Editing Concorde

{{Short description|British–French supersonic airliner}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox aircraft
| name = Concorde
| image = British Airways Concorde G-BOAC 03.jpg
| image_caption = British Airways Concorde in flight in 1986
| alt = Concorde against a clear blue sky, seen from below. Its wheels are lowered.
| aircraft_type = [[Supersonic airliner]]
| manufacturer = {{plainlist|
* [[British Aircraft Corporation]] (later [[British Aerospace]] and [[BAE Systems]])
* [[Sud Aviation]] (later [[Aérospatiale]] and [[Airbus]])}}
| designer = 
| first_flight = 2 March 1969
| fate = Preserved in museums
| introduction = 21 January 1976
| national_origin = France and United Kingdom
| retired = {{ubl|{{Start date and age|2003|10|24|df=yes}} (last commercial flight)|{{Start date and age|2003|11|26|df=yes}} (final flight to [[Bristol Filton Airport]])<ref name="jlfin" />}}
| status = Retired
| primary_user = [[British Airways]] <!--Limit one (1) main user. Top 4 users listed in 'primary user' and 'more users' fields based on number of their fleets. -->
| more_users = [[Air France]]<br/>See ''[[#Operators|Operators]]'' below for others <!-- Limit is three (3) in 'more users' field, four (4) total users with primary user. Please separate with a list inside {{plainlist}}. -->
| produced = 1965–1979
| number_built = 20 (including 6 non-commercial aircraft){{sfn|Towey|2007|p=359}}<ref name=BBC_July2000>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/850899.stm |title=Ageing luxury jet |work=BBC News |date=25 July 2000 |access-date=13 November 2006 |archive-date=14 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314020636/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/850899.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>
| variants = 
}}
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Note: This article uses British English since it covers a Franco-British airliner. Please don't attempt to change it to another variety of English. For details on Wikipedia's policies on this subject, see: [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#National varieties of English]] or [[MOS:ENGVAR]]. Also by convention, the aircraft's name is simply "Concorde", without an article. The article adheres to this convention throughout. -->

'''Concorde''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|ŋ|k|ɔr|d}}) is<!-- Use "is", NOT "was", as the aircraft still exists in museums. Read end of sentence for retired part. --> a retired Anglo-French [[supersonic airliner]] jointly developed and manufactured by [[Sud Aviation]] (later [[Aérospatiale]]) and the [[British Aircraft Corporation]] (BAC).
<!--development-->
Studies started in 1954, and France and the United Kingdom signed a [[treaty]] establishing the development project on 29 November 1962, as the programme cost was estimated at £70&nbsp;million (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|70000000|1962}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}).
Construction of the six [[prototype]]s began in February 1965, and the [[first flight]] took off from [[Toulouse]] on 2 March 1969.
<!--market-->
The [[Market (economics)|market]] was predicted for 350 aircraft, and the manufacturers received up to 100 option orders from many major [[airline]]s.
On 9 October 1975, it received its French [[certificate of airworthiness]], and from the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|UK CAA]] on 5 December.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/concorde-special-concorde-timeline/51042.article |title= Concorde Special – Concorde timeline
|date= 21 October 2003 |work= FlightGlobal}}</ref>

<!--design-->
Concorde is a [[tailless aircraft]] design with a narrow [[fuselage]] permitting four-abreast seating for 92 to 128 passengers, an [[ogival]] [[delta wing]], and a [[Droop nose (aeronautics)|droop nose]] for landing visibility.
It is powered by four [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593]] [[turbojet]]s with variable engine [[intake ramp]]s, and [[reheat]] for take-off and acceleration to supersonic speed.
Constructed out of [[aluminium]], it was the first airliner to have analogue [[fly-by-wire]] flight controls. 
<!--performance-->
The airliner had transatlantic range while [[supercruise|supercruising]] at twice the speed of sound for 75% of the distance.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.icas.org/ICAS_ARCHIVE/ICAS1976/1976.php |title=Operational Experience On Concorde |last1=McKinlay |first1=R. M. |last2=Heaton |first2=G. R. I. |last3=Franchi |first3=J. |journal=1976 ICAS Proceedings |editor-last1=Dexter |editor-first1=R. R. |editor-last2=Green |editor-first2=J. J. |publisher=International Council of Aeronautical Sciences |location=Ottawa, Ontario |date=1976 |page=Figure 5 'Typical flight profile'}}</ref>

<!--operational history-->
Delays and [[cost overrun]]s increased the programme cost to £1.5–2.1 billion in 1976, (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|1.5|1976}}|0}}–{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|2100000000|1976}}|1}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}).
Concorde entered service on 21 January 1976 with [[Air France]] from [[Paris-Roissy]] and [[British Airways]] from [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]].
[[Transatlantic flight]]s were the main market, to [[Washington Dulles]] from 24 May, and to [[New York JFK]] from 17 October 1977.
Air France and British Airways remained the sole customers with [[Concorde aircraft histories|seven airframes each]], for a total production of 20.
[[Supersonic flight]] more than halved travel times, but [[sonic boom]]s over the ground limited it to transoceanic flights only.

<!--competition-->
Its only competitor was the [[Tupolev Tu-144]], carrying passengers from November 1977 until a [[1978 Yegoryevsk Tu-144 crash|May 1978 crash]], while a potential competitor, the [[Boeing 2707]], was cancelled in 1971 before any prototypes were built.

<!--Accidents-->
On 25 July 2000, [[Air France Flight 4590]] crashed shortly after take-off with all 109 occupants and four on the ground killed. This was the only fatal incident involving Concorde; commercial service was suspended until November 2001. The surviving aircraft were retired in 2003, 27 years after commercial operations had begun. All but two of the 20 aircraft built have been preserved and are on display across Europe and North America.

==Development==

===Early studies===
In the early 1950s, [[Arnold Hall]], director of the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] (RAE), asked [[Morien Morgan]] to form a committee to study [[supersonic transport]] (SST). The group met in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=35}} [[Robert Thomas Jones (engineer)|Robert T. Jones]]' work at [[NACA]] had demonstrated that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/robert-t-jones/|title=Robert T. Jones|date=10 August 2015|website=NASA}}</ref> This led to the use of short-span, thin, trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or aircraft such as the [[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter]] interceptor or the planned [[Avro 730]] strategic bomber that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that resembled an enlarged Avro 730.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}}

This short wingspan produced little lift at low speed, resulting in long take-off runs and high landing speeds.<ref>Meyer, Jan. [http://starfighter.no/web/hi-alt.html "High altitude flying with F-104"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103071113/http://www.starfighter.no/web/hi-alt.html |date=3 January 2014}}, Starfighterens veneer Norge.</ref> In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes" resulted.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}} Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}}

===Slender deltas===
Soon after, [[Johanna Weber]] and [[Dietrich Küchemann]] at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing [[Planform (aeronautics)|planform]], known in the UK as the "slender delta".<ref name='deltawing'>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A6825061AH&q=Concorde+Delta&uid=788872723|title=The development of the slender delta concept|journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology|author=Maltby, R.L.|volume=40|issue=3 |pages=12–17|date=1968|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526165008/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A6825061AH&q=Concorde+Delta&uid=788872723&setcookie=yes|archive-date=26 May 2013|doi=10.1108/eb034350|issn=0002-2667}}</ref><ref name=aerosoc>{{cite web|url=http://aerosociety.com/News/Society-News/2742/OBITUARY-DR-JOHANNA-WEBER|title=Obituary: Dr Johanna Weber|publisher=[[Royal Aeronautical Society]]|date=12 January 2015|last=Green|first=John|access-date=16 July 2015|archive-date=13 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713072633/http://aerosociety.com/News/Society-News/2742/OBITUARY-DR-JOHANNA-WEBER|url-status=live}}</ref> The team, including Eric Maskell whose report "Flow Separation in Three Dimensions" contributed to an understanding of separated flow,<ref>''Three Centuries To Concorde'', Charles Burnet, Mechanical Engineering Publications Ltd., {{ISBN|0 85298 412 X}}, p. 236</ref> worked with the fact that [[delta wing]]s can produce strong [[vortex|vortices]] on their upper surfaces at high [[angle of attack|angles of attack]].{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}} The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift. This had been noticed by [[Chuck Yeager]] in the [[Convair XF-92]], but its qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested that the effect could be used to improve low-speed performance.<ref name=aerosoc />{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}}

Küchemann and Weber's papers changed the entire nature of supersonic design. The delta had already been used on aircraft, but these designs used planforms that were not much different from a [[swept wing]] of the same span. Weber noted that the lift from the vortex was increased by the length of the wing it had to operate over, which suggested that the effect would be maximised by extending the wing along the fuselage as far as possible. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance, but also have reasonable take-off and landing speeds using vortex generation.<ref name=aerosoc /> The aircraft would have to take off and land very "nose high" to generate the required [[vortex lift]], which led to questions about the low-speed handling qualities of such a design.<ref name=brown />

Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present. Test pilot [[Eric Brown (pilot)|Eric Brown]] recalls Morgan's reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem. Brown considers this moment as being the birth of the Concorde project.<ref name=brown>Eric Brown, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MMEK1jwD03AC&pg=PT121 "Wings On My Sleeve"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122100612/https://books.google.com/books?id=MMEK1jwD03AC&pg=PT121 |date=22 November 2016}}, Hachette UK, 2008, end of Chapter 12</ref>

===Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee===
[[File:HP.115.gif|thumb|The HP.115 tested the low-speed performance of the slender delta layout.]]

On 1 October 1956, the [[Ministry of Supply]] asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee (STAC){{sfn|Conway|2005|p=39}} (sometimes referred to as the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee), to develop a practical SST design and find industry partners to build it. At the first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund the development of a test-bed aircraft to examine the low-speed performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced the [[Handley Page HP.115]].<ref name=brown /> This aircraft demonstrated safe control at speeds as low as {{convert|69|mph|abbr=on}}, about one-third that of the F-104 Starfighter.{{sfn|Winchester|2005b|p=134}}

STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}} Lift is not generated the same way at supersonic and subsonic speeds, with the [[lift-to-drag ratio]] for supersonic designs being about half that of subsonic designs.<ref>{{cite tech report |url=https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/trcircular/333/333-004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331221930/https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/trcircular/333/333-004.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2022 |url-status=live |page=43 |title= The Impact of Emerging Technologies of an Advanced Supersonic Transport |first1=Cornelius |last1=Driver |first2=Domenic |last2=Maglieri}}</ref> The aircraft would need more thrust than a subsonic design of the same size. Although they would use more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more revenue-earning flights in a given time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}}

STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, and a shorter-range version flying at Mach 1.2. Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90&nbsp;million to develop, and be in service in 1970. The smaller 100-passenger short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80&nbsp;million, and be ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=67}} Morgan suggested that the US was already involved in a similar project, and that if the UK failed to respond, it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=68}}

In 1959, a study contract was awarded to [[Hawker Siddeley]] and [[Bristol Aeroplane Company|Bristol]] for preliminary designs based on the slender delta,{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=69}} which developed as the [[Hawker Siddeley HSA.1000|HSA.1000]] and [[Bristol Type 223#STAC|Bristol 198]]. [[Armstrong Whitworth]] also responded with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed, shorter-range category. Both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker approached [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]], and after the creation of [[British Aircraft Corporation]] in 1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with [[Boeing]], [[General Dynamics]], [[Douglas Aircraft]], and [[Sud Aviation]].{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=69}}

===Ogee planform selected===
Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout this period, considering three basic shapes - the classic straight-edge delta, the "gothic delta" that was rounded outward to appear like a [[Gothic architecture#Equilateral arch|gothic arch]], and the "[[ogive|ogival]] wing" that was compound-rounded into the shape of an [[ogee]]. Each of these planforms had advantages and disadvantages. As they worked with these shapes, a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one of these designs.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=40}}

[[File:Bristol Type 223 top-view silhouette.png|thumb|Plan-view silhouette of the Bristol Type 223 SST project]]
Generally, the wing's [[Center of pressure (fluid mechanics)|centre of pressure]] (CP, or "lift point") should be close to the aircraft's [[centre of gravity]] (CG, or "balance point") to reduce the amount of control force required to [[Pitch axis (kinematics)|pitch]] the aircraft. As the aircraft layout changes during the design phase, the CG commonly moves fore or aft. With a normal wing design, this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this. With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy; moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes, both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the fore.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=40}}

To test the new wing, NASA assisted the team by modifying a [[Douglas F5D Skylancer]] to mimic the wing selection. In 1965, the NASA test aircraft successfully tested the wing, and found that it reduced landing speeds noticeably over the standard delta wing. NASA also ran simulations at Ames that showed the aircraft would exhibit a sudden change in pitch when entering ground effect. Ames test pilots later participated in a joint cooperative test with the French and British test pilots and found that the simulations had been correct, and this information was added to pilot training.<ref>Memoirs of an aeronautical engineer: flight testing at Ames Research Center. Seth B. Anderson, United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. History Office, Ames Research Center. p. 38</ref>

===Partnership with Sud Aviation===
France<!-- do not link major countries--> had its own SST plans. In the late 1950s, the government requested designs from the government-owned Sud Aviation and [[Nord Aviation]], as well as [[Dassault]]. All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber's slender delta; Nord suggested a [[ramjet]]-powered design flying at Mach 3, and the other two were jet-powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other. Of the three, the [[Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle]] won the design contest with a medium-range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs they assumed were already on the drawing board.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=70}}

As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, [[Pierre Satre]], the company's technical director, was sent to Bristol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a similar aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in terms of economics. It was later revealed that the original STAC report, marked "For UK Eyes Only", had secretly been passed to France to win political favour. Sud made minor changes to the paper and presented it as their own work.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=49}}

France had no modern large jet engines and had already decided to buy a British design (as they had on the earlier subsonic [[Sud Aviation Caravelle|Caravelle]]).{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=47}} As neither company had experience in the use of heat-resistant metals for airframes, a maximum speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used&nbsp;– above this speed, the friction with the air heats the metal so much that it begins to soften. This lower speed would also speed development and allow their design to fly before the Americans. Everyone involved agreed that Küchemann's ogee-shaped wing was the right one.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=70}}

