** [[Battle of Princeton]]
** [[Battle of Brandywine]]
** [[Battle of Germantown]]
** [[Battles of Saratoga]]
** [[Siege of Augusta]]
** [[Battle of Monmouth]]
** [[Siege of Charleston]]
** [[Battle of Camden]]
** [[Battle of Cowpens]]
** [[Battle of Guilford Court House]]
** [[Battle of Eutaw Springs]]
** [[Siege of Ninety Six]]
** [[Siege of Yorktown]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}

{{US Revolutionary War
}}
The '''Continental Army''' was the army of the [[United Colonies]] representing the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and later the [[United States]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by the [[Second Continental Congress]], meeting in [[Philadelphia]] after the war's outbreak at the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]] on April 19, 1775. The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against the [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|British]], who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. General [[George Washington]] was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout the war.

The Continental Army was supplemented by local [[Militia (United States)|militias]] and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] formally ended the war, except for two detachments to guard Fort Pitt and West Point.

==Origins==
The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and, after 1776, from all 13 states. The [[American Revolutionary War]] began at the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]], on April 19, 1775, at a time when the colonial revolutionaries had no standing army. Previously, each colony had relied on [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] militias, which were made up of part-time citizen-soldiers for local defense, or the raising of temporary [[Provincial troops in the French and Indian Wars|provincial troops]], as was done during the [[French and Indian War]] between 1754 and 1763. As tensions with [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the [[Intolerable Acts]] in 1774. Colonists such as [[Richard Henry Lee]] proposed forming a national militia force, but the [[First Continental Congress]] rejected the idea.<ref>[[#Wright|Wright, 1983]], pp. 10–11</ref> On April 23, 1775, the [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]] authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces. 

On June 14, 1775, the [[Second Continental Congress]], meeting in present-day [[Independence Hall]] in [[Philadelphia]], voted to establish the Continental Army to provide for the common defense of the colonies, and incorporated patriot forces already in place outside [[Boston]] (22,000 troops) and [[New York City|New York]] (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental Army troops on a one-year enlistment, including riflemen from the [[Province of Pennsylvania]], [[Province of Maryland]], and [[Colony of Virginia]], which were used as [[light infantry]]. The Pennsylvania riflemen became the [[1st Pennsylvania Regiment|1st Continental Regiment]] in January 1776. On June 15, 1775, Congress unanimously elected [[George Washington]] commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted, and departed immediately for Boston, where he led the successful [[Siege of Boston]]. 

Washington served as the Continental Army's commander-in-chief throughout the Revolutionary War without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.<ref name="Lengel" /> As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army, but the requirements of the Revolutionary War against the [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|British]] was seen as requiring the discipline and organization of an organized central military. As a result, the Continental Army evolved throughout the war, routinely reorganizing its units and ultimately seeking and obtaining support from [[Kingdom of France|France]], which sought to counter British influence in [[North America]].

==Establishments==
The Continental Army's forces included several successive armies or establishments:
* The Continental Army of 1775, comprising the initial [[New England]] Army, was organized by Washington into three divisions, six brigades, and 38 regiments. Major General [[Philip Schuyler]]'s ten regiments in New York were sent to invade [[British North America|Canada]].<ref name=Wehmann191>Wehmann 1989, pp. 191.</ref>
* The Continental Army of 1776, was reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Washington had submitted recommendations to the Continental Congress almost immediately after he had accepted the position of Commander-in-Chief, but the Congress took time to consider and implement these. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a single battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies, with a [[wikt:rank and file|rank-and-file]] strength of 640.<ref name=Wehmann191/>
* The Continental Army of 1777–1780 evolved out of several critical reforms and political decisions that came about when it became apparent that the British were sending substantial forces to put an end to the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Second Continental Congress]] passed the "Eighty-eight Battalion Resolve", ordering each state to contribute one-battalion regiments in proportion to their population, and Washington subsequently received authority to raise an additional 16 battalions. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to "the length of the war" to avoid the year-end crises that depleted forces, including the notable near-collapse of the army at the end of 1776, which could have ended the war in a Continental, or American, loss by forfeit.<ref name=Wehmann191/>
* The Continental Army of 1781–1782 saw the greatest crisis on the American side in the war. Congress was bankrupt, making it very difficult to replenish the soldiers whose three-year terms had expired. Popular support for the war reached an all-time low, and Washington had to put down mutinies both in the [[Pennsylvania Line]] and in the [[New Jersey Line]]. Congress voted to cut funding for the Army, but Washington managed nevertheless to secure important strategic victories.<ref name=Wehmann191/>
* The Continental Army of 1783–1784 was succeeded by the [[United States Army]], which exists to the present day. As peace was restored with the British, most of the regiments were disbanded in an orderly fashion, though several had already been diminished.<ref name=Wehmann191/>

==Organization==

===Governing bodies===
Military affairs were at first managed by the [[Continental Congress]] in [[plenary session]], although specific matters were prepared by a number of [[Special committee|ad hoc committees]]. In June 1776 a five-member [[standing committee]], the [[Board of War|Board of War and Ordnance]], was established in order to replace the ad hoc committees. The five members who formed the Board fully participated in the plenary activities of Congress as well as in other committees and were unable to fully engage in the administrative leadership of the Continental Army. A new Board of War was therefore formed in October 1777, of three commissioners not member of Congress. Two more commissioners, not members of Congress, were shortly thereafter added, but in October 1778, the membership was set to three commissioners not members of Congress and two commissioners members of Congress. In early 1780, the [[Quartermaster General]], the Commissary General of Purchase, and the Commissary General of Issue were put under the direction of the Board. The [[United States Secretary of War#Secretary at War (1781–1789)|Office of the Secretary at War]] was created in February 1781, although the Office did not start its work until [[Benjamin Lincoln]] assumed the office in October 1781.<ref>Wehmann 1989, pp. 189–190.</ref>

