Editing Constans

{{short description|Roman emperor from 337 to 350}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Constans
| image        = Musée du Louvre - L'empereur Constant (Ma 1021).jpg
| image_size   =
| alt          = Portrait head of Constans on a coloured marble bust
| caption      = Possible head of Constans set in a modern bust ([[Louvre]])<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113241/http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=2795 "L'empereru Constant Ier?".] ''[[Louvre]]''</ref><ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-563 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-563 (J. Lenaghan)]</ref>
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext     = in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]]
| reign        = 9 September 337 – <br/>January 350
| reign-type   = [[Augustus (title)|''Augustus'']]
| predecessor  = [[Constantine I]]
| successor    = [[Magnentius]]
| regent       = {{ubl|[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] ([[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], [[Hispania]] and [[Roman Britain|Britain]], 337–340)|[[Constantius II]] ([[Byzantine Empire|East]])}}
| reg-type     = Co-rulers
| reign1       = 25 December 333 – {{nowrap|9 September 337}}
| reign-type1  = [[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']]
| birth_date   = 322 or 323
| birth_place  = 
| death_date   = January 350 (aged 27){{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}}
| death_place  = [[Elne#History|Vicus Helena]], southwestern [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]]
| burial_place = 
| full name    = Flavius Julius Constans{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}}
| regnal name  = Imperator Caesar Flavius Julius Constans Augustus
| dynasty      = [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantinian]]
| father       = [[Constantine I]]
| mother       = [[Fausta]]
| religion     = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}

'''Flavius Julius Constans''' (<!--{{lang-grc-gre|Κῶνστας}}, ''Kónstas''; -->{{circa}} 323 – 350), also called '''Constans I''', was [[Roman emperor]] from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' from 333, and was the youngest son of [[Constantine the Great]].

After his father's death, he was made ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' alongside his brothers in September 337. Constans was given the administration of the [[praetorian prefectures]] of [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Italy]], [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]], and [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa|Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Tougher |first=Shaun |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1182 |work= |year=2018 |editor-last=Nicholson |editor-first=Oliver |access-date=2 November 2020 |chapter=Constans I |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1182?rskey=OxqMl5&result=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-866277-8}}</ref> He defeated the [[Sarmatians]] in a campaign shortly afterwards.<ref name=":0" /> Quarrels over the sharing of power led to a civil war with his eldest brother and co-emperor [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], who invaded Italy in 340 and was killed in battle by Constans's forces near [[Aquileia]].<ref name=":0" /> Constans gained from him the [[praetorian prefecture of Gaul]].<ref name=":0" /> Thereafter there were tensions with his remaining brother and co-''augustus'' [[Constantius II]] ({{Reign|337|361}}), including over the exiled bishop [[Athanasius of Alexandria]],<ref name=":0" /> who in turn eulogized Constans as "the most pious Augustus... of blessed and everlasting memory."<ref name=":5">{{Citation |last=Athanasius |title=Apologia ad Constantium|url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2813.htm |work= |year=2018 |editor-last=Atkinson |editor-first=M. |access-date=24 November 2023|publisher=Christian Literature Publishing Co. |language=en}}</ref> In the following years he campaigned against the [[Franks]], and in 343 he visited [[Roman Britain]],<ref name=":0" /> the last legitimate emperor to do so.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=221}}

In January 350, [[Magnentius]] ({{Reign|350|353}}) the commander of the [[Jovians and Herculians]], a corps in the [[Late Roman army|Roman army]], was [[Acclamatio|acclaimed]] ''augustus'' at Augustodunum ([[Autun]]) with the support of Marcellinus, the ''[[Comes rerum privatarum|comes rei privatae]]''.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Tougher|first=Shaun|title=Magnentius|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2914|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|year=2018|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=2 November 2020}}</ref> Magnentius overthrew and killed Constans.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Surviving sources, possibly influenced by the propaganda of Magnentius's faction,{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|pp=179–180}} accuse Constans of misrule and of homosexuality.<ref name=":0" />

==Early life==
Sources variously report Constans' age at the time of his death as 27 or 30, meaning he was born in either 320 or 323.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}} [[Timothy Barnes (classicist)|Timothy Barnes]], observing numismatic evidence, considered the younger age to be more likely.{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=45}} He was the third and youngest son of Constantine I and [[Fausta]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, [http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/consi.htm Constans I (337–350 A.D.)]</ref> According to the works of both [[Ausonius]] and [[Libanius]], he was educated at [[Constantinople]] under the tutelage of the poet [[Aemilius Magnus Arborius]], who instructed him in Latin.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}}