The British team was still focused on a 150-passenger design serving transatlantic routes, while France was deliberately avoiding these. Common components could be used in both designs, with the shorter-range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines, and the longer one a stretched fuselage and six engines, leaving only the wing to be extensively redesigned.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=41}} The teams continued to meet in 1961, and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be very similar in spite of different ranges and seating arrangements. A single design emerged that differed mainly in fuel load. More-powerful [[Rolls-Royce Olympus|Bristol Siddeley Olympus]] engines, being developed for the [[TSR-2]], allowed either design to be powered by only four engines.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=50}}

===Cabinet response, treaty===
While the development teams met, the French Minister of Public Works and Transport [[Robert Buron]] was meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation [[Peter Thorneycroft]], and Thorneycroft told the cabinet that France was much more serious about a partnership than any of the US companies.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=71}} The various US companies had proved uninterested, likely due to the belief that the government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European company, and the risk of "giving away" US technological leadership to a European partner.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=69}}

When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet, the economic considerations were considered highly questionable, especially as these were based on development costs, now estimated to be {{GBPConvert|150|m|year=1961|lk=on|showdate=no|mode=historical}}, which were repeatedly overrun in the industry. The Treasury Ministry presented a negative view, suggesting that the project in no way would have any positive financial returns for the government, especially because "the industry's past record of over-optimistic estimating (including the recent history of the TSR.2) suggests that it would be prudent to consider" the cost "to turn out much too low."{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=71}}

This led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Development, which met on the topic between July and September 1962. The committee rejected the economic arguments, including considerations of supporting the industry made by Thorneycroft. Their report in October stated that any direct positive economic outcome would be unlikely, but that the project should still be considered because everyone else was going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets. The project apparently would not be likely to significantly affect other, more important, research efforts.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=71}}

At the time, the UK was pressing for admission to the [[European Economic Community]], and this became the main rationale for moving ahead with the aircraft.{{sfn|Conway|2005|p=66}} The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies, and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK government, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. This treaty was signed on 29 November 1962.<ref name="earlyhist">{{cite web |url=http://www.concordesst.com/history/eh1.html#a |title=Early History |work=Concorde History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124174147/http://concordesst.com/history/eh1.html#a |archive-date=24 January 2011 |access-date=8 September 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Charles de Gaulle]] vetoed the UK's entry into the European Community in a speech on 25 January 1963.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hollingworth |first1=Clare |last2=Prittie |first2=Terence |date=25 January 2018 |title=French determined to block Britain's entry to Common Market – archive, 1963 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/25/french-france-block-britain-entry-common-market-de-gaulle-1963 |access-date=28 February 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414095431/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/25/french-france-block-britain-entry-common-market-de-gaulle-1963}}</ref>

===Naming===
At Charles de Gaulle's January 1963 press conference, the aircraft was first called "Concorde".<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Myddelton |first=David R. |title=They Meant Well, Government Project Disasters |publisher=The Institute of Economic Affairs |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-255-36601-4 |edition=1st |location=London, UK |pages=110 |language=English}}</ref> The name was suggested by the 18-year-old son of F.G. Clark, the publicity manager at BAC's Filton plant.<ref name=":2" /> Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde's construction, the name ''Concorde'' is from the French word ''[[wikt:concorde#French|concorde]]'' ({{IPA|fr|kɔ̃kɔʁd|IPA}}), which has an English equivalent, ''[[wikt:concord#English|concord]]''. Both words mean ''agreement'', ''harmony'', or ''union''. The name was changed to ''Concord'' by [[Harold Macmillan]] in response to a perceived slight by de Gaulle. At the French roll-out in [[Toulouse]] in late 1967,<ref name="ssccunv">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSdJAQAAMAAJ |title=Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1967 – Chronology on Science, Technology, and Policy |date=1968 |page=373 |language=en}}</ref> the British [[Minister of Technology]], [[Tony Benn]], announced that he would change the spelling back to ''Concorde''.<ref name="Benn">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,1064752,00.html |title=Sonic booms and that 'e' on the end: Tony Benn remembers his role in getting Concorde off the ground |first=Tony |last=Benn |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=17 October 2003 |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125024459/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2003/oct/17/theairlineindustry.g21 |url-status=live}}</ref> This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe, and [[Entente Cordiale|Entente (Cordiale)]]". In his memoirs, he recounted a letter from a Scotsman claiming, "you talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "it was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland)&nbsp;– and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!"{{sfn|McIntyre|1992|p=20}}

In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" without an [[article (grammar)|article]], rather than "{{em|the}} Concorde" or "{{em|a}} Concorde".<ref>Note this British convention is used throughout this article: {{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm |title= In depth: Farewell to Concorde |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 15 August 2007 |access-date= 4 October 2007 |archive-date= 27 October 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071027143003/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm |url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/aboutconcorde.html |title= About Concorde&nbsp;– main page |publisher= British Airways |access-date= 11 January 2010 |archive-date= 11 March 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090311003638/http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/aboutconcorde.html |url-status= live}}</ref>

===Sales efforts===
[[File:British Concorde.jpg|thumb|[[British Airways]] Concorde in early BA livery at [[Heathrow Airport|London-Heathrow Airport]] in the early 1980s]]

Advertisements for Concorde during the late 1960s placed in publications such as ''Aviation Week & Space Technology'' predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980.<ref>48 years ago in AW&ST, Aviation Week & Space Technology, 25 May – 7 June 2015, p. 14.</ref> The new consortium intended to produce one long-range and one short-range version, but prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version, thus it was later dropped.<ref name="earlyhist" />

Concorde's costs spiralled during development to more than six times the original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £23&nbsp;million in 1977 (equivalent to £{{Inflation|UK|23|1977|r=2}} million in {{Inflation-year|UK}}).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1352927/Is-this-the-end-of-the-Concorde-dream.html |url-access=subscription |title=Is this the end of the Concorde dream? | publisher=The Daily Telegraph |first=Paul |last=Marston |date=16 August 2000 }}</ref> Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land impossible without causing complaints from citizens.<ref name="Concordes limited to 16">{{cite news |title=Concordes limited to 16 | publisher=Virgin Islands Daily News|date=5 June 1976}}</ref> World events also dampened Concorde sales prospects; the [[1973–74 stock market crash]] and the [[1973 oil crisis]] had made airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption, and new [[wide-body aircraft]], such as the [[Boeing 747]], had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines.{{sfn|Ross|1978|pp=47–49}} While carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 [[passenger miles per gallon]] of fuel, while the [[Boeing 707]] reached 33.3&nbsp;pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4&nbsp;pm/g, and the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] 53.6&nbsp;pm/g.{{sfn|Ross|1978|p=49}} A trend in favour of cheaper airline tickets also caused airlines such as [[Qantas]] to question Concorde's market suitability.{{sfn|Gunn|2010|p=45}} During the early 2000s, ''[[Flight International]]'' described Concorde as being "one of aerospace's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2003/2003%20-%202360.html |title=Concorde – 2003–2360 – Flight Archive |publisher=Flight International |access-date=12 November 2016 |archive-date=12 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112212240/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2003/2003%20-%202360.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Concorde Special – Flawed Icon |date=21 October 2003 |publisher=Flight Global |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/concorde-special-flawed-icon-172669/ |access-date=12 November 2016 |archive-date=12 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112211651/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/concorde-special-flawed-icon-172669/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The consortium received orders (non-binding options) for more than 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day: [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], [[British Overseas Airways Corporation|BOAC]], and Air France were the launch customers, with six aircraft each. Other airlines in the order book included [[Panair do Brasil]], [[Continental Airlines]], [[Japan Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]], [[Air India]], [[Air Canada]], [[Braniff International Airways|Braniff]], [[Singapore Airlines]], [[Iran Air]], [[Olympic Airways]], [[Qantas]], [[CAAC Airlines]], [[Middle East Airlines]], and [[Trans World Airlines|TWA]].<ref name="earlyhist" /><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,903850,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116102945/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,903850,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2005 |title=Aerospace: Pan Am's Concorde Retreat |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=12 February 1973}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Vertrag mit Luken |trans-title=Contract with escape hatches |magazine=Der Spiegel |volume=12 |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-46437753.html |date=13 March 1967 |access-date=6 November 2012 |archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203050949/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-46437753.html |url-status=live}}</ref> At the time of the first flight, the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde-orders-and-options |title=Concorde orders and options |website=heritage-concorde |access-date=18 September 2020 |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929093832/https://www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde-orders-and-options |url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Airline
! Number
! Reserved
! Cancelled
! Remarks
|-
| [[Pan Am]] || 6 || 3 June 1963 || 31 January 1973 || 2 extra options in 1964
|-
| [[Air France]] || 6 || 3 June 1963 || || 2 extra options in 1964
|-
| [[BOAC]] || 6 || 3 June 1963 || || 2 extra options in 1964
|-
| [[Continental Airlines]] || 3 || 24 July 1963 || March 1973 ||
|-
| [[American Airlines]] || 4 || 7 October 1963 || February 1973 || 2 extra options in 1965
|-
| [[TWA]] || 4 || 16 October 1963 || 31 January 1973 || 2 extra options in 1965
|-
| [[Middle East Airlines]] || 2 || 4 December 1963 || February 1973 ||
|-
| [[Qantas]] || 6 || 19 March 1964 || June 1973<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chamberlin |first1=Chris |date=16 May 2020 |title=Supersonic dreams: how Qantas almost flew the Concorde |url=https://www.executivetraveller.com/news/qantas-concorde-supersonic |website=Executive Traveller |access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref> || 2 cancelled in May 1966
|-
| [[Air India]] || 2 || 15 July 1964 || February 1975 ||
|-
| [[Japan Airlines]] || 3 || 30 September 1965 || 1973 ||
|-
| [[Sabena]] || 2 || 1 December 1965 || February 1973 ||
|-
| [[Eastern Airlines]] || 2 || 28 June 1966 || February 1973 || 2 extra options on 15 August 1966 <br/>2 other extra options on 28 April 1967
|-
| [[United Airlines]] || 6 || 29 June 1966 || 26 October 1972 ||
|-
| [[Braniff]] || 3 || 1 September 1966 || February 1973 ||
|-
| [[Lufthansa]] || 3 || 16 February 1967 || April 1973 ||
|-
| [[Air Canada]] || 4 || 1 March 1967 || 6 June 1972<ref>Peter Pigott: ''Air Canada, the History''. 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-4597-1952-1}}. p. 104</ref> ||
|-
| [[CAAC Airlines|CAAC]] || 2 || 24 July 1972 || December 1979<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde-orders-and-options|title=Concorde orders and options|website=Heritage Concorde|access-date=18 September 2020|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929093832/https://www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde-orders-and-options|url-status=live}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[Iran Air]] || 2 || 8 October 1972 || February 1980 ||
|}

===Testing===
[[File:02.03.69 1er vol de Concorde (1969) - 53Fi1931 - cropped.jpg|thumb|Concorde 001 first flight in 1969]]

The design work was supported by a research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio [[delta wing]]s. A supersonic [[Fairey Delta 2]] was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed as the BAC 221, used for tests of the high-speed flight envelope;{{sfn|Taylor|1965|p=130}} the [[Handley Page HP.115]] also provided valuable information on low-speed performance.{{sfn|Winchester|2005a|p=134}}

Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at [[Filton]], Bristol. 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by [[André Turcat]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Pilot Says Concorde Flight 'Perfect'|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KXoyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6573,360672 |access-date=30 June 2011 |work=Montreal Gazette |date=1 March 1969 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414095431/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KXoyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6573,360672 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> and first went supersonic on 1 October.{{sfn|Olivier|2018|p=11}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30C1EFC3454127B93C0A9178BD95F4D8685F9 |title=Concorde Tops Speed of Sound for 9 Minutes on a Test Flight |work=The New York Times |date=2 October 1969 |access-date=22 March 2010 |archive-date=7 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107234836/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30C1EFC3454127B93C0A9178BD95F4D8685F9 |url-status=live}}</ref> The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to [[RAF Fairford]] on 9 April 1969, piloted by [[Brian Trubshaw]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/2/newsid_2514000/2514535.stm |title=1969: Concorde flies for the first time |work=BBC News |access-date=8 July 2007 |date=2 March 1969 |archive-date=3 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903062944/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/2/newsid_2514000/2514535.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/584606362.html?dids=584606362:584606362&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Apr+10%2C+1969&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Concorde+002+Makes+1st+Flight&pqatl=google |title=Concorde 002 Makes 1st Flight |work=Chicago Tribune |first=Edward |last=Rohrbach |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=10 April 1969 |archive-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725063900/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/584606362.html?dids=584606362:584606362&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Apr+10%2C+1969&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Concorde+002+Makes+1st+Flight&pqatl=google |url-status=dead}}</ref> Both prototypes were presented to the public on 7–8 June 1969 at the [[Paris Air Show]]. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/597531692.html?dids=597531692:597531692&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+05%2C+1971&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Concorde+001+Makes+Its+First+Atlantic+Crossing&pqatl=google |title=Concorde 001 Makes Its First Atlantic Crossing |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=5 September 1971 |archive-date=6 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106122156/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/597531692.html?dids=597531692:597531692&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+05%2C+1971&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=Concorde+001+Makes+Its+First+Atlantic+Crossing&pqatl=google |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Anglo-French Concorde Lands in Brazil to begin Week of Demonstration Flights |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VCY0AAAAIBAJ&pg=2521,1962837 |work=Bangor Daily News |date=7 September 1971 |access-date=28 November 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414131208/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VCY0AAAAIBAJ&pg=2521,1962837}}</ref> Concorde 002 followed on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70D10F73B591A7493C1A9178DD85F468785F9 |title=Concorde Prototype Begins 10-Nation Tour; Britain Shows Optimism For Supersonic Aircraft |work=The New York Times |first=Michael |last=Stern |date=3 June 1972 |access-date=30 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107234925/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70D10F73B591A7493C1A9178DD85F468785F9}}</ref> Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport]] to mark the airport's opening.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0E16FB3A54137A93C3AB1782D85F478785F9 |first=Richard |last=Witkin |date=21 September 1973 |title=A Supersonic Concorde Lands in Texas |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103103438/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0E16FB3A54137A93C3AB1782D85F478785F9 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Concorde first visit Heathrow Fitzgerald.jpg|thumb|Concorde on early visit to Heathrow Airport on 1 July 1972]]
Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest, but the project was hit by order cancellations. The [[1973 Paris Air Show crash|Paris Le Bourget air show crash]] of the competing Soviet [[Tupolev Tu-144]] had shocked potential buyers, and public concern over the environmental issues of supersonic aircraft{{snd}}the [[sonic boom]], take-off noise and pollution{{snd}}had produced a change in the public opinion of SSTs. By 1976 the remaining buyers were from four countries: Britain, France, China, and Iran.<ref name="Concordes limited to 16" /> Only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/faq.html#6 |title=Payments for Concorde |publisher=British Airways |access-date=2 December 2009 |archive-date=19 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091219154117/http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/faq.html#6 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The US government cut federal funding for the [[Boeing 2707]], its supersonic transport programme, in 1971; Boeing did not complete its two 2707 prototypes. The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern, although some of these restrictions were later relaxed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813F83F5511728DDDAE0994DA415B888BF1D3 |title=Malaysia lifting ban on the use of its Airspace by the Concorde |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=17 December 1978 |archive-date=7 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107234822/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813F83F5511728DDDAE0994DA415B888BF1D3 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xTMsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6855,2298265 |title=News from around the world |work=Herald-Journal |date=13 January 1978 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414125644/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xTMsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6855,2298265 |url-status=live}}</ref> Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Concorde operations by President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s administration as having been an act of [[protectionism]] of American aircraft manufacturers.{{sfn|Ross|1978|p=46}}