===Commander-in-chief===
{{See also|Conway Cabal}}
{{Further|George Washington in the American Revolution}}
[[File: Portrait of George Washington-transparent.png|thumb|[[George Washington]], appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army on June 15, 1775, by the [[Second Continental Congress]]]]
On June 15, 1775, delegates to the [[Second Continental Congress]], convening in present-day [[Independence Hall]] in [[Philadelphia]], unanimously elected [[George Washington]] as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted the position, and served throughout the [[American Revolutionary War]] without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.<ref name="Lengel" />  Washington, as commander-in-chief, was supported by a chief administrative officer, the [[List of Adjutants General of the United States Army|Adjutant General]]. [[Horatio Gates]] held the position (1775–1776), [[Joseph Reed (politician)|Joseph Reed]] (1776–1777), [[George Weedon]] and Isaac Budd Dunn (1777), [[Morgan Connor]] 1777, [[Timothy Pickering]] (1777–1778), [[Alexander Scammell]] (1778–1781), and [[Edward Hand]] (1781–1783).<ref>Lesser 1976, p. xiii.</ref> An [[History of the Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army|Inspector General]] assisted the Commander-in-Chief through periodically inspecting and reporting on the condition of troops. The first incumbent was [[Thomas Conway]] (1777–1778), followed by [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben|Baron von Steuben]] 1778–1784, under whom the position became that of a de facto chief of staff.<ref>Wright 1983, pp. 142, 144–145.</ref> The [[Judge Advocate General of the United States Army|Judge Advocate General]] assisted the commander-in-chief with the administration of [[military justice]], but he did not, as his modern counterpart, give legal advise. [[William Tudor]] was the first appointee.<ref>Bell 2012, pp. 154–157.</ref> He was followed by [[John Laurance]] in 1777 and [[Thomas Edwards (TJAG)|Thomas Edwards]] in 1781<ref name=Principal/> The Mustermaster General kept track by name of every officer and man serving in the army. The first mustermaster was [[Stephen Moylan]].<ref>Bell 2012, pp. 150–151.</ref> He was followed by [[Gunning Bedford Jr.]] 1776–1777 and Joseph Ward.<ref name=Principal>Wright 1983, p. 432.</ref>

===Territorial organization===
{{Main|Departments of the Continental Army}}

Units of the Continental Army were assigned to any one of the [[Departments of the Continental Army|territorial departments]] to decentralize command and administration. In general there were seven territorial departments,<ref name="ReferenceA">Wright, ''Continental Army'', map, 83.</ref> although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout the war. The Department of New York (later the Northern Department) was created when Congress made [[Philip Schuyler]] its commander on June 15, 1775. The Southern and Middle Departments were added in February 1776. Several others were added the same year. A major general appointed by Congress commanded each department. Under his command came all Continental Army units within the territorial limits of the department, as well as state troops and militia – if released by the governor of the state.<ref>Clay 2018, p. 5.</ref>

===Tactical organization===
{{Further information|List of Continental Army units}}

All troops under the department commander were designated as an [[Field army|army]]; hence troops in the Northern Department were called the ''Northern Army'', in the Southern Department the ''Southern Army'', etc. The department commander could be field commander or he could appoint another officer to command the troops in the field. Depending on the size of the army, it could be divided into ''wings'' or [[Division (military)|division]]s (of typically three [[brigade]]s) that were temporary organizations, and brigades (of two to five [[regiment]]s) that in effect were permanent organizations and the [[Military tactics|basic tactical unit]] of the Continental Army.<ref>Clay 2018, pp. 5–6.</ref>

An [[infantry]] regiment in the Continental Army typically consisted of 8 to 10 companies, each commanded by a captain. Field officers usually included a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and a major. A regimental staff was made up of an [[adjutant]], [[quartermaster]], surgeon, [[surgeon's mate]], [[paymaster]], and [[chaplain]]. Infantry regiments were often called simply regiments or battalions.<ref name=Wehm191>Wehmann 1989, pp. 191–192.</ref> The regiment's fighting strength consisted of a single [[battalion]] of 728 officers and enlisted men at full strength.<ref>Clay 2018, p. 6.</ref> [[Cavalry]] and [[artillery]] regiments were organized in a similar manner. A company of cavalry was frequently called a troop. An artillery company contained specialized soldiers, such as [[Bombardier (rank)|bombardier]]s, [[Gunner (artillery)|gunner]]s, and [[matross]]es.<ref name=Wehm191/> A continental cavalry regiment had a nominal strength of 280 officers and men, but the actual strength was usually less than 150 men and even fewer horses.<ref>Clay 2018, p. 8.</ref> [[Armed-forces artificer|Artificers]] were civilian or military [[mechanic]]s and [[artisan]]s employed by the army  to provide services. They included [[blacksmith]]s, [[Cooper (profession)|coopers]], [[carpenter]]s, [[Horse harness|harnessmakers]], and [[wheelwright]]s.<ref name=Wehm191/>