On 25 December 333, Constans was elevated to the imperial rank of ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]'' at [[Constantinople]] by his father.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}} Prior to 337, Constans became engaged to [[Olympias of Armenia|Olympias]], the daughter of the [[praetorian prefect]] [[Ablabius (consul)|Ablabius]], although the two never actually married.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

== Reign ==
[[File:Head of Emperor Constans (r. 337–50) MET DT5196.jpg|left|thumb|Possible head of Constans from around his proclamation as ''augustus''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15324coll10/id/155817 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century |date=1979 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=22–23}}</ref><ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/detail.php?record=LSA-336 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-336 (J. Lenaghan)]</ref>]]
[[File:INC-1865-a Солид. Констант I. Ок. 340—350 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|''[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]'' of Constans marked: {{Smallcaps|constans augustus}}.]]
After Constantine's death, Constans and his two brothers, [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] and [[Constantius II]] were proclaimed ''[[Augustus (title)|augusti]]'' and divided the Roman empire among themselves on 9 September 337.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=220}} Constans was left with Italy, Africa and Illyricum.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=4}} In 338, he campaigned against the [[Sarmatians]].{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=5}}

Meanwhile, Constans came into conflict with his eldest brother Constantine II over the latter's presumed authority over Constans' territory. After attempting to issue legislation to Africa in 339, which was part of Constans' realm, Constantine led his army into an invasion of Italy only a year later. However, he was ambushed and killed by Constans' troops, and Constans then took control of his brother's territories.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=5}}

[[File:9 Solidi, Constans, emperor in armor, Aquileia, 342 AD - Bode-Museum - DSC02728.JPG|thumb|Gold medallion of Constans, equivalent to 9 [[solidi]]. [[Aquileia]], 342 AD – [[Bode Museum]]|alt=]]

Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion.{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=67}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=269}} From 341 to 342, he led a campaign against the [[Franks]] where, after an initial setback,{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=175}} the military operation concluded with a victory and a favorable peace treaty.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=6}} [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] wrote that he "had performed many gallant actions in the field, and had made himself feared by the army through the whole course of his life, though without exercising any extraordinary severity,"<ref name="Eutropius, 10:9">[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], ''Historiae Romanae Breviarium'' X.9</ref> while [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] remarked that [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] was the only person the Alamanni feared after the death of Constans.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=6}}

In the early months of 343, he visited [[Roman Britain|Britain]], an event celebrated enough for Libanius to dedicate several sections of his panegyric to explaining it.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=6}} Although the reasons for the visit remain unclear,{{sfn|Birley|2005|p=415}} the ancient writers were primarily interested in Constans' precarious journey to the province, rather than his actions within it.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=6}} One theory considers it to have involved the northern frontier, based on Ammianus' remark that he had discussed the [[Areani]] in his now-lost coverage of Constans' reign. Additionally, after recording attacks "near the frontiers" in 360, the historian wrote that the Alamanni were too much of a threat for Julian to confront the problem, in contrast to what Constans was able to do.{{sfn|Birley|2005|p=415}}

Constans was accused of employing corrupt ministers during his reign, due to his purported personal greed.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=190}}{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=160}} One example included the ''magister officiorum'' (master of the offices) Flavius Eugenius, who remained in his position throughout most of the 340s.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=292}} Despite Eugenius being alleged to have misused his power to seize property,{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=292}} the emperor continued to support him, his trust going as far as to honor him with a statue in the [[Forum of Trajan]] in [[Rome]].{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=66}}

[[File:Constanscng90010171.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''Solidus'' of Constans marked: {{Smallcaps|constans {{abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} augustus}} on the obverse, with the emperor holding a ''[[vexillum]]'' with a ''[[chi-rho]]'' and crowned by [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] on the reverse, marked: {{Smallcaps|spes rei publicae}} ("''the hope of the Republic''")|alt=]]

===Religion===
Constans issued an edict banning superstition and pagan sacrifices in 341,{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=165}} his justification being that he was following the precedent set by his father.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=7}} Only a short while later though, he tried to moderate his stance by legislating against the destruction of temple buildings.{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=166}}