===Programme cost===
The original programme cost estimate was £70&nbsp;million in 1962,<ref>{{Citation |title=Concorde |work=BBC Timewatch documentary |date=2003 |quote=By 1962, the cost estimates had already soared from 70 to 150 million pounds."<br/>"[By 1964], costs had doubled yet again to nearly 300 million pounds. <!--The documentary goes on to explain how the international treaty had been written in such a way that if either party wished to back out, the cost penalty for doing so would be exorbitant. (Whereas neither the US nor USSR had such barriers to cancelling their SST programmes, which both countries eventually did.)-->}}</ref> (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|70000000|1962|r=3}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK-GDP}}).{{Inflation-fn|UK-GDP}} After [[cost overrun]]s and delays the programme eventually cost between £1.5 and £2.1 billion in 1976,<ref>{{cite book | first=A. R. |last=Seebass |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2D_CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |chapter=The Prospects for Commercial Supersonic Transport |title=New Design Concepts for High Speed Air Transport |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604114554/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2D_CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |archive-date=4 June 2020 |editor-first=H. |editor-last= Sobieczky |orig-year=1997 |publisher=Springer |url-status=live |isbn=9783709126585 |year=2014 |version=ebook|quote=The programme's cost, through March 1976, was put at between 1.5 and 2.1 billion in 1976 pounds sterling, or between 3.6 and 5.1 billion in 1977 U.S. dollars (yearly weighted exchange rates)}}</ref> (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|1500000000|1976|r=2}}}} – {{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|2100000000|1976|r=2}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK-GDP}}).{{Inflation-fn|UK-GDP}} This cost was the main reason the production run was much smaller than expected.<ref>In ''Concorde'' (BBC Timewatch, 2003) Chris Benjamin, Concorde Administrator (UK) 1971–74 said: "It's really a matter of great regret that an enormous amount of creativity, effort and resources were used to produce this aeroplane which has actually no sustainable benefit at all."</ref>

==Design==
[[File:ConcordeCockpitSinsheim.jpg|thumb|Concorde flight deck layout]]

===General features===
Concorde is an [[Delta wing#ogival delta|ogival delta]] winged aircraft with four [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593|Olympus]] engines based on those employed in the RAF's [[Avro Vulcan]] [[strategic bomber]]. It has an unusual [[tailless aircraft|tailless configuration]] for a commercial aircraft, as does the [[Tupolev Tu-144]]. Concorde was the first airliner to have a [[fly-by-wire]] flight-control system (in this case, analogue); the [[avionics]] system Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ [[Hybrid integrated circuit|hybrid circuits]].<ref name='elecflybywire' /> The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre, with [[Archibald Russell|Sir Archibald Russell]] as his deputy.<ref>{{cite news |first=Peter |last=Masefield |title=Obituary: Sir Archibald Russell |work=The Independent |date=1 July 1995 |location=UK}}</ref>

Concorde pioneered the following technologies:

For high speed and optimisation of flight:
* [[Double delta]] ([[ogee]]/ogival) shaped wings<ref name= 'deltawing' />
* Variable engine air [[intake ramp]] system controlled by [[digital computer]]s<ref name=nova>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3203_concorde.html |title=NOVA transcript: Supersonic Dream |publisher=PBS |date=18 January 2005 |quote=Jock Lowe (Concorde Chief Pilot): We did some research which showed that the Concorde passengers actually didn't know how much the fare was. When we asked them to guess how much it was, they guessed that it was higher than it actually was, so we just started to charge them what they thought they were paying anyway. |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=5 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405035636/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3203_concorde.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Supercruise]] capability<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/transport/news/jae/jae000725_1_n.shtml |title=Rolls-Royce Snecma Olympus |publisher=Janes |date=25 July 2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806140324/http://www.janes.com/transport/news/jae/jae000725_1_n.shtml |archive-date=6 August 2010}}</ref>

For weight-saving and enhanced performance:
* [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.02 (~{{convert|2154|km/h|mph|disp=or|abbr=on}}) cruising speed{{sfn|Frawley|2003|p=14}} for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum and turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/16/16.unified/propulsionS04/UnifiedPropulsion8/UnifiedPropulsion8.htm |title=Unified propulsion 8 |publisher=MIT |access-date=8 December 2010 |archive-date=18 June 2012 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120618175121/http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/16/16.unified/propulsionS04/UnifiedPropulsion8/UnifiedPropulsion8.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> fuel consumption at {{convert|2|Mach|altitude_ft=60000|sigfig=3}} and at altitude of {{convert|60000|ft}} was {{convert|4800|gal/h|L/h}}.<ref>Allen, Roy, Concorde The Magnificent, Airliner Classics, July 2012, p. 65</ref>
* Mainly aluminium construction using a high-temperature alloy similar to that developed for aero-engine pistons.<ref>The Development of Piston Aero Engines, Bill Gunston 1999, 2nd ed., Patrick Stephens Limited, {{ISBN|1 85260 599 5}}, p. 58</ref> This material gave low weight and allowed conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium)<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A6424111AH&q=Concorde+aluminium+construction&uid=789267644&setcookie=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822230903/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A6424111AH&q=Concorde+aluminium+construction&uid=789267644&setcookie=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 August 2012 |title=''Concorde''&nbsp;– Choice of a light alloy for the construction of the first supersonic commercial aircraft |journal=Revue de l'Aluminium |issue=316 |date=March 1964 |pages=111–19}}</ref>
* Full-regime [[autopilot]] and [[autothrottle]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Concorde Automatic Flight Control System: A description of the automatic flight control system for the Anglo/French SST and its development to date |first=B.S. |last=Wolfe |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |year=1967 |volume=39 |issue=5 |page=40 |issn=0002-2667 |doi=10.1108/eb034268}}</ref> allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb out to landing
* Fully electrically controlled analogue [[Aircraft flight control system#Fly-by-wire control systems|fly-by-wire]] flight controls systems<ref name='elecflybywire'>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbUhEnlI3OkC&pg=PA211 |title=Advances in aircraft flight control |editor=Mark B. Tischler |author=Favre, C. |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7484-0479-7 |page=219 |publisher=CRC Press |access-date=28 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414103603/https://books.google.com/books?id=DbUhEnlI3OkC&pg=PA211 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* High-pressure hydraulic system using {{cvt|28|MPa}} for lighter hydraulic components.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A7716749AH&q=Concorde+hydraulic&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes |title=Concorde has designed-in reliability |author=Schefer, L.J. |journal=Hydraulics and Pneumatics|volume=29|date=1976 |pages=51–55|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823182306/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A7716749AH&q=Concorde+hydraulic&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes|archive-date=23 August 2012}}</ref> 
* [[Air data computer]] (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, [[static pressure]], [[angle of attack]], side-slip).{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=101}}
* Fully electrically controlled analogue [[brake-by-wire]] system<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb035278 |title=Aircraft Stopping Systems |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |year=1975 |volume=47 |issue=10 |issn=0002-2667 |page=18}}</ref>
* No [[auxiliary power unit]], as Concorde would only visit large airports where [[Ground support equipment#Air start unit|ground air start carts]] were available.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=206}}

===Powerplant===
[[File:Concorde.highup.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|The four powerplants mounted in two nacelles under the wings.]]
[[File:Concorde Ramp.jpg|thumb|Twin air intake assembly for each nacelle.]] 
{{multiple image
 |direction= vertical
 |width= 220
 |image1= Concordeintake.svg
 |image_caption1= Concorde's [[intake ramp]] system schematics 
<!-- Please do not add more images here as it disrupts the spacing -->
}}
[[File:Rolls-Royce-Snecma Olympus - Musée Safran.jpg|thumb|Engines and twin exhaust system for each nacelle.]]
{{Main|Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593}}

A symposium titled "Supersonic-Transport Implications" was hosted by the [[Royal Aeronautical Society]] on 8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted-fan engines.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Supersonic – Transport Implications |magazine=Flight International |date=23 December 1960 |page=971 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%203039.html |via=FlightGlobal Archive |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052952/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%203039.html |archive-date=22 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Flight International |date=30 December 1960 |page=1024 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%203108.html?search=supersonic%20transport%20implications |title=Supersonic – Transport Implications |via=FlightGlobal Archive |access-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226132358/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%203108.html |archive-date=26 February 2017}}</ref> Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the powerplant. [[Turbofan]] engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag (but would be studied for future SSTs). Olympus turbojet technology was already available for development to meet the design requirements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://papers.sae.org/760891/Olympus |title=SAE International – mobility engineering |website=Papers.sae.org|access-date=21 December 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801033212/http://papers.sae.org/760891/Olympus/ |archive-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> Rolls-Royce proposed developing the RB.169 to power Concorde during its initial design phase,<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Aero Engines 1962 |magazine=Flight International |date=28 June 1962 |page=1018 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%201020.html |access-date=29 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002631/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%201020.html |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> but developing a wholly-new engine for a single aircraft would have been extremely costly,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=R. |title=Aircraft engines: a proud heritage and an exciting future |journal=The Aeronautical Journal |date=2016 |volume=120 |issue=1223 |pages=131–69 |doi=10.1017/aer.2015.6 |s2cid=18375144}}</ref> so the existing BSEL [[Rolls-Royce Olympus variants#Bristol Olympus (BOl) 22R (Mk. 320)|Olympus Mk 320]] turbojet engine, which was already flying in the [[BAC TSR-2]] supersonic strike bomber prototype, was chosen instead.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=50}}

Boundary layer management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone, however, Dr. Seddon of the RAE favoured a more integrated buried installation. One concern of placing two or more engines behind a single intake was that an intake failure could lead to a double or triple engine failure. While a ducted fan over the turbojet would reduce noise, its larger cross-section also incurred more drag.<ref>{{cite book |last=Birtles |first=Philip |title=Concorde |pages=62–63 |place=Vergennes, Vermont |publisher=Plymouth Press |year=2000 |isbn=1-882663-44-6}}</ref> Acoustics specialists were confident that a turbojet's noise could be reduced and SNECMA made advances in silencer design during the programme.<ref>{{citation |magazine=Flight International |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200616.html |year=1971 |title=Noise and Environment |page=xxi |via=FlightGlobal Archive |access-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226212746/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%200616.html |archive-date=26 February 2017}}</ref> The Olympus Mk.622 with reduced jet velocity was proposed to reduce the noise<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Flight International |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1974/1974%20-%200593.html |title=Up to date with Rolls-Royce Bristol |date=11 April 1974 |page=463 |via=FlightGlobal Archive |access-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226132427/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1974/1974%20-%200593.html |archive-date=26 February 2017}}</ref> but was not pursued. By 1974, the spade silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be ineffective but "entry-into-service aircraft are likely to meet their noise guarantees".<ref>{{citation |magazine=Flight International |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1974/1974%20-%201690.html |title=Commercial Aircraft of the World |via=FlightGlobal Archive |page=546 |date= 24 October 1974 |access-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226132353/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1974/1974%20-%201690.html |archive-date=26 February 2017}}</ref>

The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde highlighted airfield noise, boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent engines and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2, tolerate pushovers, sideslips, pull-ups and throttle slamming without surging.{{sfn|Talbot|2013|p=131}} Extensive development testing with design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws addressed most of the issues except airfield noise and the interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach 1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as a twin-engined aircraft above Mach 1.6".{{sfn|Talbot|2013|p=48}}

Situated behind the wing leading edge, the engine intake had a wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two-thirds were diverted and the remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect the intake efficiency{{sfn|Talbot|2013|p=21}} except during pushovers when the boundary layer thickened and caused surging. Wind tunnel testing helped define leading-edge modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Concorde Airframe Design and Development |author=D. Collard |date=April 1999 |journal=Swiss Association of Aeronautical Sciences |publisher=ETH-Zentrum |issue=8092 |place=Zürich |page=6}}<br/>* {{cite journal |author=Collard, D. |title=Concorde Airframe Design and Development |journal=SAE Transactions |series=SAE Technical Paper Series |volume=100 |pages=2620–41 |id=912162 |year=1991 |doi=10.4271/912162 |jstor=44548119}}</ref> Each engine had its own intake and the [[nacelle]]s were paired with a splitter plate between them to minimise the chance of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above {{convert|1.6|Mach}} was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine.{{sfn|Talbot|2013|p=48}}

The air intake design for Concorde's engines was especially critical.<ref>{{cite conference |conference=Aerospace Technology Conference and Exposition |url=https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/912180/ |title=Concorde Propulsion{{snd}}Did we get it right? The Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Engine reviewed |publisher=SAE International |author=Ganley, G. A. |date=September 1991 |doi=10.4271/912180 |series=SAE Technical Paper Series |access-date=27 August 2018 |archive-date=27 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827142352/https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/912180/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The intakes had to slow down supersonic inlet air to subsonic speeds with high-pressure recovery to ensure efficient operation at cruising speed while providing low distortion levels (to prevent engine surge) and maintaining high efficiency for all likely ambient temperatures in cruise. They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off. They also had to provide an alternative path for excess intake of air during engine throttling or shutdowns.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Design and Development of an Air Intake for a Supersonic Transport Aircraft |author1=I. H. Rettie |author2=W. G. E. Lewis |journal=Journal of Aircraft |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=513–21 |date=November–December 1968 |doi=10.2514/3.43977}}</ref> The variable intake features required to meet all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle.{{sfn|Talbot|2013|loc=plate 4}}