===Logistical organization===
[[File:The American Soldier, 1776.jpg|thumb|An illustration of the Continental Army's Assistant Quartermaster General John Parke and Ezekiel Cheever, commissary of artillery, giving instructions to a captain of artillery on the docks of [[New London, Connecticut]] in 1776]]
In June 1775, the [[Second Continental Congress]] created the position of [[Quartermaster General of the United States Army|Quartermaster General]], after the British example. He was charged with opening and maintaining the lines of advance and retreat, laying out camps and assigning quarters. His responsibilities included furnishing the army with materiel and supplies, although the supply of arms, clothing, and provisions fell under other departments. The transportation of all supplies, even those provided by other departments, came under his ambit. The Quartermaster General served with the main army under General [[George Washington]], but was directly responsible to Congress. Deputy quartermasters were appointed by Congress to serve with separate armies, and functioned independently of the Quartermaster General. [[Thomas Mifflin]] served as Quartermaster General (1775–1776 and 1776–1778), [[Stephen Moylan]] (1776), [[Nathanael Greene]] (1778–1780), and [[Timothy Pickering]] (from 1780).<ref>Anonymous 1975, pp. 28–31.</ref>

Congress also created the position of [[Commissary general|Commissary General of Stores and Provisions]] directly responsible to Congress, with [[Joseph Trumbull (commissary general)|Joseph Trumbull]] as the first incumbent. In 1777, Congress divided the department into two, a Commissary General of Purchases, with four deputies, and a Commissary General of Issues, with three deputies. William Buchanan was head of the Purchase Department (1777–1778), [[Jeremiah Wadsworth]] (1778–1779), and [[Ephraim Blaine]] (1779–1781). In 1780, the department became subordinated to the [[Superintendent of Finance of the United States|Superintendent of Finance]], although Blaine retained his position. [[Charles Stewart (New Jersey politician)|Charles Stewart]] served as Commissary General of Issues (1777–1782).<ref>Anonymous 1975, pp. 31–32.</ref>

The responsibility for procuring arms and ammunition at first rested with various committees of Congress. In 1775, a field organization, usually known as the Military Branch of the Commissariat of Military Stores, was made responsible for distribution and care of [[Materiel|ordnance]] in the field. In 1777, Congress established a Commissary General of Military Stores. Known as the Civil Branch, this organization was responsible for handling [[arsenal]]s, [[Materiel|laboratories]], and some [[procurement]] under the general supervision of the Board of War. Later in the war, a Surveyor of Ordnance was made responsible for inspecting [[Foundry|foundries]], [[Gunpowder magazine|magazines]], ordnance shops, and field ordnance. In July 1777, the Board of War was authorized to purchase artillery.<ref>Anonymous 1975a, pp. 25–27.</ref>

Congress created a hospital department in July 1775 as a part of the Continental Army's administrative structure. It came under the [[Surgeon General of the United States Army|Director General of the Hospital Department]], chosen by Congress but serving under the Commander-in-Chief, and was staffed by four [[surgeon]]s, an [[apothecary]], twenty [[surgeon's mate]]s, a [[nurse]] for every ten patients, a [[matron]] to supervise the nurses, a clerk, and two storekeepers. The department was reorganized in 1777; deputy director generals were added to the administrative structure; commissaries of hospitals were established to provide food and  forage; and apothecary generals were established to procure and distribute medicines.<ref>Anonymous 1975a, p. 27</ref> The first director general was [[Benjamin Church (physician)|Benjamin Church]] (1775), he was followed by [[John Morgan (physician)|John Morgan]] (1775–1777), [[William Shippen Jr.|William Shippen]] (1777–1781), and [[John Cochran (physician)|John Cochran]] (1781).<ref name=Principal/>

Keeping the continentals clothed was a difficult task and to do this Washington appointed [[James Mease]], a merchant from Philadelphia, as Clothier General. Mease worked closely with state-appointed agents to purchase clothing and things such as cow hides to make clothing and shoes for soldiers. Mease eventually resigned in 1777 and had compromised much of the organization of the Clothing Department. After this, on many accounts, the soldiers of the Continental Army were often poorly clothed, had few blankets, and often did not even have shoes. The problems with clothing and shoes for soldiers were often not the result of not having enough but of organization and lack of transportation. To reorganize, the Board of War was appointed to sort out the clothing supply chain. During this time they sought out the help of France, and for the remainder of the war clothing was coming from over-sea procurement.<ref name="NRWAD" />

The disbursing of money to pay soldiers and suppliers were the function of the [[Paymaster-General of the United States Army|Paymaster-General]]. [[James Warren (politician)|James Warren]] was the first incumbent of this office.<ref>Bell 2012, p. 152.</ref> His successor was [[William Palfrey]] in 1776, who was followed by John Pierce Jr. in 1781.<ref name=Principal/>

==Officers and men==
{|align=right class="wikitable"
!colspan=4|Continental Army Strength
|-
!Year !! January!! July || December
|-
| 1775 || - || 23 239 || 21 535 
|-
| 1776 || 15 608||  25 606 || 11 423
|-
| 1777 || ..|| .. || 25 985
|-
| 1778 ||20 868  || 28 638  || 33 411
|-
| 1779 || 33 535 || 26 394  || 18 700
|-
| 1780 ||21 261 || 15 674  || 8 742
|-
| 1781 ||6 853 || 10 265  || ..
|-
| 1782 ||10 687 || 12 392  || 13 973
|-
| 1783 ||12 031 || 2 760<br><small>June</small>  || -
|-
|Source:||<ref>Lesser 1976, ''passim''</ref>
|-
|}
[[File: Soldiers at the siege of Yorktown (1781), by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine DeVerger.png|thumb|left|A 1781 illustration of Continental Army soldiers during the [[Yorktown campaign]], including a black infantryman (on the far left) from the [[1st Rhode Island Regiment]], one of the regiments in the Continental Army with the largest number of [[Black Patriot|black patriot]] soldiers. An estimated four percent of the Continental Army were black.]]
[[File:James Monroe (1758-1831).jpg|thumb|left|[[James Monroe]], along with [[George Washington]], one of the two future [[President of the United States|U.S. presidents]] who served in the Continental Army]]
The Continental Army lacked the discipline typically expected of an army. When they first assembled, the count of how many soldiers George Washington had was delayed a little over a week. Instead of obeying their commanders and officers without question, each unit was a community that had democratically chosen its leaders. The regiments came from different states and, due to being compromised of volunteers, were uneven in numbers. While this could have been remedied by reassigning soldiers, many held a belief borne of American [[republicanism]] - if separated from the officers they had chosen, soldiers did not believe they should have to serve. Relying on the willingness of his volunteer army to fight, George Washington had to sacrifice this logistical weakness in favor of compromise. 3
<ref>{{cite book|last=Lengel|first=Edward G.|title=A Companion to George Washington|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1118219966|author-link=Edward G. Lengel|date=2012|pages=137–146|language=en}}</ref>