Constans' support of [[Nicene Christianity|Nicene orthodoxy]] and the bishop [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] brought him into conflict with his brother Constantius. Although the two emperors called the [[Council of Serdica]] in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure,{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=8}} and by 345 Constans was outright threatening civil war against his brother.{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=89}} Eventually, Constantius agreed to allow Athanasius to return to his position, as the bishop's replacement had recently died.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=9}} Constans also used the military to suppress [[Donatism]] in Africa, where the church was split between Donatists and Catholics.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=9}}

===Alleged homosexuality===
Unlike Constantius,{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=24}} Constans was targeted with gossip over his personal life.{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=71}} Numerous sources suspected him of homosexuality,{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=160}} presumably based on the fact that he never married.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=190}} [[Aurelius Victor]] charged Constans with "rabid"{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} [[pederasty]] towards young barbarian hostages,{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=71}} though Hunt remarked that "the allegation that he kept a coterie of captive barbarians to gratify his homosexual tastes sounds more like hostile folklore."{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} Constans' legislation against homosexuality has been cited to dispute the rumor.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}}{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|pp=167, 179}}

==Death==
[[File:Constans RIC VIII 135.jpg|thumb|300x300px|''Solidus'' of Constans, ''[[Decennalia]]'' issue of 347/348]]
On 18 January 350,{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|p=532}} the general [[Magnentius]] declared himself emperor at Augustodunum ([[Autun]]) with the support of a number of court officials such as [[Marcellinus (magister officiorum)|Marcellinus]], Constans' [[comes rerum privatarum]], as well as [[Fabius Titianus]], who had previously served as the praetorian prefect of Gaul.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} At the time, Constans was distracted by a hunting trip.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=195}} As he was trying to reach [[Hispania]], supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in Helena ([[Elne]]) in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] of southwestern [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple.<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{efn|While it has sometimes been assumed that Constans had to flee for his life,<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=11}}{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}} Harries has disputed this, believing that the location of Constans' death indicates he was unaware of the revolt.{{sfn|Harries|2012|pp=195–196}}}} An alleged [[prophecy]] at his birth had said Constans would die "in the arms of his grandmother". His place of death happens to have been named after [[Helena (empress)|Helena]], mother of [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy.{{sfn|Baker-Brian|2022|p=208}} Constans' name would later be [[damnatio memoriae|erased from inscriptions]] in places that recognized Magnentius as emperor.{{sfn|Usherwood|2022|p=236}}

Regarding possible motives for Constans' overthrow, ancient sources assert that he was widely unpopular,{{sfn|Barnes|1993|p=101}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}}{{sfn|Baker-Brian|2022|p=163}} and attribute his downfall to his own failings. Along with the accusation of corruption, he is also accused of neglecting portions of the empire{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} and treating his soldiers with contempt.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=190}}{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=67}} Ammianus lamented the emperor's failure to listen to wise counsel,{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=10}} referencing one man he believed could have saved Constans from his own faults.{{sfn|Woudhuysen|2018|p=160}}

However, some modern scholars have questioned this portrayal. According to historian [[Jill Harries]], "The detail that Constans was in the habit of making journeys with only a small escort may account for his vulnerability in 350."{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=190}} Based on several factors - the small number of people behind the plot, how the setting for Magnentius' coup was not a military centre,{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=195}} [[Vetranio]]'s proclamation as emperor in opposition to Magnentius,{{sfn|Harries|2012|pp=196–197}} and Julian's report that the usurper had to murder several of Constans' generals to take control of the Gallic army{{sfn|Harries|2012|pp=194–195}} – she concluded that Magnentius' revolt was "the result of a private grudge on the part of an apprehensive official and not the outcome of widespread discontent among the military or the wider population."{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=196}} This view is supported by Peter Crawford, who considered the explanation from the ancient sources to be a misconception caused by the rapid success of the coup.{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=72}}