As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise.<ref>"An experiment on aerodynamic nozzles at M=2" Reid, Ministry of Aviation, R. & M. No. 3382, p. 4.</ref> Concorde's Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use of a digital processor for intake control. It was the first use of a digital processor with full authority control of an essential system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by BAC's Electronics and Space Systems division after the analogue AICUs (developed by [[Ultra Electronics]]) fitted to the prototype aircraft were found to lack sufficient accuracy.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Page|first1=N.|last2=Dale|first2=R. S.|last3=Nelson|first3=N.|title=Engine intake-control|journal=Flight|date=8 May 1975|pages=742–743|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/1975/1975%20-%200828.PDF|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=26 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126153712/https://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/1975/1975%20-%200828.PDF|url-status=live}}</ref> Ultra Electronics also developed Concorde's thrust-by-wire engine control system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1976/1976%20-%201835.html |title=1976 &#124; 1835 &#124; Flight Archive |publisher=Flightglobal.com |date=4 September 1976 |access-date=15 June 2013 |archive-date=3 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903215336/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1976/1976%20-%201835.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Engine failure causes problems on conventional [[subsonic aircraft]]; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoretically could have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe. Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems, in practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without difficulties.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/concorde-special-the-test-pilot-john-cochrane-172657/ |title=Concorde Special&nbsp;– The test pilot&nbsp;– John Cochrane |work=[[Flight International]] |date=21 October 2003 |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=2 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225635/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/concorde-special-the-test-pilot-john-cochrane-172657/ |url-status=live}}</ref> During an engine failure the required air intake is virtually zero. So, on Concorde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and minimising drag. Concorde pilots were routinely trained to handle double-engine failure.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-63710463.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207015537/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-63710463.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 February 2012 |title=How a Concorde pilot would handle a nightmare failure |newspaper=Birmingham Post |first=Peter |last=Woodman |date=27 July 2000}}</ref> Concorde used [[reheat]] (afterburners) only at take-off and to pass through the [[transonic]] speed range, between Mach 0.95 and 1.7.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A9110958AH&q=Rolls-Royce%2FSnecma+Olympus+593&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921053303/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=A9110958AH&q=Rolls-Royce%2FSnecma+Olympus+593&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes |title=The Rolls Royce/SNECMA Olympus 593 engine operational experience and the lessons learned |conference=European Symposium on the Future of High Speed Air Transport, Strasbourg, France; 6–8 Nov 1989 |author=Ganley, G. |author2=Laviec, G. |year=1990 |pages=73–80 |access-date=30 June 2011}}</ref>

===Heating problems===
Kinetic heating from the high speed boundary layer caused the skin to heat up during supersonic flight.<ref name="harpur176">{{cite journal |url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/3.43926?journalCode=ja |title=Concorde Structural Development |last1=Harpur |first1=N. F. |journal=J. Aircraft |date=22 May 2012 |volume=5 |number=2 |page=176 |via=Aerospace Research Council |doi=10.2514/3.43926}}</ref> Every surface, such as windows and panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight.<ref>Dalton, Alastair. [http://www.scotsman.com/news/transport/supersonic-the-enduring-allure-of-concorde-1-2415088 "Supersonic: The enduring allure of Concorde"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728231129/http://www.scotsman.com/news/transport/supersonic-the-enduring-allure-of-concorde-1-2415088 |date=28 July 2012}}. Scotsman.com, 17 July 2012.</ref> Apart from the engine bay, the hottest part of any supersonic aircraft's structure is the [[nose cone|nose]], due to [[aerodynamic heating]]. [[Hiduminium]] R.R. 58, an aluminium alloy, was used throughout the aircraft because it was relatively cheap and easy to work with. The highest temperature it could sustain over the life of the aircraft was {{convert|127|°C|°F|abbr=on}}, which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3951418 |title=When the SST Is Too Slow… |journal=Science News |first=Jonathan |last=Eberhart |volume=91 |issue=22 |date=3 June 1967 |pages=528–29 |jstor=3951418}}</ref> Concorde went through two cycles of cooling and heating during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude at subsonic speed, then heating up accelerating to cruise speed, finally cooling again when descending and slowing down before heating again in low altitude air before landing. This had to be factored into the metallurgical and [[fatigue (material)|fatigue]] modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb034143 |title=The Concorde takes shape: Test programme and construction proceeding according to schedule |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |page=38 |year=1966 |volume=38 |issue=4 |issn=0002-2667}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1972NASSP.309..631N |volume=309 |title=Fatigue Tests on Big Structure Assemblies of Concorde Aircraft |page=631 |year=1972 |author=N'guyen, V.P. |author2=J.P. Perrais |journal=Advanced Approaches to Fatigue Evaluation. NASA SP-309}}</ref> The airframe was designed for a life of 45,000 flying hours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1967/1967%20-%202250.html|title=Concorde – 1967–2250 – Flight Archive|work=flightglobal.com|access-date=11 July 2013|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090353/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1967/1967%20-%202250.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Concorde - airframe temperatures.svg|thumb|Concorde skin temperatures. They depended on the balance of heat transfer from the boundary layer, heat picked up from solar radiation, heat radiated back from the surface to the atmosphere, and heat transferred to the internal structure.<ref name="harpur176" />]]
As the fuselage heated up it [[Thermal expansion|expanded]] by as much as {{cvt|300|mm}}. The most obvious manifestation of this was a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the [[flight engineer]]'s console and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a retiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their caps in this expanded gap, wedging the cap when the airframe shrank again.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.seattlepi.com/business/147276_pilot07.html |first= James |last= Wallace |title= Those who flew the Concorde will miss it |work= Seattle Post Intelligencer |date= 7 November 2003 |access-date= 25 April 2010 |archive-date= 16 March 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200316023128/https://www.seattlepi.com/business/article/Those-who-flew-the-Concorde-will-miss-it-1129118.php |url-status= live}}</ref> To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a [[Thermal energy storage|heat sink]] for the heat from the air conditioning.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Introduction to Concorde: A brief review of the Concorde and its prospects |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |author=Gedge, G.T. |author2=M.I. Prod |volume= 40 |issue= 3 |year=1993}}</ref> The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight a visor was used to keep high temperature air from flowing over the cockpit skin.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=14}}

Concorde had [[aircraft livery|livery]] restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a [[Anti-flash white|highly reflective white]] paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects. The white finish reduced the skin temperature by {{convert|6|to|11|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1967/1967%20-%200821.html |title=1967 &#124; 0821 &#124; Flight Archive |publisher=Flightglobal.com |access-date=15 June 2013 |archive-date=3 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903215336/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1967/1967%20-%200821.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1996, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception of the wings, in a promotional deal with [[Pepsi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4794332.html |title=Is this the colour of the new millennium? |work=The Independent |date=3 April 1996 |location=UK |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516143325/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4794332.html |archive-date=16 May 2013}}</ref> In this paint scheme, Air France was advised to remain at {{convert|2|Mach|altitude_ft=60000|sigfig=3}} for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Azul contra rojo |work=El Mundo |date=5 April 1996 |first=Cristina |last=Frade}}</ref>

===Structural issues===
[[File:Concorde fuel trim.svg|thumb|upright|Fuel pitch trim]]

Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during turns, causing distortion of the aircraft's structure. There were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by ratio changes between the inboard and outboard [[elevon]] deflections, varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were used at higher speeds.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=78}} The narrow fuselage flexed,<ref name="nova" /> which was apparent to rear passengers looking along the length of the cabin.<ref name="popular">Kocivar, Ben. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lpiMSzja6W4C&lpg=PA142 "Aboard the Concorde SST."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225182355/https://books.google.com/books?id=lpiMSzja6W4C&lpg=PA142 |date=25 February 2021}} ''Popular Science'', October 1973, p. 117.</ref>

When any aircraft passes the [[critical mach]] of its airframe, the [[Center of pressure (fluid mechanics)|centre of pressure]] shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch-down moment on the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The wings were designed to reduce this, but there was still a shift of about {{convert|2|m}}. This could have been countered by the use of [[Trim tab|trim controls]], but at such high speeds, this would have increased drag which would have been unacceptable. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control.<ref name='fueltrim'>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb035344 |title=Flight Refuelling Limited and Concorde: The fuel system aboard is largely their work |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |volume=48 |issue=9 |date=September 1976 |issn=0002-2667 |pages=20–21}}</ref>

===Range===
To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic [[Range (aeronautics)|range]] of any aircraft.<ref>{{cite web|title=Celebrating Concorde|url=http://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde|publisher=British Airways|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=20 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120063601/http://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde|url-status=live}}</ref> This was achieved by a combination of powerplants which were efficient at twice the speed of sound, a slender fuselage with high [[fineness ratio]], and a complex wing shape for a high [[lift-to-drag ratio]]. Only a modest payload could be carried and the aircraft was trimmed without using deflected control surfaces, to avoid the drag that would incur.<ref name='deltawing' /><ref name='fueltrim' />

Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B" model was designed with slightly larger fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with [[leading edge slats]] to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds, with the objective of expanding the range to reach markets in new regions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.concordesst.com/concordeb.html |title=Concorde SST: Concorde B |work=concordesst.com |access-date=13 September 2012 |archive-date=8 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608082935/http://www.concordesst.com/concordeb.html |url-status=live}}</ref> It would have higher thrust engines with noise reducing features and no environmentally-objectionable [[afterburner]]. Preliminary design studies showed that an engine with a 25% gain in efficiency over the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 could be produced.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=N9222540AH&q=Concorde+engines&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921055740/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=N9222540AH&q=Concorde+engines&uid=788858323&setcookie=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2011 |title=Propulsion challenges and opportunities for high-speed transport aircraft |journal=Aeropropulsion |date=1987 |author=Strack, William |pages=437–52 |access-date=30 June 2011}}</ref> This would have given {{convert|500|mi|0|abbr=on}} additional range and a greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Q-0cAAAAIBAJ&pg=6914,3256355 |title=Fuel costs kill Second Generation of Concordes |first=Alison |last=Smale |work=Sarasota Herald-Tribune |date=22 September 1979 |access-date=28 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414125209/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Q-0cAAAAIBAJ&pg=6914,3256355 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Radiation concerns===
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 220
| image1            = ConcordeFuselageSinsheim.jpg
| image_caption1          = External view of Concorde's [[fuselage]]
| image2            = Concorde passenger cabin.jpg
| image_caption2          = [[British Airways]] Concorde interior, after refurbishment during time out of service following the 2000 Air France Concorde crash. The narrow fuselage permitted only a 4-abreast seating with limited headroom.
<!-- Please do not add more images here as it disrupts the spacing -->}}

Concorde's high cruising altitude meant people on board received almost twice the [[flux]] of extraterrestrial [[ionising radiation]] as those travelling on a conventional long-haul flight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishairways.com/travel/healthcosmic/public/en_gb#4 |title=How much radiation might I be exposed to? |publisher=British Airways |access-date=11 January 2010 |archive-date=3 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703115818/http://www.britishairways.com/travel/healthcosmic/public/en_gb#4 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name='concradi'>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb035011 |url=http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do;jsessionid=E0A02B0587619C9A40D5736FCE7B3F02?contentType=Article&hdAction=lnkpdf |title=Electronic safety test replaces radioactive test source |author=Guerin, D.W. |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |year=1973 |volume=45 |issue=4 |issn=0002-2667 |page=10}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Upon Concorde's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin cancer.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=GfUNAAAAIBAJ&pg=2948,4208 |title=Skin cancer danger linked to stratospheric jet planes |newspaper=St. Petersburg Times |date=1 April 1975}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the overall [[equivalent dose]] would normally be less than a conventional flight over the same distance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishairways.com/travel/healthcosmic/public/en_gb |title=Cosmic radiation |publisher=British Airways |access-date=11 January 2010 |archive-date=3 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703115818/http://www.britishairways.com/travel/healthcosmic/public/en_gb |url-status=live}}</ref> Unusual [[Solar variation|solar activity]] might lead to an increase in incident radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Arctowski |first=Henryk |year=1940 |title=On Solar Faculae and Solar Constant Variations |pmid=16588370 |volume=26 |issue=6 |pmc=1078196 |pages=406–11 |doi=10.1073/pnas.26.6.406 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/26/6/406.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903215336/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/26/6/406.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|bibcode=1940PNAS...26..406A|doi-access=free}}</ref> To prevent incidents of excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of increase or decrease of radiation.<!--<ref name='concradi' />--> If the radiation level became too high, Concorde would descend below {{convert|47000|ft|m}}.<ref name='concradi'/>

===Cabin pressurisation===
[[Aircraft cabin|Airliner cabins]] were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to {{convert|6000|-|8,000|ft}} elevation. Concorde's [[Cabin pressurization|pressurisation]] was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, {{convert|6000|ft|m}}.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/occmed/17.2.47 |title=Human Factors in the Concorde |journal=Occupational Medicine |last=Hepburn |first=A.N. |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=1967 |pages=47–51 |pmid=5648731}}</ref> Concorde's maximum cruising altitude was {{convert|60000|ft|m}}; subsonic airliners typically cruise below {{convert|44000|ft|m}}.{{sfn|Schrader|1989|p=64}}

A sudden [[Uncontrolled decompression|reduction in cabin pressure]] is hazardous to all passengers and crew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Flight Training Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioRTAAAAMAAJ |year=1980 |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Transportation, [[Federal Aviation Administration]], Flight Standards Service, 1980 |page=250 |access-date=15 March 2016 |archive-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624192910/https://books.google.com/books?id=ioRTAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Above {{convert|50000|ft|m}}, a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "[[time of useful consciousness]]" up to 10–15 seconds for a conditioned athlete.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theairlinepilots.com/medical/decompressionandhypoxia.htm |title=Cabin Decompression and Hypoxia |first=Mark |last=Wolff |publisher=PIA Air Safety Publication |date=6 January 2006 |access-date=29 January 2010 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316023131/https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/aeromedical/decompressionandhypoxia.php |url-status=dead}}</ref> At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic [[emergency oxygen system|emergency oxygen masks]] installed on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach,{{sfn|Nunn|1993|p=341}} a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and noting Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a rapid descent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library%5CrgPolicy.nsf/0/90AA20C2F35901D98625713F0056B1B8?OpenDocument |title=Interim Policy on High Altitude Cabin Decompression&nbsp;– Relevant Past Practice |first=Steve |last=Happenny |publisher=Federal Aviation Administration |date=24 March 2006 |access-date=22 March 2010 |archive-date=22 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022084743/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgPolicy.nsf/0/90AA20C2F35901D98625713F0056B1B8?OpenDocument |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Continuous positive airway pressure]] would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks.{{sfn|Nunn|1993|p=341}}