Soldiers in the Continental Army were volunteers; they agreed to serve in the army and standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war, the enlistment periods were short, as the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]] feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 48,000 men overall and 13,000 troops in one area. The turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–1777, and longer enlistments were approved. As the new country (not yet fully independent) had no money, the government agreed to give grants to the soldiers which they could exchange for money.<ref name=":0" /> In 1781 and 1782, Patriot officials and officers in the [[Southern Colonies]] repeatedly implemented policies that offered slaves as rewards for recruiters who managed to enlist a certain number of volunteers in the Continental Army; in January 1781, Virginia's [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] passed a measure which announced that voluntary enlistees in the [[Virginia Line]]'s regiments would be given a "healthy sound negro" as a reward.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|first=John U.|last=Rees|title='They Were Good Soldiers': African-Americans Serving in the Continental Army, 1775–1783|publisher=Helion & Company|date=2019|isbn=978-1911628545}}</ref>

The officers of both the Continental Army and the state militias were typically yeoman farmers with a sense of honor and status and an ideological commitment to oppose the policies of the [[The Crown|British Crown]].<ref name="Cox"/>  Meanwhile, the enlisted men largely came from the working class or minority groups, namely English, Ulster Protestant, or African descent. Up to a fourth of Washington's army were of [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish (English and Scottish descent) Ulster origin]], many being recent arrivals and in need of work.<ref name="Neimeyer, pp 36-38">Neimeyer, ''America Goes to War,'' pp. 36–38.</ref> They were motivated to volunteer by specific contracts that promised bounty money; regular pay at good wages; food, clothing, and medical care; companionship; and the promise of land ownership after the war. By 1780, more than 30,000 men served in the Continental army, but the lack of resources and proper training resulted in the deaths of over 13,000 soldiers.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 26, 2017 |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/fighting-man-continental-army |title=The Fighting Man of the Continental Army  |website=[[American Battlefield Trust]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529220513/https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/fighting-man-continental-army |archive-date=May 29, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> By 1781–1782, threats of mutiny and actual mutinies were becoming serious.<ref name="Neimeyer" /><ref>{{cite book|first=David Hackett|last=Fischer|title =Washington's Crossing|date=2004|pages=7–30|isbn=978-0195170344|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KjxRXWdXeREC&pg=PA7}}</ref> 

The Continental Army was racially integrated, a condition the [[United States Army]] would not see again until the [[Executive Order 9981|late 1940s]]. During the Revolution, [[African Americans in the Revolutionary War|African American slaves]] were promised freedom in exchange for military service by both the Continental and British armies.<ref name="PBS" /><ref>{{cite book|first=Jack D.|last=Foner|title=Blacks and the military in American history|date=1974|pages=3–19|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0275846404}}</ref><ref>Neimeyer, ''America Goes to War,'' pp. 65–88.</ref> Approximately 6,600 people of color (including African American, indigenous, and multiracial men) served with the colonial forces, and made up one-fifth of the Northern Continental Army.<ref>Benjamin Quarles, ''The Negro in the American Revolution'' (1961) [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27%27The%20Negro%20in%20the%20American%20Revolution%27%27%29 online]</ref><ref name="DAR" />

In addition to the Continental Army regulars, state militia units were assigned for short-term service and fought in campaigns throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that General [[Daniel Morgan]] integrated into his strategy at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] and used to fool the British in 1781.<ref name="Pugh" />

The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as the war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty.<ref>E. Wayne Carp, ''To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783'' (1990).</ref>

==Operations==
[[File:Stockbridge 1778.jpg|thumb|A 1778 illustration showing a [[Mohicans|Stockbridge Mohican]] Indian patriot soldier with the [[Stockbridge Militia]] in [[Stockbridge, Massachusetts]], taken from [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] officer [[Johann Ewald|Johann Von Ewald]]'s war diary]]
During the [[siege of Boston]] in June 1775, the Continental Army in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] is estimated to have numbered between 14,000 and 16,000 men from [[New England]], though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions. Until [[George Washington]]'s arrival in Cambridge, the Continental Army was commanded by [[Artemas Ward]]. The [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|British Army]] in [[Boston]] was increasing by fresh arrivals, then numbering about 10,000 men. The British controlled Boston and defended it with their fleet, but they were outnumbered and did not attempt to challenge the American control of New England. Washington selected young [[Henry Knox]], a self-educated strategist, to take charge of the artillery from an abandoned British fort in upstate New York, and dragged across the snow to and placed them in the hills surrounding Boston in March 1776.<ref name="DeSantis" /> The British situation was untenable. They negotiated an uneventful abandonment of the city and relocated their forces to Halifax in Canada. Washington relocated his army to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included the notable battles of [[Battle of Trenton|Trenton]], [[Battle of Princeton|Princeton]], [[Battle of Brandywine|Brandywine]], [[Battle of Germantown|Germantown]], and [[Battle of Springfield|Morristown]], and others.