Harries does, however, acknowledge how the Gallic army accepted Magnentius seemingly without difficulty, and how according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], Constantius' official Philippus emphasized Constantine, rather than Constans, when addressing Magnentius' troops.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=222}} On speculating the basis for Constans' overthrow, she suggested that one reason may have been regarding financial difficulties in Gaul by the end of his reign, which could have been related to the finance officer Marcellinus' support of him.{{sfn|Harries|2012|pp=194–195}} After Magnentius took power, he levied taxes, sold imperial estates in Gaul and debased the coinage.{{sfn|Harries|2012|p=194}} Nicholas Baker-Brian also observed how Magnentius sent his brother [[Decentius]] to defend the region after Constans had neglected it, writing that, "it is apparent that among the reasons for Magnentius' rebellion was a desire to remedy Constans' governmental failings in Gaul."{{sfn|Baker-Brian|2022|pp=260–262}}

==Family tree==
{{see also|Constantinian dynasty}}

{{Constantinian dynasty family tree}}

{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=auto}}
Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as [[Augusti]], names with a thicker border appear in both sections

'''1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings'''
{{Tree chart/start|align=center}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | |CGOTH|CGOTH={{ubl|[[Claudius Gothicus]]|268–270|''fabricated ancestry''}}|boxstyle_CGOTH=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | |Q|}}
{{tree chart| | |HELEN|y|CCHLO|y|THEO1|HELEN=[[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Helena]]|boxstyle_HELEN=border:2px solid|CCHLO={{ubl|[[Constantius Chlorus]]|305–306}}|boxstyle_CCHLO=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|THEO1=[[Flavia Maximiana Theodora]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |!| | | |)|-|v|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|.| | | | | }}
{{tree chart| | | | |CONST| |FLAVD|!|HANN1| |CONS2|y|LICI1|!|ANAST|~|BASSI|CONST={{ubl|'''Constantine I'''|306–337}}|boxstyle_CONST=border:3px solid; border-radius:1em|FLAVD=[[Flavius Dalmatius]]|HANN1=Hannibalianus|CONS2=[[Flavia Julia Constantia]]|LICI1={{ubl|[[Licinius]]|308–324}}|boxstyle_LICI1=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|ANAST=Anastasia|BASSI=[[Bassianus (executed by Constantine)|Bassianus]]}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|'| |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!}}
{{tree chart| |!| | | | |GALL1|y|JULIC|y|BASIL| |LICI2| |EUTR2|y|NEPO1|GALL1=[[Galla (wife of Julius Constantius)|Galla]]|JULIC=[[Julius Constantius]]|BASIL=[[Basilina]]|LICI2=[[Licinius II]]|EUTR2=[[Eutropia (sister of Constantine I)|Eutropia]]|NEPO1=Virius Nepotianus}}
{{tree chart| |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart|HANN2|~|CONS6|~|GALLU| |JULIA|~|HELE2| | | | | |NEPO2|HANN2=[[Hannibalianus]]|boxstyle_HANN2=border:3px solid|CONS6=[[Constantina]]|boxstyle_CONS6=border:3px solid|GALLU=[[Constantius Gallus]]|boxstyle_GALLU=border:3px solid|JULIA={{ubl|[[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]|360–363}}|boxstyle_JULIA=border:3px solid; border-radius:1em|HELE2=[[Helena (wife of Julian)|Helena]]|boxstyle_HELE2=border:3px solid|NEPO2=[[Nepotianus]]}}
{{tree chart/end}}
<br />
'''2: Constantine's children'''
{{Tree chart/start|align=center}}
{{tree chart|MINER|y|CONST|y|FAUS1|MINER=[[Minervina]]|CONST={{ubl|'''Constantine I'''|306–337}}|boxstyle_CONST=border:3px solid; border-radius:1em|FAUS1=[[Fausta]]}}
{{tree chart| | | |!| | | |)|-|v|-|v|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}
{{tree chart| | |CRISP| |CONS3|!|CONS5|!|HANN2|~|CONS6|~|GALLU|CRISP=[[Crispus]]|CONS3={{ubl|[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]|337–340}}|boxstyle_CONS3=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|CONS5={{ubl|Constans|337–350}}|boxstyle_CONS5=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|HANN2=[[Hannibalianus]]|boxstyle_HANN2=border:3px solid|CONS6=[[Constantina]]|boxstyle_CONS6=border:3px solid|GALLU=[[Constantius Gallus]]|boxstyle_GALLU=border:3px solid}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | |FAUS2|y|CONS4| |HELE2|~|JULIA|FAUS2=[[Faustina (wife of Constantius II)|Faustina]]|CONS4={{ubl|[[Constantius II]]|337–361}}|boxstyle_CONS4=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|JULIA={{ubl|[[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]|360–363}}|boxstyle_JULIA=border:3px solid;  border-radius:1em|HELE2=[[Helena (wife of Julian)|Helena]]|boxstyle_HELE2=border:3px solid}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | |GRATI|~|CONS7|GRATI={{ubl|[[Gratian]]|367–383}}|boxstyle_GRATI=border:2px solid; border-radius:1em|CONS7=[[Constantia (wife of Gratian)|Constantia]]}}
{{Tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