===Flight characteristics===
[[File:Concorde at Baginton - geograph.org.uk - 156846.jpg|thumb|alt=A BA Concorde, wheels and nose-cone lowered as if for landing, with a crowd of spectators in the foreground|Concorde performing a low-level fly-by at an air show in August 1981]]

While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from Paris to New York (seven hours from New York to Paris), the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruising altitude of {{convert|18300|m|ft|sigfig=3}} and an average cruise speed of {{convert|2.02|Mach|altitude_ft=60000|sigfig=3}}, more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft.{{sfn|Schrader|1989|p=64}}

With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about {{convert|56000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, Concorde had exclusive use of dedicated oceanic airways, or "tracks", separate from the [[North Atlantic Tracks]], the routes used by other aircraft to cross the Atlantic. Due to the significantly less variable nature of high altitude winds compared to those at standard cruising altitudes, these dedicated SST tracks had fixed co-ordinates, unlike the standard routes at lower altitudes, whose co-ordinates are replotted twice daily based on forecast weather patterns ([[jetstream]]s).{{sfn|Orlebar|2004|p=84}} Concorde would also be cleared in a {{convert|15000|ft|m|adj=on|sigfig=3}} block, allowing for a slow climb from {{convert|45000|to|60000|ft|m|abbr=on}} during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased.<ref>[[Shanwick Oceanic Control|Prestwick Oceanic Area Control Centre]]: Manual of Air Traffic Services (Part 2). [[National Air Traffic Services|NATS]]</ref> In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient ''cruise-climb'' flight profile following take-off.{{sfn|Orlebar|2004|p=92}}

The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher [[angle of attack]] at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low-pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift.{{sfn|Orlebar|2004|p=44}} The normal landing speed was {{convert|170|mph|km/h|0}}.{{sfn|Schrader|1989|p=84}} Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the backside of the [[Parasitic drag|drag force]] curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.{{sfn|Orlebar|2004|p=110}}

{{blockquote|text=The only thing that tells you that you're moving is that occasionally when you're flying over the subsonic aeroplanes you can see all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost appearing to go backwards, I mean you are going 800 miles an hour or thereabouts faster than they are. The aeroplane was an absolute delight to fly, it handled beautifully. And remember we are talking about an aeroplane that was being designed in the late 1950s&nbsp;– mid-1960s. I think it's absolutely amazing and here we are, now in the 21st century, and it remains unique.|sign=John Hutchinson, Concorde Captain|source='The World's Greatest Airliner' (2003)<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9uMm16fUwoQ| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624220847/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9uMm16fUwoQ| archive-date=2014-06-24 | url-status=dead|title=Concorde – The World's Greatest Airliner Part 3/4|date=19 January 2013|work=YouTube}}</ref>}}

===Brakes and undercarriage===
{{multiple image
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 |image_caption1= Concorde main undercarriage
 |image2= Concorde tail gear.JPG
 |image_caption2= Tail bumper of Concorde G-BOAG at the [[Museum of Flight]] in Seattle
<!-- Please do not add more images here as it disrupts the spacing -->
}}

Because of the way Concorde's delta-wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong and tall to allow for the angle of attack at low speed. At [[Rotation (aviation)|rotation]], Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation, the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the high airspeed at rotation ({{convert|199|knot|disp=or}} [[indicated airspeed]]), this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a way that was initially unexpected during the development and required a major redesign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iasa.com.au/folders/Safety_Issues/others/concordespacer.html |title=The real story of Flight 4590: Special Investigation |publisher=iasa.com.au |date=13 May 2001 |first=David |last=Rose |access-date=26 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207121508/http://www.iasa.com.au/folders/Safety_Issues/others/concordespacer.html |archive-date=7 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the high angle needed at rotation, a small set of wheels was added aft to prevent [[tailstrike]]s. The main undercarriage units swing towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also needed to contract in length telescopically before swinging to clear each other when stowed.<ref>Brooklands Museum</ref>

The four main wheel tyres<!-- please leave British spelling of "tyres" on British/French aircraft ---> on each [[bogie]] unit are inflated to {{convert|232|psi|kPa|abbr=on}}. The twin-wheel nose undercarriage retracts forwards and its tyres are inflated to a pressure of {{convert|191|psi|kPa|abbr=on}}, and the wheel assembly carries a spray deflector to prevent standing water from being thrown up into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to a maximum speed on the runway of {{convert|250|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref>After the Paris accident in 2000 Concorde was fitted with improved tyres uprated to {{cvt|290|mph}}.</ref>

The high take-off speed of {{convert|250|mph|km/h}} required Concorde to have upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has [[anti-lock braking system|anti-skid braking]]&nbsp;to prevent the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied. The brakes, developed by [[Dunlop Rubber|Dunlop]], were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Design and Engineering of Carbon Brakes |author=Stimson, I.L. |author2=R. Fisher |volume=294 |issue=1411 |date=January 1980 |pages=583–90 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |jstor=36383 |bibcode=1980RSPTA.294..583S |doi=10.1098/rsta.1980.0068|s2cid=122300832}}</ref> The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight-saving of {{convert|1200|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=118}} Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow, brake temperatures were around {{convert|300|-|400|°C|°F|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. Landing Concorde required a minimum of {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=out}} runway length; the shortest runway Concorde ever landed on carrying commercial passengers was [[Cardiff Airport]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Concorde takes off from Cardiff|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/3118506.stm|publisher=BBC|access-date=19 January 2016|date=18 September 2003|archive-date=23 July 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040723172418/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/3118506.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Concorde G-AXDN (101) made its final landing at [[Duxford Aerodrome]] on 20 August 1977, which had a runway length of just {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=out}} at the time.<ref>{{Citation |title=Concorde 101 {{!}} On board with a Test Engineer | date=27 April 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nh3ty6wp6qQ |language=en |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Concorde G-AXDN (101) |url=https://www.heritageconcorde.com/g-axdn-101 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=heritage-concorde |language=en}}</ref> This was the last aircraft to land at Duxford before the runway was shortened later that year.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 August 1977 |title=Concorde lands safely at Duxford |work=Saffron Walden Weekly News |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/saffron-walden-weekly-news-concorde-land/136696156/ |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>

===Droop nose===
{{Main|Droop nose (aeronautics)}}

Concorde's drooping nose, developed by [[Marshall Aerospace|Marshall's of Cambridge]],<ref name="Concorde nose">{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%201503.html |title=Droop nose |work=Flight International |date=12 August 1971 |pages=257–258 |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204172010/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%201503.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> enabled the aircraft to switch from being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency during flight, to not obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the ability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining.<ref name="Concorde nose" />

[[File:Concorde landing Farnborough Fitzgerald.jpg|thumb|left|alt=a BAC-liveried aircraft a few feet above a runway, with wheels down |Concorde landing at [[Farnborough Aerodrome|Farnborough]] in September 1974, with dropping nose lowered]]
A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the standard horizontal position for taxiing and take-off. Following take-off and after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Prior to landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5° below horizontal for maximal visibility. Upon landing the nose was raised to the 5° position to avoid the possibility of damage due to collision with ground vehicles, and then raised fully before engine shutdown to prevent pooling of internal condensation within the [[radome]] seeping down into the aircraft's [[Pitot tube|pitot]]/[[Air data computer|ADC]] system probes.<ref name="Concorde nose" />

The US [[Federal Aviation Administration]] had objected to the restrictive visibility of the visor used on the first two prototype Concordes, which had been designed before a suitable high-temperature window glass had become available, and thus requiring alteration before the FAA would permit Concorde to serve US airports. This led to the redesigned visor used in the production and the four pre-production aircraft (101, 102, 201, and 202).{{sfn|Owen|2001|p=84}} The nose window and visor glass, needed to endure temperatures in excess of {{convert|100|°C|°F|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} at supersonic flight, were developed by [[Triplex Safety Glass|Triplex]].<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1968/1968%20-%202105.html "Triplex in Concorde: The story behind the film"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204172615/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1968/1968%20-%202105.html |date=4 February 2012}}. Flightglobal.com, 1968. Retrieved 7 June 2011.</ref>
{{clear left}}

==Operational history==
{{Main|Concorde operational history}}
{{see also|Concorde histories and aircraft on display}}

===First flights and routes flown===
Concorde began scheduled flights with [[British Airways]] and [[Air France]] on 21 January 1976.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb035500 |title=Concorde in Service |author=Strang, Dr. W.J |author2=R. McKinley |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |volume=50 |issue=12 |year=1978 |issn=0002-2667 |pages=2–10|author-link = Bill Strang (engineer)}}</ref>

Concorde operated on various routes, including London–Bahrain, London–New York, London–Miami, and London–Barbados (with British Airways), and Paris–Dakar–Rio de Janeiro, Paris–Azores–Caracas, Paris–New York, and Paris–Washington (with Air France), but faced challenges such as bans and low profitability. Later, British Airways repositioned Concorde as a super-premium service and it then became profitable.<ref>{{cite web |title=The inside story of how BA made more than £500m profit from Concorde |date=February 2021|url=https://www.key.aero/article/inside-story-how-ba-made-more-ps500m-profit-concorde#:~:text=The%20result%20of%20this%20change,billion%20pounds%20profit%20for%20BA.%E2%80%9D}}</ref>

===Retirement===
In 2003, Air France and British Airways announced the retirement of Concorde, due to rising maintenance costs, low passenger numbers following the [[Air France Flight 4590|25 July 2000 crash]], and the slump in air travel following the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2934257.stm |title=Concorde grounded for good |work=BBC News |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=10 April 2003 |archive-date=4 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804154034/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2934257.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Air France flew its last commercial flight on 30 May 2003<ref>{{cite news |title=Concorde makes Final Flight from Paris to New York |publisher=Associated Press|date=30 May 2003 |first=Laurent |last=Lemel}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2952594.stm |title=French Concorde bids adieu |work=BBC News |date=31 May 2003 |access-date=15 January 2010 |archive-date=24 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924045537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2952594.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> with British Airways retiring its Concorde fleet on 24 October 2003.<ref name="jlfin">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11477-2003Oct24.html |title=Final Concorde flight lands at Heathrow |first=Jill |last=Lawless |agency=Associated Press |date=26 October 2003 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=13 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513093402/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11477-2003Oct24.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Operators===
* [[Air France]]
* [[British Airways]]
* [[Braniff International Airways#Concorde SST|Braniff International Airways]] operated Concordes at subsonic speed between [[Dulles International Airport]] and [[Dallas Fort Worth International Airport]], from January 1979 until May 1980, using its own flight and cabin crew, under its own insurance and operator's license. Stickers containing a US registration were placed over the French and British registrations of the aircraft during each rotation, and a placard was temporarily placed behind the cockpit to signify the operator and operator's license in command.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.concordesst.com/history/events/braniff.html|title=Concorde SST : Braniff Concorde Services|access-date=15 June 2021|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507044413/http://www.concordesst.com/history/events/braniff.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Singapore Airlines]] had its livery placed on the left side of Concorde G-BOAD, and held a joint marketing agreement which saw Singapore insignias on the cabin fittings, as well as the airline's "Singapore Girl" stewardesses jointly sharing cabin duty with British Airways flight attendants. All flight crew, operations, and insurances remained solely under British Airways however, and at no point did Singapore Airlines operate Concorde services under its own operator's certification, nor wet-lease an aircraft. This arrangement initially only lasted for three flights, conducted between 9&ndash;13 December 1977; it later resumed on 24 January 1979, and operated until 1 November 1980. The Singapore livery was used on G-BOAD from 1977 to 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.concordesst.com/history/events/sia.html|title=Concorde SST : Singapore Concorde Services|access-date=31 October 2006|archive-date=19 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819231821/http://www.concordesst.com/history/events/sia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Accidents and incidents==

===Air France Flight 4590===
{{main|Air France Flight 4590}}

On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSC, crashed in [[Gonesse]], France, after departing from [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] en route to [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] in New York City, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew members on board as well as four people on the ground.<!-- per MOS:NUMERAL, comparable quantities should be all spelled out or all in figures --> It was the only fatal accident involving Concorde. This crash also damaged Concorde's reputation and caused both British Airways and Air France to temporarily ground their fleets.<ref name = "upi sep2001"/> According to the official investigation conducted by the [[Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety]] (BEA), the crash was caused by a metallic strip that had fallen from a [[Continental Airlines]] [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]] that had taken off minutes earlier. This fragment punctured a tyre<!-- please leave British spelling of "tyres" on British/French aircraft ---> on Concorde's left main wheel bogie during take-off. The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank, which caused a fuel leak and led to a fire. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and with engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain altitude or speed. The aircraft entered a rapid pitch-up then a sudden descent, rolling left and crashing tail-low into the Hôtelissimo Les Relais Bleus Hotel in Gonesse.{{sfn|Endres|2001|pp=110–13}} <!-- Further details belong at [[Air France Flight 4590]]. -->