The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at a great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In the winter of 1777–1778, with the addition of [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben|Baron von Steuben]], a Prussian expert, the training and discipline of the Continental Army was dramatically upgraded to modern European standards through the ''[[Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States]]''.<ref>Stephen C. Danckert, "Baron von Steuben and the Training of Armies." ''Military Review'' 74 (1994): 29–34 in EBSCO</ref> This was during the infamous winter at [[Valley Forge]]. Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain [[civilian control of the military]], as did the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], though there were minor disagreements about how this was to be carried out.

Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money, or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Major and minor mutinies—56 in all—diminished the reliability of two of the main units late in the war.<ref>John A. Nagy, ''Rebellion in the Ranks: Mutinies of the American Revolution'' (2008).</ref>

The French played a decisive role in 1781 as Washington's Army was augmented by a [[Expédition Particulière|French expeditionary force]] under Lieutenant General [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] and a squadron of the French navy under the [[Jacques-Melchior Saint-Laurent, Comte de Barras|Comte de Barras]]. By disguising his movements, Washington moved the combined forces south to [[Virginia]] without the British commanders in New York realizing it. This resulted in the capture of the main British invasion force in the south at the [[Siege of Yorktown]], which resulted in the American and their allied victory in the land war in North America and assured independence.

==Major battles==
{|align=right class="wikitable"
!colspan=5|Continental Army Battle Casualties
|-
!Year!! [[Killed in action|KIA]] !! Wounded|| [[Prisoner of War|POW]]!![[Missing in action|MIA]]
|-
| 1775 ||323 || 436|| 519 ||5 
|-
| 1776 || 600||  562 || 5365|| 1
|-
| 1777 || 1493||2053 || 2084|| 38
|-
| 1778 ||753 ||443  ||1212 ||139
|-
| 1779 || 657|| 824  || 859|| 18
|-
| 1780 ||984 || 1886  || 4661 ||9
|-
| 1781 ||1003|| 1454 || 761 ||1216
|-
| 1782 ||277 || 124  || 80 ||0
|-
| 1783 ||0|| 1  || 1 ||0
|-
|Source:|| <ref>Peckham 1974, ''passim''.</ref>
|}
* [[Siege of Boston]]
* [[Battle of Long Island]]
* [[Battle of Harlem Heights]]
* [[Battle of Trenton]]
* [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek]]
* [[Battle of Princeton]]
* [[Battle of Brandywine]]
* [[Battle of Germantown]]
* [[Battles of Saratoga]]
* [[Battle of Monmouth]]
* [[Siege of Charleston]]
* [[Battle of Camden]]
* [[Battle of Cowpens]]
* [[Battle of Guilford Court House]]
* [[Siege of Yorktown]]

==Winter cantonments==
[[File:George Washington HQ Valley Forge.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington|Washington]]'s [[Washington's Headquarters (Valley Forge)|headquarters]] in [[Valley Forge|Valley Forge, Pennsylvania]], which is still standing, one of the centerpieces of [[Valley Forge National Historical Park]]]]
* [[Longfellow House–Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site|Cambridge, Massachusetts]], 1775–1776
* Loantaka Valley, [[Morristown National Historical Park|Morristown, New Jersey]], January 1777 – May 1777.<ref>Anonymous 1940, p. 4.</ref><ref>Weig 1950, pp. 2–5.</ref><ref>Brown 1967, ''passim''.</ref><ref>Anonymous 1983, pp. 16–45.</ref> 
* [[Valley Forge]], Pennsylvania, December 1777 – June 1778.<ref>Bodle 1982, ''passim''.</ref>
* Main Army at [[Middlebrook encampment|Middlebrook]], New Jersey, December 1778 – June 1779.<ref>Elliot 2017, pp. 107–108, 134.</ref>
** Main Army Artillery at [[Pluckemin Continental Artillery Cantonment Site|Pluckemin, New Jersey]], 1778–1789.<ref>Elliot 2017, p. 132.</ref>
** Eastern Division at [[Putnam Memorial State Park|Redding Connecticut]], 1778–1779.<ref>Elliot 2017, pp. 131–132.</ref>
* [[Jockey Hollow]], [[Morristown National Historical Park|Morristown, New Jersey]], December 1779 – June 1780.<ref>Anonymous 1940, pp. 4–6.</ref><ref>Weig 1950, p. 12.</ref><ref>Anonymous 1983, pp. 46–55.</ref><ref>Elliot 2017, p. 108.</ref>
* [[West Point, New York]], 1780–1781
** [[Pennsylvania Line Mutiny|Pennsylvania Line]] at [[Jockey Hollow]], [[Morristown National Historical Park|Morristown, New Jersey]], 1780–1781.<ref>Anonymous 1940, p. 6.</ref><ref>Weig 1950, pp. 27–28.</ref><ref name=Elliot135>Elliot 2017, p. 135.</ref>
* [[Newburgh, New York]], 1781–1782
** New Jersey Brigade at [[New Jersey Brigade Encampment Site|Bernardsville, New Jersey]], 1781–1782.<ref name=Elliot135/><ref>Anonymous 1940, pp. 6–7.</ref><ref>Weig 1950, p. 29.</ref>    
* [[New Windsor Cantonment State Historic Site|New Windsor, New York]], October 1782 – June 1783.<ref>Fisher 1983, p. 15.</ref>
** [[Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site|Washington's Headquarters]] at [[Newburgh, New York]], 1782–1783.