==See also==
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
*[[Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
===Primary sources===
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus02_book2.htm ''Historia Nova''] II
* [[Aurelius Victor]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140031/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Epitome de Caesaribus]''
* [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], ''Breviarium ab urbe condita''

===Secondary sources===

*{{cite book |last=Baker-Brian |first=Nicholas |title=The Reign of Constantius II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LzZwEAAAQBAJ|publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022|isbn=978-1-0006-1991-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |year=1982 |first=Timothy David |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) |title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine |publisher=Harvard University Press |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 |place=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-28066-0 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/321231?language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Barnes|first=Timothy David|title=Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire|url=https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1993|isbn=0-674-05067-3|location=Cambridge, MA}}
* {{Cite book |last=Birley |first=Anthony |title=The Roman Government of Britain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkkVDAAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-1992-5237-4 |location=Oxford |author-link=Anthony Birley}}
*{{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Peter |title=Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-78340-055-3}}
* DiMaio, Michael; [[Robert Frakes|Frakes, Robert]], [http://www.roman-emperors.org/consi.htm  ''Constans I (337–350 A.D.)''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140020/http://www.roman-emperors.org/consi.htm Archive]), ''[[De Imperatoribus Romanis]]''
* {{cite book
 | first=Jill
 | last=Harries
 | title=Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire
 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNqqBgAAQBAJ
 | author-link=Jill Harries
 | year=2012
 | publisher=Edinburgh University Press
 | isbn=978-0-7486-2052-4
}}
* {{cite book |last=Hunt |year=1998 |first=David |section= The successors of Constantine|title=The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425|editor=Averil Cameron |editor2=Peter Garnsey |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-30200-5 |title-link= iarchive:the-cambridge-ancient-history-volume-13/mode/1up|name-list-style=amp |editor-link=Averil Cameron |editor2-link=Peter Garnsey |authorlink=}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A.H.M. |author2=J.R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |url={{googlebooks|uOHw4idqAeYC|plainurl=y}} |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref={{sfnref|Jones|Martindale|Morris}} }}
*{{cite book |last=Usherwood |first=Rebecca |title=Political Memory and the Constantinian Dynasty: Fashioning Disgrace|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=klZlEAAAQBAJ |year=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-0308-7930-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Woudhuysen |year=2018|first=George|section=Uncovering Constans’ Image |title= Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-t5DwAAQBAJ|editor=Alan J. Ross |editor2=Diederik W. P. Burgersdijk |publisher=Brill |pages=158–182|isbn=978-9-0043-7092-0|title-link=}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Constantine I]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        | years=337–350
        | with=[[Constantius II]]<br/> and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Magnentius]]|after2=[[Vetranio]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before=Ursus|before2=[[Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius|Polemius]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]]| years=339 |with= [[Constantius II|Constantius Augustus]]&nbsp;II}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Septimius Acindynus]]|after2=[[Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus|L. Aradius Valerius Proculus]]}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Antonius Marcellinus]]|before2=[[Petronius Probinus (consul 341)|Petronius Probinus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] II| years=342 |with= [[Constantius II|Constantius Augustus]]&nbsp;III}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Marcus Maecius Memmius Furius Baburius Caecilianus Placidus|M. Furius Placidus]]|after2=[[Romulus (consul 343)|Romulus]]}}
{{s-bef | before=Amantius|before2=[[Marcus Nummius Albinus Triturrius|M. Nummius Albinus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] III| years=346 |with= [[Constantius II|Constantius Augustus]]&nbsp;IV}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Vulcacius Rufinus]]|after2=[[Eusebius (consul 347)|Eusebius]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:320s births]]
[[Category:350 deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Christians]]
[[Category:4th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:4th-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Constantine the Great]]
[[Category:Constantinian dynasty]]
[[Category:Flavii]]
[[Category:Julii]]
[[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Sons of Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Damnatio memoriae]]