Before the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world with zero passenger deaths, but there had been two prior non-fatal accidents and a rate of tyre damage 30 times higher than subsonic airliners from 1995 to 2000.<ref name=AAIB89>{{cite book|url=https://www.gov.uk/aaib-reports/6-1989-concorde-102-g-boaf-12-april-1989|title=Report No: 6/1989. Report on the accident to Concorde 102, G-BOAF over the Tasman Sea, about 140 nm east of Sydney, Australia on 12 April 1989|year=1989|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201183536/https://www.gov.uk/aaib-reports/6-1989-concorde-102-g-boaf-12-april-1989|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=AAIB93>{{cite book|url=https://www.gov.uk/aaib-reports/5-1993-british-aircraft-corporation-snias-concorde-102-g-boab-21-march-1992|title=Report No: 5/1993. Report on the accident to British Aircraft Corporation/SNIAS Concorde 102, G-BOAB, over the North Atlantic, on 21 March 1992|year=1993|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=1 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201175323/https://www.gov.uk/aaib-reports/5-1993-british-aircraft-corporation-snias-concorde-102-g-boab-21-march-1992|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82753359.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105233430/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82753359.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2013 |title=Human Factor Issues Emerge from Concorde Crash Investigation |journal=Air Safety Week |date=11 February 2002 |access-date=9 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=BEAjan2002>{{cite web |url= https://bea.aero/uploads/tx_elydbrapports/f-sc000725a.pdf |title=Accident on 25 July 2000 at La Patte d'Oie in Gonesse (95) to the Concorde registered F-BTSC operated by Air France |publisher=[[Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety|French Bureau Enquêtes-Accidents (BEA)]] |date= January 2002 |pages=146–147}}</ref> Safety improvements made after the crash included more secure electrical controls, [[Kevlar]] lining on the fuel tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1442061.stm |title=Concorde's safety modifications |work=BBC News |date=17 July 2001 |access-date=25 April 2010 |archive-date=4 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304001950/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1442061.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> The first flight with the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot [[Mike Bannister]]. In a flight of 3 hours 20 minutes over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and {{convert|60000|ft|m|abbr=on}} then returned to [[RAF Brize Norton]]. The test flight, intended to resemble the London–New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/concorde-completes-successful-test-flight |title=Concorde Completes Successful Test Flight |publisher=Fox News |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=17 July 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209175121/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,29732,00.html |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The first flight with passengers after the 2000 grounding landed shortly before the [[September 11 attacks|World Trade Center attacks]] in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA employees.<ref name = "upi sep2001">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/2001/09/11/Concorde-100-BA-staff-fly-over-Atlantic/7180000071087/|title=Concorde, 100 BA staff fly over Atlantic|work=United Press International|date=11 September 2001|access-date=19 March 2017|archive-date=21 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321084056/http://www.upi.com/Archives/2001/09/11/Concorde-100-BA-staff-fly-over-Atlantic/7180000071087/|url-status=live}}</ref> Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]] greeted the passengers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=efkjAAAAIBAJ&pg=3487,4067442 |title=Concorde returns |work=Ocala Star-Banner |date=7 November 2001 |first=Timothy |last=Williams |access-date=28 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414095135/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=efkjAAAAIBAJ&pg=3487,4067442 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1641466.stm |title=Concorde 'back where she belongs' |work=BBC News |date=6 November 2001 |access-date=14 January 2010 |archive-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219002109/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1641466.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Other accidents and incidents===
[[File:G-BOAF rudder damage.jpg|thumb|alt=Rear end of aircraft G-BOAF, in BA livery with a large chunk missing. The tail-strike wheel is lowered. |Damage to Concorde rudder after an accident in 1989]]

On 12 April 1989, Concorde G-BOAF, on a chartered flight from [[Christchurch]], New Zealand, to [[Sydney]], Australia, suffered a structural failure at supersonic speed. As the aircraft was climbing and accelerating through Mach 1.7, a "thud" was heard. The crew did not notice any handling problems, and they assumed the thud they heard was a minor [[Compressor stall|engine surge]]. No further difficulty was encountered until descent through {{convert|40,000|ft|m}} at Mach 1.3, when a vibration was felt throughout the aircraft, lasting two to three minutes. Most of the upper rudder had separated from the aircraft at this point. Aircraft handling was unaffected, and the aircraft made a safe landing at Sydney. The UK's [[Air Accidents Investigation Branch]] (AAIB) concluded that the skin of the rudder had been separating from the rudder structure over a period before the accident due to moisture seepage past the [[rivet]]s in the rudder. Production staff had not followed proper procedures during an earlier modification of the rudder; the procedures were difficult to adhere to.<ref name=AAIB89 /> The aircraft was repaired and returned to service.<ref name=AAIB89 />

On 21 March 1992, G-BOAB while flying British Airways Flight 001 from London to New York, also suffered a structural failure at supersonic speed. While cruising at Mach 2, at approximately {{convert|53,000|ft|m}}, the crew heard a "thump". No difficulties in handling were noticed, and no instruments gave any irregular indications. This crew also suspected there had been a minor engine surge. One hour later, during descent and while decelerating below Mach 1.4, a sudden "severe" vibration began throughout the aircraft.<ref name=AAIB93 /> The vibration worsened when power was added to the No 2 engine. The crew shut down the No 2 engine and made a successful landing in New York, noting that increased rudder control was needed to keep the aircraft on its intended approach course. Again, the skin had separated from the structure of the rudder, which led to most of the upper rudder detaching in flight. The AAIB concluded that repair materials had leaked into the structure of the rudder during a recent repair, weakening the bond between the skin and the structure of the rudder, leading to it breaking up in flight. The large size of the repair had made it difficult to keep repair materials out of the structure, and prior to this accident, the severity of the effect of these repair materials on the structure and skin of the rudder was not appreciated.<ref name=AAIB93 />

The 2010 trial involving [[Continental Airlines]] over the crash of Flight 4590 established that from 1976 until Flight 4590 there had been 57 tyre failures involving Concordes during takeoffs, including a near-crash at [[Dulles International Airport]] on 14 June 1979 involving Air France Flight 54 where a tyre blowout pierced the plane's fuel tank and damaged a left engine and electrical cables, with the loss of two of the craft's hydraulic systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spectator.org/print/39656|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328150841/http://spectator.org/print/39656|url-status=dead|first=Joseph A. |last=Harriss |date=May 2010 |archive-date=28 March 2016 |title= What Price Supersonic Grandeur? |work=The American Spectator}}</ref>

==Aircraft on display==
{{main|Concorde histories and aircraft on display}}

Twenty Concorde aircraft were built: two prototypes, two pre-production aircraft, two development aircraft and 14 production aircraft for commercial service. With the exception of two of the production aircraft, all are preserved, mostly in museums. One aircraft was scrapped in 1994, and another was destroyed in the [[Air France Flight 4590]] crash in 2000.

==Comparable aircraft==
===Tu-144===
[[File:Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum.jpg|thumb|Concorde (left) and Tu-144 in [[Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum|Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim]]]]
[[File:Boeing 2707-300 3-view.svg|thumb|[[Boeing 2707]] 3-view diagram]]
[[File:Lockheed L-2000 mockup.jpg|thumb|[[Lockheed L-2000]] mockup]]

Concorde was one of only two supersonic jetliner models to operate commercially; the other was the Soviet-built [[Tupolev Tu-144]], which operated in the late 1970s.{{sfn|Gordon|Rigmant|2005|p={{page needed|date=July 2023}}}}<ref name="Melik-Karamov 2000">{{Cite web |last=Melik-Karamov [Мелик-Карамов] |first=Vitaly [Виталий] |url=http://www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/200003/03-26-31.html |title=Life and Death of the Tu-144, [Жизнь и смерть самолёта Ту-144] |publisher=Flame [Огонёк] |series=No. 3 |date=January 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001115093200/http://www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/200003/03-26-31.html |archive-date=15 November 2000}}</ref> The Tu-144 was nicknamed "Concordski" by Western European journalists for its outward similarity to Concorde.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912014,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215105535/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912014,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 December 2008 |title=Soviet Union: Christening the Concordski |magazine=Time |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=14 November 1977}}</ref> [[Soviet industrial espionage of Concorde|Soviet espionage efforts]] allegedly stole Concorde blueprints to assist in the design of the Tu-144.{{sfn|Gordon|Rigmant|2005}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} As a result of a rushed development programme, the first Tu-144 prototype was substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both were cruder than Concorde. The Tu-144''S'' had a significantly shorter range than Concorde. Jean Rech, Sud Aviation, attributed this to two things,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hans-Reichel|first1=Michael|title=Subsonic versus Supersonic Business Jets – Full Concept Comparison considering Technical, Environmental and Economic Aspects|date=2012|publisher=diplom.de|isbn=978-3-8428-2809-4|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5eNoAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145650/https://books.google.com/books?id=5eNoAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> a very heavy powerplant with an intake twice as long as that on Concorde, and [[Turbofan#Low-bypass turbofan|low-bypass turbofan engines]] with too high a bypass ratio which needed afterburning for cruise. The aircraft had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler wing design. The Tu-144 required [[drogue parachute|braking parachutes]] to land.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4091EFB3954127B93C4AB178ED85F458785F9 |title=Soviet SST, in Its First Flight to the West, Arrives in Paris for Air Show |first=John L |last=Hess |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=26 May 1971 |archive-date=9 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109055805/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4091EFB3954127B93C4AB178ED85F458785F9 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Tu-144 had two crashes, one at the [[1973 Paris Air Show Tu-144 crash|1973 Paris Air Show]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2JwMAAAAIBAJ&pg=4974,3987586 |title=Soviet SST stalls, dives into towns |first=George |last=Deruaz |work=St. Petersburg Times |date=4 June 1973 |access-date=30 June 2011}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DBsfAAAAIBAJ&pg=3185,500285 |title=Pride of Soviet air fleet explodes during exhibition |work=Sarasota Journal |date=4 June 1973 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414095531/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=DBsfAAAAIBAJ&pg=3185,500285 |url-status=live}}</ref> and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May 1978.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Fisher |date=27 October 1978 |work=Los Angeles Times |url= https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/659730132.html?dids=659730132:659730132&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Oct+27%2C+1978&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=Russia+Confirms+Crash+of+Supersonic+Airliner+in+Test&pqatl=google |title=Russia confirms crash of Supersonic Airliner in test |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=5 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105042737/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/659730132.html?dids=659730132:659730132&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Oct+27%2C+1978&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=Russia+Confirms+Crash+of+Supersonic+Airliner+in+Test&pqatl=google |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19780523-1 |title=ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev 144D CCCP-77111 Yegoryevsk |publisher=Flight Safety Foundation |access-date=1 July 2011 |archive-date=28 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128172130/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19780523-1 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Passenger service commenced in November 1977, but after the 1978 crash the aircraft was taken out of passenger service after only 55 flights, which carried an average of 58 passengers. The Tu-144 had an inherently unsafe structural design as a consequence of an automated production method chosen to simplify and speed up manufacturing.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fridlyander |first=Iosif |trans-title=Sad Epic of the Tu-144 |trans-journal=Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences |date=2002 |language=ru |url=http://vivovoco.rsl.ru/VV/JOURNAL/VRAN/02_01/FRID.HTM |title=Печальная эпопея Ту-144 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928042757/http://vivovoco.rsl.ru/VV/JOURNAL/VRAN/02_01/FRID.HTM |archive-date=28 September 2011 |journal=Вестник Российской Академии Наук |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=70–78}}</ref> The Tu-144 program was cancelled by the Soviet government on 1 July 1983.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |author=Gostar den Daas |date=May 2012 |title=Aircraft Factsheets: Tu-144 |url=http://www.aviamagazine.com/factsheets/aircraft/tu144/index.aspx |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=AviaMagazine.com |archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603030558/https://www.aviamagazine.com/factsheets/aircraft/tu144/index.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

===SST and others===
{{further|Supersonic transport}}
The main competing designs for the US government-funded supersonic transport (SST) were the [[swing-wing]] [[Boeing 2707]] and the compound [[delta wing]] [[Lockheed L-2000]]. These were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1964/1964%20-%200377.html |title=The United States SST Contenders |work=Flight International |date=13 February 1964 |pages=234–35 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021071648/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1964/1964%20-%200377.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Winchester|2005a|p=84}} The Boeing 2707 was selected for development. Concorde first flew in 1969, the year Boeing began building 2707 mockups after changing the design to a cropped delta wing; the cost of this and other changes helped to kill the project.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D11F6395F127A93C7A9178AD85F4D8685F9 |title=The Russians Lead With the SST... |first=Richard D |last=Lyons |work=The New York Times |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=5 January 1969 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103103556/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D11F6395F127A93C7A9178AD85F4D8685F9 |url-status=live}}</ref> The operation of US military aircraft such as the Mach 3+ [[North American XB-70 Valkyrie]] prototypes and [[Convair B-58 Hustler]] strategic nuclear bomber had shown that sonic booms were capable of reaching the ground,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/574189232.html?dids=574189232:574189232&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&date=Dec+19%2C+1961&author=&pub=Chicago+Daily+Tribune&desc=B-58%27s+SONIC+BOOM+RATTLES+KENTUCKIANS&pqatl=google |title=B-58's Sonic Boom Rattles Kentuckians |work=Chicago Daily Tribune |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=19 December 1961 |archive-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725103200/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/574189232.html?dids=574189232:574189232&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI&date=Dec+19%2C+1961&author=&pub=Chicago+Daily+Tribune&desc=B-58%27s+SONIC+BOOM+RATTLES+KENTUCKIANS&pqatl=google |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the experience from the [[Oklahoma City sonic boom tests]] led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled its SST project in 1971 having spent more than $1&nbsp;billion without any aircraft being built.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,944291,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221203832/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,944291,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 December 2008 |title=The Nation: Showdown on the SST |magazine=Time |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=29 March 1971}}</ref>

==Impact==

===Environmental===
Before Concorde's flight trials, developments in the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. Opposition to Concorde's noise, particularly on the east coast of the United States,<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918012,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826161505/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918012,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 August 2009 |title=Here Comes the Concorde, Maybe |magazine=Time |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=16 February 1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jalc42&div=28&id=&page= |title=Legal and Environmental ramifications of the Concorde |journal=Journal of Air Law and Commerce |volume=42 |page=433 |first=Robert M. |last=Allen |publisher=J. Air L. & Com. |access-date=30 June 2011 |year=1976 |archive-date=11 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611171447/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals%2Fjalc42&div=28&id=&page= |url-status=live}}</ref> forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=N7422661AH&q=Concorde+noise&uid=788872723&setcookie=yes |title=Recent studies into Concorde noise reduction |author=Hock, R. |author2=R. Hawkins |journal=AGARD Noise Mech |date=1974 |page=14 |access-date=30 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011050826/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=N7422661AH&q=Concorde+noise&uid=788872723&setcookie=yes |archive-date=11 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jalc43&div=45&id=&page= |title=Aircraft Noise: Federal pre-emption of Local Control, Concorde and other recent cases |first=Joshua A. |last=Muss |journal=J. Air L. & Com. |volume=43 |page=753 |date=1977 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608195914/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals%2Fjalc43&div=45&id=&page= |url-status=live}}</ref> Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde was quieter than expected,<ref name=nova /> partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas.{{sfn|Endres|2001|p=90}} Even before commercial flights started, it had been claimed that Concorde was quieter than many other aircraft.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1108/eb035013 |title=Reducing noise with type 28 nozzle |journal=Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology |year=1973 |volume=45 |issue=4 |page=14}}</ref> In 1971, BAC's technical director stated, "It is certain on present evidence and calculations that in the airport context, production Concordes will be no worse than aircraft now in service and will in fact be better than many of them."<ref>''Aviation Daily'', 18 February 1971, p. 263</ref>

Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other [[Ozone depletion|ozone-depleting]] chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the [[ozone layer]] at the [[stratosphere|stratospheric]] altitudes it cruised.<ref name='emissions'>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.270.5233.70 |title=Emission Measurements of the Concorde Supersonic Aircraft in the Lower Stratosphere |author=Fahey, D. W. |journal=Science |year=1995 |volume=270 |page=70 |issue=5233 |bibcode=1995Sci...270...70F |s2cid=97881119 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible.<ref name='emissions' /> In 1995, David Fahey, of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1995/10/08/increase-in-supersonic-jets-could-be-threat-to-ozone-u-2-plane-trails-concorde-studies-exhaust-particles/|title=Increase in supersonic jets could be threat to ozone|newspaper=The Baltimore Sun|date=8 October 1995|author=Newsday|access-date=24 August 2012|archive-date=1 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901085907/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1995-10-08/news/1995281022_1_ozone-sulfur-exhaust-particles|url-status=live}}</ref>

Concorde's technical leap forward boosted the public's understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/cjel5&div=9&id=&page= |title=Decision Analysis in Environmental Decisionmaking: Improving the Concorde Balance |journal=Columbia Journal of Environmental Law |volume=5 |page=156 |first=Jon |last=Anderson |publisher=HeinOnline |date=1978 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902184900/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals%2Fcjel5&div=9&id=&page= |url-status=live}}</ref> In France, the use of [[noise barrier|acoustic fencing]] alongside [[TGV]] tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://esemag.com/archives/essay-train-a-grande-vitesse-causes-distress/ |title=Train à grande vitesse causes distress |date=November 2001 |work=Environmental Science and Engineering Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119214555/https://esemag.com/archives/essay-train-a-grande-vitesse-causes-distress/|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the UK, the [[Campaign to Protect Rural England|CPRE]] has issued [[Tranquillity#Mapping tranquillity|tranquillity maps]] since 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpre.org.uk/campaigns/landscape/tranquillity/national-and-regional-tranquillity-maps |title=National and regional tranquillity maps |publisher=Campaign to Protect Rural England |access-date=25 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914025157/http://www.cpre.org.uk/campaigns/landscape/tranquillity/national-and-regional-tranquillity-maps |archive-date=14 September 2010}}</ref>

===Public perception===
[[File:ConcordeBG.jpg|thumb|alt=BA-liveried Concorde leading a V-formation with seven of the Red Arrow's Gnat aircraft in view. The Gnats are trailing blue and white smoke|Parade flight with the [[Red Arrows]] at the Queen's [[Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Golden Jubilee]], June 2002]]

Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Business-and-Industry/24962872 |title=British Airways Concorde is expected to begin flying passengers again in next 6 weeks |work=The Dallas Morning News |date=23 August 2001 |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523161433/http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Business-and-Industry/24962872 |url-status=live}}</ref> As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional [[flypast]]s at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the [[Red Arrows]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62676656.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616203834/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62676656.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 June 2012 |title=Red Arrows fly into Scotland |work=Daily Record |date=12 June 2000 |access-date=30 June 2011}}<br/>* {{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3297816/Million-turn-out-to-crown-Queens-Jubilee.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3297816/Million-turn-out-to-crown-Queens-Jubilee.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Million turn out to crown Queen's Jubilee |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=1 April 2010 |date=4 June 2002}}</ref> On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1444939/Chaos-fear-at-Concorde-farewell.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1444939/Chaos-fear-at-Concorde-farewell.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Chaos fear at Concorde farewell |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Sandra |last=Laville |date=24 October 2003 |location=London}}</ref>

The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm |title=Farewell to Concorde |work=BBC News |access-date=15 January 2010 |date=15 August 2007 |archive-date=13 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413081030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In France it was known as "le Concorde" due to "le", the [[definite article]],<ref name="OxLangFrGlos">[http://www.oxfordlanguagedictionaries.com/Public/PublicResources.html?direction=b-fr-en&sp=S/oldo/resources/fr/French-supp-05.xml Oxford Language Dictionaries Online&nbsp;– French Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612022620/http://www.oxfordlanguagedictionaries.com/Public/PublicResources.html?direction=b-fr-en |date=12 June 2010}}: Glossary of Grammatical Terms</ref> used in [[French grammar]] to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft,<ref>[http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/academie9/le Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201121348/http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/academie9/le |date=1 December 2009}}&nbsp;– Définition de LE, LA: article défini, II.3</ref> and the capital being used to distinguish a [[proper name]] from a [[common noun]] of the same spelling.<ref name="OxLangFrGlos" /><ref>[http://grammaire.reverso.net/5_2_01_la_majuscule_dans_les_noms_propres.shtml Reverso Dictionnaire: La majuscule dans les noms propres] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613103504/http://grammaire.reverso.net/5_2_01_la_majuscule_dans_les_noms_propres.shtml |date=13 June 2010}} ("Capital letters within proper names")</ref> In French, the common noun ''concorde'' means "agreement, harmony, or peace".{{Refn|''concorde'' ''s.f.'' concord, unity, harmony, peace.{{sfn|Ferrar|1980|p=114}} |group=N}} Concorde's pilots and British Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishairways.com/travel/concvidhome/public/en_gb |title=Celebrate Concorde: videos |publisher=British Airways |access-date=15 January 2010 |archive-date=14 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414125204/http://www.britishairways.com/travel/concvidhome/public/en_gb |url-status=live}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ro3QVMCG-aY |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428142911/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ro3QVMCG-aY |archive-date=28 April 2007 |url-status=dead |title=Documentary of British Airways Concorde introduction |publisher=YouTube}}</ref>

In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC (through ''[[The Culture Show]]'') and the [[Design Museum]]. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the [[Mini]], [[mini skirt]], [[Jaguar E-Type]] car, the [[Tube map]], the [[World Wide Web]], the [[Red telephone box|K2 red telephone box]] and the [[Supermarine Spitfire]].<ref name="Concorde beats">{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/concorde-beats-tube-map-to-become-britains-favourite-design-6106516.html |title=Concorde beats Tube map to become Britain's favourite design |first=Louise |last=Jury |newspaper=The Independent |location=London |date=16 March 2006 |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=29 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029114811/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/concorde-beats-tube-map-to-become-britains-favourite-design-6106516.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Long list unveiled for national vote on public's favourite example of Great British Design |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/01_january/27/culture.shtml|agency=BBC|date=18 November 2016|access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214232324/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/01_january/27/culture.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Special missions===
[[File:Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip disembark from a British Airways Concorde.jpg|thumb|alt=The Queen, in a pink floral dress, cream hat and long white gloves, descends from a BA-liveried aircraft via a set of movable aircraft steps, with the Duke, in a grey suit and dark tie, close behind her |[[Elizabeth II]] and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]] disembark Concorde in 1991]]

The heads of France and the United Kingdom flew in Concorde many times.<ref>{{cite web|title=Concorde Clipreel: Part 9 |url=http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/Concorde-Clipreel-Part-9/7ece56f04f3cf534e71bd4b4454b8d9e?searchfilter=Compilations%2FAccidents+%26+Disasters%2FConcorde%2F19602|publisher=AP Archive|access-date=12 December 2013|archive-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911235954/http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/Concorde-Clipreel-Part-9/7ece56f04f3cf534e71bd4b4454b8d9e?searchfilter=Compilations%2FAccidents%20&%20Disasters%2FConcorde%2F19602|url-status=live}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=http://heritageconcorde.com/passenger-experience-2/famous-concorde-passengers-2|title=Heritage Concorde |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020092029/http://heritageconcorde.com/passenger-experience-2/famous-concorde-passengers-2|archive-date=20 October 2013}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=http://www.aviation-news.co.uk/archive/concordeChronology.html|work=[[Aviation News]]|title=Concorde chronology|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062119/http://www.aviation-news.co.uk/archive/concordeChronology.html|archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> Presidents [[Georges Pompidou]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Concorde Clipreel: Part 8|publisher= AP Archive |url=http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/Concorde-Clipreel-Part-8/3e56c7b758bb1e049f6763222b9e93c2?searchfilter=Compilations%2FAccidents+%26+Disasters%2FConcorde%2F19602|access-date=12 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911232705/http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/Concorde-Clipreel-Part-8/3e56c7b758bb1e049f6763222b9e93c2?searchfilter=Compilations%2fAccidents+%26+Disasters%2fConcorde%2f19602}}<br/>* {{cite web |author=Keystone |url=http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/french-president-georges-pompidou-at-the-microphone-in-the-news-photo/3375737|title=French President Georges Pompidou at the microphone in the cockpit of... |work=Getty Images |date=15 April 2004 |access-date=12 December 2013|archive-date=16 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216170328/http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/french-president-georges-pompidou-at-the-microphone-in-the-news-photo/3375737|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Amarillo Globe-Times from Amarillo, Texas |page =31 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/29590760/ |work=Newspapers.com|date=17 May 1976 |access-date=15 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316063908/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/29590760/}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/49473870/ |title=The Ottawa Journal from Ottawa |page =29 |work=Newspapers.com|date=6 January 1976 |access-date=15 March 2016|archive-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317232134/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/49473870/|url-status=live}}<br/>* {{cite news |title=Giscard Arrives for Talks With Ford |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/05/18/archives/giscard-arrives-for-talks-with-ford.html |work=The New York Times |author=Flora Lewis |date=18 May 1976}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1976/may/27/the-queens-visit-to-north-america |work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |title=The Queen's Visit to North America  |access-date=12 December 2013|archive-date=26 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226130451/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1976/may/27/the-queens-visit-to-north-america|date=27 May 1976 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[François Mitterrand]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7733286/Francois-Mitterrand.html|archive-date=8 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908221955/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7733286/Francois-Mitterrand.html|url-status=dead|title=François Mitterrand|date=9 January 1996|work=Telegraph.co.uk}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-11-27-mn-1081-story.html |title=French Cosmonaut Aboard: Mitterrand Sees a Soviet Space Launch |work=Los Angeles Times |date=27 November 1988 |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-date=18 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218124628/http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-27/news/mn-1081_1_soviet-space |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}<br/>* {{cite news |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/kingston-gleaner/1985-09-12/page-9 |title=President Francois Mitterrand prepared today to fly by Concorde |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125024502/https://newspaperarchive.com/kingston-gleaner-sep-12-1985-p-9/ |archive-date=25 January 2022 |work=Kingston Gleaner |date=12 September 1985 |page=9}}<br/>* [https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/13/weekinreview/mitterrand-s-travels-are-well-received-back-home.html ''The New York Times''. Miitterrand's travels are well received back home] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724123838/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/13/weekinreview/mitterrand-s-travels-are-well-received-back-home.html |date=24 July 2016}}</ref> regularly used Concorde as French flagship aircraft on foreign visits. [[Elizabeth II]] and Prime Ministers [[Edward Heath]], [[Jim Callaghan]], [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[John Major]] and [[Tony Blair]] took Concorde in some charter flights such as the Queen's trips to Barbados on her Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to the Middle East in 1984 and to the United States in 1991.<ref name="burleigh2008">{{cite web |url=http://www.burleighphoto.com/pages/stk-qe77/qe2.htm |title=Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubillee Barbados 1977 – Most Historic Concorde Takeoff Ever – Queen's First Flight on Concorde|website=Burleigh Photo|access-date=25 January 2020|url-status=live |archive-date=2 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002132513/http://www.burleighphoto.com/pages/stk-qe77/qe2.htm}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/TheQueenandBarbados/Royalvisits.aspx |title=Queen and Barbados: Royal visits|access-date=16 January 2010|website=The official website of The British Monarchy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420051139/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/TheQueenandBarbados/Royalvisits.aspx |archive-date=20 April 2010|url-status=dead}}<br/>* {{cite web |title=Concorde SST: Timeline – 90's |url=http://www.concordesst.com/history/00s.html |access-date=12 December 2013 |work=concordesst.com |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106015823/http://www.concordesst.com/history/00s.html |url-status=live}}<br/>* [http://www.barbadosconcorde.com/ Barbados Concorde Experience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818095250/http://www.barbadosconcorde.com/ |date=18 August 2013}}, barbadosconcorde.com</ref> [[Pope John Paul II]] flew on Concorde in May 1989.<ref>{{cite web |title=Concorde F-BTSC – French Production Test Aircraft |url=http://www.concorde-art-world.com/html/f-btsc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511025729/http://www.concorde-art-world.com/html/f-btsc.html |archive-date=11 May 2008 |access-date=11 May 2014 |website=Concorde Art World}}</ref>