==Demobilization==
{{See also|Newburgh Conspiracy}}
[[File: Cont Army Plz Billyb jeh.jpg|thumb|Continental Army Plaza in the [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] section of [[Brooklyn]] in New York City]]
A small residual force remained at [[West Point, New York|West Point]] and some frontier outposts until Congress created the [[United States Army]] by their resolution of June 3, 1784. Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Point [[Evacuation Day (New York)|reoccupied New York]] without incident on November 25. When Steuben's effort in July to negotiate a transfer of frontier forts with Major General [[Frederick Haldimand]] collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as [[1st American Regiment (1783–1784)|1st American Regiment]],  under Colonel [[Henry Jackson (Continental Army general)|Henry Jackson]] of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under Major [[John Doughty]], came from remnants of the [[2nd Continental Artillery Regiment]].

Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington's reductions. On November 2, Washington, then at [[Rockingham (house)|Rockingham]] near [[Rocky Hill, New Jersey]], released his ''Farewell Orders issued to the Armies of the United States of America'' to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message, he thanked the officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing Miracle."<ref name="GWFarewell" />

Washington believed that the blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers" had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life. Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 at [[Fraunces Tavern]] in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, and [[George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief|returned his commission as commander-in-chief]]: "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3.

==Military ranks==

===Rank and pay===
Monthly pay of the officers and soldiers of the continental line as established by the resolutions of Congress, fixing the arrangement of the Continental Army May 27, 1778, which rate of pay continued to the end of the war.<ref>Franklin 1838, p. 9.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="F1F1F1"
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center;" |'''''[[Infantry]]'''''
|-
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
|-
| Colonel || 75 || [[Sergeant Major]] || 10
|-
| Lieutenant Colonel || 60 || [[Quartermaster Sergeant]] || 10
|-
| Major|| 50 || Sergeant || 10
|-
| Captain || 40 || [[Drum major (military)|Drum Major]] || 9½
|-
| [[Captain Lieutenant]] || 26 2/3|| Fife Major || 9
|-
| Lieutenant || 26 2/3|| Drummer, [[Fifer]] || 7 1/2
|-
| [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] || 20 || Corporal || 7½
|-
| [[Surgeon]] || 60 || Private || 6 2/3
|-
| [[Surgeon's Mate]] || 40 || || 
|-
|colspan=4|Paymasters 20 dollars, Adjutants 13 dollars, Quartermasters 13 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line.
|-
|Source: ||colspan=3|<ref name="Frank10"/>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="F1F1F1"
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center;" |'''''[[Cavalry]]'''''
|-
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
|-
| Colonel || 93 3/4 || Quartermaster Sergeant || 15
|-
| Lieutenant Colonel || 75 || Sergeant || 15
|-
| Major|| 60 || [[Trumpet Major]] || 11
|-
| Captain || 50 || [[Trumpeter]] || 10
|-
| Lieutenant || 33 1/3|| Corporal || 10
|-
| [[Cornet]] || 26 2/3 || [[Dragoon]] ||8 1/3
|-
| Surgeon || 60 || [[Saddle]]r  ||10
|-
| Surgeon's Mate || 40 ||[[Farrier]] ||  10
|-
| [[Riding master|Riding Master]] || 33 1/3 || ||  
|-
|colspan=4|Paymasters 25 dollars, Adjutants 15 dollars, Quartermasters 15 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line.
|-
|Source: ||colspan=3|<ref name=Frank10>Franklin 1838, pp. 9–10.</ref>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="F1F1F1"
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center;" |'''''[[Artillery]]'''''
|-
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
|-
| Colonel || 100 || Sergeant Major || 11 23/90
|-
| Lieutenant Colonel || 75 || Quartermaster Sergeant || 11 23/90
|-
| Major|| 62½ || Drum Major || 10 33/90
|-
| Captain || 50 ||  Fife Major || 10 33/90
|-
| Captain Lieutenant || 33 1/3|| Sergeant || 10
|-
| First Lieutenant || 33 1/3|| [[Bombardier (rank)|Bombardier]]|| 9
|-
| Second Lieutenant || 33 1/3||Corporal ||9
|-
| Surgeon || 75|| [[Gunner (rank)|Gunner]] || 8 2/3
|-
| Surgeon's Mate || 50 ||Drummers, Fifers || 8 2/3
|-
|  ||  ||[[Matross]] || 8 1/3
|-
|colspan=4|Paymasters 25 dollars, Adjutants 16 dollars, Quartermasters 16 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line.
|-
|Source: ||colspan=3|<ref name=Frank10/>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="F1F1F1"
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center;" |'''''[[Combat engineer|Engineers]]'''''
|-
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
|-
|-
| Captain || 50 ||  Sergeant || 10 
|-
| Lieutenant || 33 1/3|| Corporal  || 9
|-
|  || ||Private ||8 1/3
|-
|colspan=4|Aid-de-camp 24 dollars, Brigade Quartermaster 24 dollars, Brigade Major 15 dollars, in addition to their pay as officers of the line.
|-
|Source: ||colspan=3|<ref name=Frank10/>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="F1F1F1"
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center;" |'''''[[Pennsylvania Dutch#Pennsylvania Dutch Provost Corps|Provosts]]'''''
|-
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
! align="left" width="200" | Rank
! align="left" width="125" | Pay per month (dollars)
|-
|-
| Captain of provosts || 50 ||  Sergeant || 15
|-
| Lieutenant || 33 1/3|| Trumpeter ||10
|-
|  [[Clerk]] ||33 1/3 ||[[Military police|Provost]] or private ||8 1/3
|-
|  ||||[[Executioner]] ||10
|-
|Source: ||colspan=3|<ref name=Frank10/>
|}

===Rank insignia===
[[File: The American Soldier - U.S. Center of Military History.jpg|thumb|An illustration depicting Major General [[Artemas Ward]], one of Washington's key officers]]
During the [[American Revolutionary War]], the Continental Army initially wore [[ribbon]]s, [[cockade]]s, and [[epaulette]]s of various colors as an ''ad hoc'' form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775:
{{blockquote |"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms in 1775, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the [[subalterns]] green."}}

In 1776, captains were to have buff or white cockades.
;Rank insignia in 1775
{| class="wikitable" 
|- style="background:#dadada"
! 
! colspan=4| General officers
! colspan=1| Field officers
! colspan=2| Junior officers
! colspan=2| Non-commissioned officers
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Title 
| [[General (United States)|General]]<br />and<br />[[Commander-in-chief]]
| [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
| [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier general]]
| [[Aide-de-camp]]
| [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]],<br />[[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant colonel]],<br />[[Major (United States)|Major]]
| [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
| [[Lieutenant (United States)|Lieutenant]],<br />[[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]]
| [[Sergeant]]
| [[Corporal]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Insignia
| [[File:Continental Army-General.svg|75px]]
| [[File:Continental Army-Major general.svg|75px]]
| [[File:Continental Army-Brigadier general.svg|75px]]
| [[File:Continental Army-Aide-de-camp.svg|75px]]
| [[File:Continental Army-Colonel.svg|70px]]
| [[File:Continental Army-Captain.svg|70px]]
| [[File: National Cockade of Ireland (until 1922).svg|70px]]
| [[File:Epaulette plain red.png|70px]]
| [[File:Epaulette plain green one.png|70px]]
|-
| colspan=10| Source:<ref>Steven A. Bingaman (2013), ''The History of American Ranks and Rank Insignia,'' p. 11.</ref>
|}
Later on in the war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black and white cockade among all ranks. Infantry officers had silver and other branches gold insignia:

;Rank insignia in 1780
{| class="wikitable" 
|- style="background:#dadada"
! 
! colspan=3| General officers
! colspan=3| Field officers
! colspan=2| Junior officers
! colspan=3| Non-commissioned officers
! Enlisted
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Title 
| [[Commander-in-chief]]
| [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
| [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier general]]
| [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]]
| [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant colonel]]
| [[Major (United States)|Major]]
| [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
| [[Subaltern (military)|Subaltern]]
| [[Sergeant major]]
| [[Sergeant]]
| [[Corporal]]
| [[Private (rank)|Private]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Insignia
| [[File:WashingtonInsig1782.jpg|105px]]<div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-180|display=block}}">[[File:WashingtonInsig1782.jpg|105px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Gen.Div-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div> <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Gen.Div-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Gen.Brig-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div> <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Gen.Brig-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div> <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div> <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div> <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-270|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-90|display=block}}">[[File:Colonel-ImpFrArmy.jpg|70px]]</div>
| [[File:Epaulette plain red.png|70px]] <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-180|display=block}}">[[File:Epaulette plain red.png|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-180|display=block}}">[[File:Epaulette plain red.png|70px]]</div>
| <div style="position:relative; top:0px; left:0px; {{Transform-rotate|-180|display=block}}">[[File:Epaulette plain green one.png|70px]]</div>
| No insignia
|-
| colspan=13| Source:{{efn|For commissioned officers 'metal epaulets were introduced by a general order dated June 18. 1780 (except for those of the CIC). For non-commissioned officers, cloth epaulets were prescribed since a general order dated July 23. 1775. That order differentiated only between the ranks of ''serjeant'' and ''corporal''. At the end of the war, the ''serjeant-major'' was recognizable by a pair of cloth epaulets. The number, position, and color of the NCO-epaulettes were changed several times.}}
|}

==See also==
* [[History of the United States Army]]
* [[List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution]]
* [[George Washington in the American Revolution]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|refs=
<!--
<ref name="NOTE">{{cite web|quote=80,000 militia and Continental Army soldiers served at the height of the war|date=July 4, 2014|access-date=November 16, 2018|url=https://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/the-revolutionary-war-by-the-numbers-1600199390|title=The Revolutionary War: By The Numbers|first=Tyler|last=Rogoway|publisher=Jalopnik|work=Foxtrot Alpha}}</ref>
-->
<ref name="Lengel">Edward G. Lengel, ''General George Washington: A Military Life'' (2005) pp. 87–101.</ref>
<ref name="Cox">Caroline Cox, ''A Proper Sense of Honor: Service and Sacrifice in George Washington's Army'' (2004) pp. xv–xvii.</ref>
<ref name="Neimeyer">Charles Patrick Neimeyer, ''America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army'' (1995) pp 148–155. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qg7q2 complete text online].</ref>
<ref name="PBS">[[Liberty!|Liberty! The American Revolution]] (Documentary) Episode II: ''Blows Must Decide: 1774–1776''. [[Twin Cities PBS|Twin Cities Public Television]], 1997. {{ISBN|1-4157-0217-9}}</ref>
<ref name="DAR">{{cite book|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20250220010128/https://www.dar.org/sites/default/files/media/library/DARpublications/Forgotten_Patriots_ISBN-978-1-892237-10-1.pdf|archive-date=February 20, 2025|editor-first=Eric|editor-last=Grundset|title=Forgotten Patriots|publisher=Daughters of the American Revolution|date=2008|url=https://www.dar.org/sites/default/files/media/library/DARpublications/Forgotten_Patriots_ISBN-978-1-892237-10-1.pdf|isbn=978-1-892237-10-1}}</ref>
<ref name="Pugh">Robert C. Pugh, "The Revolutionary Militia in the Southern Campaign, 1780–1781." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1957) 14#2: 154–175 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922108 online].</ref>
<ref name="NRWAD">{{cite journal|title=Continental Army Logistics: Clothing Supply|journal = Defense Transportation Journal|year=1976|volume=32|issue=5|pages=28–34|jstor=44120928}}</ref>
<ref name="DeSantis">Marc G. DeSantis, "Behind the Lines: Train Man: When the Continental Army captured a huge cache of British artillery at Fort Ticonderoga, George Washington turned to Henry Knox to get them to Boston", ''MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History'' (Autumn 2017) 30#1 pp. 24–26.</ref>
<ref name="GWFarewell">{{cite web|last1=Washington|first1=George|author-link=George Washington|title=Washington's Farewell Address to the Army, 2 November 1783|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-12012|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration|Founders Online, National Archives]]|date=November 2, 1783}}</ref>
}}

===Literature===
* Anonymous (1940). ''Morristown National Historic Park.'' National Park Service.
* Anonymous (1975). "Continental Army Logistics—The Quartermaster and Commissary Departments." ''Army Logistician'' '''7'''(4): 28–32.
* Anonymous (1975a). "Continental Army Logistics—Engineer, Ordnance, and Medical  Support." ''Army Logistician'' '''7'''(5): 24–28.
* Anonymous (1983). ''A History and Guide. Morristown National Historical Park.'' National Park Service.
* Bell, J.L. (2012). ''George Washington's Headquarters and Home. Cambridge, Massachusetts.'' National Park Service.
* Billias, George Athan, ed., ''George Washington's Generals'' (1980)
* Bodle, Wayne K. (2002) ''The Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War.'' 
* Bodle, Wayne K. (1982). ''Valley Forge Historical Research Report.'' National Park Service.
* Brown, Lenard E. (1967). ''Morristown Winter Encampment.'' National Park Service.
* Carp, E. Wayne. ''To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783.'' (U of North Carolina Press, 1984). {{ISBN|0-8078-1587-X}}.
* Clay, Steven E. (2018 ). ''Staff Ride Handbook for the Saratoga Campaign, 13 June to 8 November 1777.'' Combat Studies Institute Press. 
* Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard Brandon Morris, eds. ''The spirit of 'seventy-six: the story of the American Revolution as told by participants'' (1975). [https://archive.org/details/spiritofseventys00comm online]
* Cox, Caroline. ''A Proper Sense of Honor: Service and Sacrifice in George Washington's Army'' (2004). 
* Elliot, Steven (2017). "Hills, Huts, and Horse-Teams: The New Jersey Environment and Continental Army Winter Encampments, 1778–1780." ''New Jersey Studies'' '''3'''(1): 107–136. 
* Ferling, John. ''Whirlwind: The American Revolution and the War That Won It'' (2015).
* Fisher, Charles L. (1983) "Archaeology at New Windsor Cantonment: Construction and Social Reproduction at a Revolutionary War Encampment." ''Northeast Historical Archaeology'' '''12''':15–23.
* Fleming, Thomas. ''The Strategy of Victory: How General George Washington Won the American Revolution'' (Hachette, 2017).
* Franklin, Walter S.  (1838 ). ''Resolutions, laws, and ordinances relating to the pay, half-pay, bounty lands and other promises made by Congress to the officers and soldiers of the Revolution.'' Washington.
* Gillett, Mary C. ''The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818.'' (Washington: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1981).
* Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789'' (1971) [https://archive.org/details/warofamericanind00donh on line].
* Lengel, Edward G. ''General George Washington: A Military Life.'' (2005).
* Lesser, Charles (1976). ''The Sinews of Independence.'' The University of Chicago Press.
* Martin, James Kirby, and Mark Edward Lender. ''A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763–1789.'' (2nd ed. Harlan Davidson), 2006. {{ISBN|0-88295-239-0}}.
* Mayer, Holly A. ''Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution.'' Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999. {{ISBN|1-57003-339-0}}; {{ISBN|1-57003-108-8}}.
* Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. ''America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army'' (1995) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qg7q2 complete text online]
* Palmer, Dave Richard. ''George Washington's Military Genius'' (2012).
* {{cite book|last=Risch|first=Erna|title=Supplying Washington's Army|location =Washington, D.C.|publisher =[[United States Army Center of Military History]]|year=1981|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/risch/risch-fm.htm|access-date=June 10, 2010|archive-date=June 17, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617002456/http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/risch/risch-fm.htm|url-status=dead}}
* Peckham,Howard H. (1974), ''The Toll of Independence.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
* Royster, Charles. ''A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783.'' (U of North Carolina Press, 1979). [https://archive.org/details/revolutionarypeo0000roys online]
* {{cite book|title=The Continental Army|last=Wright|first=Robert K.|publisher=Center of Military History, U.S. Army|year=1983|isbn=9780160019319|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2jfAAAAMAAJ|ref=Wright}}, 451 pages, [http://www.history.army.mil/books/revwar/contarmy/CA-fm.htm '''eBook'''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009065615/https://history.army.mil/books/RevWar/ContArmy/CA-fm.htm|date=October 9, 2019}}
* Scheer, George F. ''Private Yankee Doodle: A Narrative of Some of the Adventures, Dangers and Sufferings of a Revolutionary Soldier [Joseph Plumb Martin].'' (1962).
* Wehmann, Howard H. (1989) ''A guide to pre-federal records in the National Archives.'' National Archives and Records Administration.
* Weig, Melvin J. (1950). ''Morristown: A Military Capital of the American Revolution.''  National Park Service.

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oGfVEqCEHVo "Von Steuben's Continentals"] — a video on [[YouTube]]

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