Concorde sometimes made special flights for demonstrations, air shows (such as the [[Farnborough Airshow|Farnborough]], [[Paris Air Show|Paris-Le Bourget]], [[EAA AirVenture Oshkosh|Oshkosh AirVenture]] and [[MAKS (air show)|MAKS]] air shows) as well as parades and celebrations (for example, of Zurich Airport's anniversary in 1998). The aircraft were also used for private charters (including by the President of [[Zaire]] [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] on multiple occasions),<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097458,00.html|title=Mobutu Sese Seko |series=Top 15 Toppled Dictators|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=30 April 2013|date=20 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424213126/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097458,00.html|archive-date=24 April 2013}}<br/>* {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Karl |last2=Hajník |first2=Zdeněk |title=Šílenství mocných |trans-title=Power Mad!|year=2005 |publisher=Metafora|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=978-80-7359-002-4|pages=47, 58}}<br/>* {{cite web |url=http://www.concorde-jet.com/e_photos.php?ref=club_concorde2136|access-date=12 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703131449/http://www.concorde-jet.com/e_photos.php?ref=club_concorde2136|archive-date=3 July 2009|url-status=dead|title=Zaïre|work=Concorde-Jet.com}}</ref> for advertising companies (including for the firm [[Oki Electric Industry|OKI]]), for Olympic torch relays ([[1992 Winter Olympics]] in Albertville) and for observing [[solar eclipse]]s, including the [[solar eclipse of June 30, 1973|solar eclipse of 30 June 1973]]<ref name=Vice-Motherboard-2016-03-09>{{cite magazine |url= https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-concorde-and-the-longest-solar-eclipse/ |title= When Astronomers Chased a Total Eclipse in a Concorde |author= Chris Hatherill |date= 9 March 2016 |magazine= Motherboard |publisher= Vice }}</ref><ref name="spirit">{{cite web |url=http://www.concorde-spirit-tours.com/ |title=Concorde Spirit Tours |work=concorde-spirit-tours.com |access-date=28 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629051800/http://www.concorde-spirit-tours.com/ |archive-date=29 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and again for the [[solar eclipse of August 11, 1999|total solar eclipse on 11 August 1999]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Solar Eclipse Viewed from Concorde |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-L0eRgzxE0|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211124/Y-L0eRgzxE0| archive-date=24 November 2021 |url-status=live |publisher=AP Archive|orig-year=Aug 1999|via=YouTube |date=21 July 2015}}{{cbignore}}<br/>* {{cite web |title=Concorde eclipse august 99 collector |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMDrrSDoghQ&t=2m25s |publisher=jean-luc |date=5 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526173914/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMDrrSDoghQ| archive-date=26 May 2017 |url-status=dead |via=YouTube}}</ref>

===Records===
The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by a 175&nbsp;mph (282&nbsp;km/h) tailwind.<ref name="SST makes record flight">{{cite news |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SL&p_theme=sl&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB04F816AA79462&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D |title=SST makes record flight |work=St Louis Post |access-date=30 June 2011 |date=9 February 1996 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001070114/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SL&p_theme=sl&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB04F816AA79462&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D |url-status=live}}</ref> On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to [[Sydney Airport|Sydney]] in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling stops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.concorde-art-world.com/html/record_breaker.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511025908/http://www.concorde-art-world.com/html/record_breaker.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 May 2008|title=Concorde Supersonic Airliner – Record Breaker |publisher=concorde-art-world.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19850215&id=N8BWAAAAIBAJ&pg=2081,21154 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |title=Late, but the white dart is in time to claim record |author=Adrian Swift |date=15 February 1985 |access-date=28 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414131209/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19850215&id=N8BWAAAAIBAJ&pg=2081,21154 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Concorde set the [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cramoisi|first1=George|title=Air Crash Investigations: The End of the Concorde Era, the Crash of Air France Flight 4590|date=2010|publisher=Lulu|isbn=978-0-557-84950-5|page=518|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aekGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA518|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414103518/https://books.google.com/books?id=aekGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA518|url-status=live}}</ref> On 12–13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]' first voyage to the [[New World]], Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and [[circumnavigation|circumnavigated]] the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from [[Lisbon]], Portugal, including six refuelling stops at [[Santo Domingo]], [[Acapulco]], [[Honolulu]], Guam, [[Bangkok]], and [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{cite news |title=French Concorde to attempt round-the-world record |work=Anchorage Daily News |date=12 October 1992}}</ref>

The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours<ref name="spirit" /> in the US on 15–16 August 1995. This promotional flight circumnavigated the world from New York/JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse, [[Dubai]], Bangkok, Andersen AFB in [[Guam]], Honolulu, and [[Acapulco]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Concorde jets occupants on record ride |website=Deseret News |date=17 August 1995}}</ref>

On its way to the [[Museum of Flight]] in November 2003, G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the US the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be flown supersonically over sparsely-populated Canadian territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.museumofflight.org/aircraft/concorde |title=Concorde |publisher=Museum of Flight |access-date=21 August 2011 |archive-date=11 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811171754/http://www.museumofflight.org/aircraft/concorde |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Specifications==
[[File:Concorde v1.0.png|thumb|Other line drawings of Concorde]]
[[File:Concorde G-BOAC.png|thumb|Concorde G-BOAC]]

{{Aircraft specs
|ref= ''The Wall Street Journal'',<ref name="fliengi">{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB106504293992222300?mod=googlewsj |title=Final Boarding Call: As Concorde Departs, so do 3-Man Crews: In New Cockpits, Engineers are seen as Extra Baggage |work=The Wall Street Journal |first=Danial |last=Michaels |date=2 October 2003 |access-date=3 August 2017 |archive-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000348/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB106504293992222300?mod=googlewsj |url-status=live}}</ref> ''The Concorde Story'',{{sfn|Kelly|2005|p=52}} ''The International Directory of Civil Aircraft'',{{sfn|Frawley|2003|p=14}}
''Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde 1969 onwards (all models)''<ref>{{cite book 
|last1=Leney 
|first1=David
|last2=Macdonald <!-- Not a mistake: it's consistently printed as Macdonald in the book, not MacDonald -->
|first2=David 
|title=Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde 1969 onwards (all models)
|publisher=Haynes Publishing
|location=Sparkford, Somerset
|date= 2020
|isbn=978-1-84425-818-5
}}</ref>
|prime units?= imp
<!--   General characteristics
-->
|genhide=

|crew= 3 (2 pilots and 1 [[flight engineer]])
|capacity= 92–120 passengers <br/>(128 in high-density layout)
|length m = 61.66
|length note=
|span m= 25.6
|span note=
|height m= 12.2
|height note=
|wing area sqm= 358.25
|wing area note=
|airfoil=
|empty weight kg= 78,700
|gross weight kg= 111,130
|gross weight note=
|max takeoff weight kg= 185,070
|fuel capacity= {{convert|210940|lb|kg|abbr=on}}; {{cvt|119600|L}}
|more general=
* '''Fuselage internal length:''' {{convert|129|ft|0|in|m|abbr=on}}
* '''Fuselage width:''' maximum of {{convert|9|ft|5|in|m|abbr=on}} external, {{convert|8|ft|7|in|m|abbr=on}} internal
* '''Fuselage height:''' maximum of {{convert|10|ft|10|in|m |abbr=on}} external, {{convert|6|ft|5|in|m|abbr=on}} internal
* '''Maximum taxiing weight:''' {{convert|412000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}
<!--   Powerplant
-->
|eng1 number= 4
|eng1 name= [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593]] Mk 610
|eng1 type= [[turbojet]]s with [[reheat]]
|eng1 lbf=31000
|eng1 kn= 140
|eng1 note=
|power original=
|thrust original=
|eng1 kn-ab= 169
|eng1 lbf-ab= 38,050
<!--   Performance
-->
|perfhide=

|max speed kmh= 2,179
|max speed note=
|max speed mach= 2.04 (temperature limited) <!-- temperature limited is relevant, since most aircraft are limited in speed by power or aerodynamics: Concorde is unusual in that is has the power and aerodynamics to go faster -->
|cruise speed kmh= 2,158
|cruise speed note=
|stall speed kmh=
|stall speed note=
|never exceed speed kmh=
|never exceed speed note=
|minimum control speed kmh=
|minimum control speed note=
|range km= 7,222.8
|range note=
|endurance=<!-- if range unknown -->
|ceiling m= 18,300
|ceiling note=
|climb rate ms= 17–25
|climb rate note= at sea level<ref>{{cite journal |title=First Concorde Supersonic Transport Flies |date=17 March 1969 |pages=284 |url=http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20%281%20of%202%29.pdf |access-date=27 January 2019 |journal= Aviation Week & Space Technology |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220202734/http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20%281%20of%202%29.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Concorde Airframe |url=https://www.heritageconcorde.com/airframe-performance |website=Heritage Concorde |access-date=27 January 2019 |language=en |archive-date=28 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128030455/https://www.heritageconcorde.com/airframe-performance |url-status=live}}</ref>
|time to altitude=
|lift to drag= ''Low speed–'' 3.94; ''Approach–'' 4.35; ''250 kn, 10,000 ft–'' 9.27; ''Mach 0.94–'' 11.47, ''Mach 2.04–'' 7.14
|wing loading kg/m2=
|wing loading note=
|disk loading kg/m2=
|disk loading note=
|fuel consumption kg/km= 13.2
|power/mass=
|thrust/weight= 0.373
|more performance=
* '''Maximum [[Heat shield|nose tip temperature]]:''' {{convert|127|°C|°F+K|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
* '''[[Runway]] requirement''' (with maximum load): {{convert|3600|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiatraveltips.com/travelnews2001/17October2001AirFrance.htm|title=Extremely Comprehensive Concorde Relaunch Kit from Air France|date=17 October 2001|website=Travel News Asia|access-date=13 January 2014|archive-date=13 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113203252/http://www.asiatraveltips.com/travelnews2001/17October2001AirFrance.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

|avionics= 
* [[Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593#Intake|Digital Air Intake Control Units]]
* Fly by wire flight controls
* Analogue electronic engine controls
* Triple [[inertial navigation unit]]s, one per flight crew
* Dual [[VHF omnidirectional range]] instruments
* Dual [[automatic direction finder]] instruments
* Dual [[distance measuring equipment]] instruments
* Triple [[Delco Carousel]] Inertial Navigation Units<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heritageconcorde.com/pilots-instruments |title=Concorde Pilots Instruments |website=Heritage Concorde |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
* Dual [[instrument landing system]]s
* Automatic flight control system with dual [[autopilot]]s, [[autothrottle]]s, and [[Flight director (aeronautics)|flight directors]]: full autoland capability with visibility limits {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}} horizontally, {{convert|15|ft|m|abbr=on}} decision height
* [[Ekco]] E390/564 weather radar<ref>{{cite periodical|title=Concorde|periodical=Interavia|volume=24|date=1969|page=397}}</ref>
* Radio altimeters <!-- Radio altimeter is the precise term used in the Haynes book -->
}}

==Notable appearances in media==
<!-- Please READ [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content#Popular culture]] before attempting to place "Popular culture" items. Tenuously connected material including all Ace Combat appearances and anime and fiction lookalike speculation, will be removed. Material here must be notable ***with respect to Concorde*** or should go in another article -->
{{Main|Aircraft in fiction#Concorde}}

==See also==
{{Portal|France|United Kingdom|Aviation|1970s}}
* [[Barbara Harmer]], the first qualified female Concorde pilot
* [[Museo del Concorde]], a former museum in Mexico dedicated to the airliner

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=N}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite magazine|last=Armbruster|first=Michel|title=How to Avoid Uncontrolled Droop |magazine=[[Air Enthusiast]]|date=January–February 2005|issue= 115|page=75|issn=0143-5450}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Conway |first=Eric |title=High-Speed Dreams: NASA and the Technopolitics of Supersonic Transportation, 1945–1999 |publisher=JHU Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8018-8067-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Beniada |first=Frederic |title=Concorde |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |publisher=Zenith Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7603-2703-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Calvert |first=Brian |title=Flying Concorde: The Full Story |location=London |publisher=Crowood Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84037-352-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/flyingconcordefu0000calv}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Deregel |first1=Xavier |first2=Jean-Philippe|last2=Lemaire |title=Concorde Passion |year=2009 |location=New York |publisher=LBM |isbn=978-2-915347-73-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Endres |first=Günter |title=Concorde |location=St Paul, Minnesota |publisher=MBI Publishing Company|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7603-1195-0}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Ferrar |editor1-first=Henry |title=The Concise Oxford French-English Dictionary |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980 |isbn=978-0-19-864157-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Frawley |first=Gerald |title=The International Directory of Civil Aircraft, 2003/2004 |publisher=Aerospace Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-875671-58-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Yefim |first2=Vladimir |last2=Rigmant |title=Tupolev Tu-144 |location=Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK |publisher=Midland |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85780-216-0}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Gunn |first=John |title=Crowded Skies |publisher=Turnkey Productions |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-646-54973-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Neil |title=The Concorde Story: 34 Years of Supersonic Air Travel |location=Surrey, UK |publisher=Merchant Book Company Ltd|year=2005 |isbn=978-1-904779-05-6}}
* {{cite book |author1=Key Publishing |title=Concorde |series=Historic Commercial Aircraft Series, Vol 10 |date=2023 |publisher=Key Publishing |location=Stamford, Lincs, UK |isbn=9781802823752 |url={{GBurl|BR9CzwEACAAJ}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Geoffrey |title=Concorde: The Inside Story |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-297-77114-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Rob |last2=Lewis |first2=Edwin |title=Supersonic Secrets: The Unauthorised Biography of Concorde |year=2004 |publisher=Exposé |location=London |isbn=978-0-9546617-0-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=McIntyre |first=Ian |title=Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle over Airbus |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-275-94278-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dogfighttransatl00mcin}}
* {{cite book |title=Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology |first=John Francis |last=Nunn |location=Burlington, Maryland |publisher=Butterworth-Heineman |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7506-1336-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/nunnsappliedresp0004nunn}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Jean-Marc Olivier |last=Olivier |first=Jean-Marc |date=2018 |title=1969 First Flight of the Concorde |publisher=Editions midi-pyrénéennes |isbn=979-1-09-349833-1 |oclc=1066694697 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5ENvwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |title=Concorde: Story of a Supersonic Pioneer |location=London |publisher=Science Museum |first=Kenneth |last=Owen |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-900747-42-4}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Christopher Orlebar |last=Orlebar |first=Christopher |title=The Concorde Story |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85532-667-5}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Douglas |title=The Concorde Compromise: the politics of decision-making |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=March 1978 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=46–53 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1978.11458481|bibcode=1978BuAtS..34c..46R }}
* {{Cite book |last=Schrader |first=Richard K |title=Concorde: The Full Story of the Anglo-French SST |location=Kent, UK |publisher=Pictorial Histories Pub. Co.|year=1989 |isbn=978-0-929521-16-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=John W. R. |title=Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1965–66 |publisher=Marston |year=1965}}
* {{citation |title=Concorde A Designer's Life The Journey To Mach 2 |first=Ted |last=Talbot |date=2013 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0-7524-8928-5}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Towey |editor-first=Barrie |title=Jet Airliners of the World 1949–2007 |location=Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK |publisher=Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-85130-348-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Winchester |first=Jim |year=2005a |title=The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters |location=London |publisher=Amber Books Ltd |isbn=978-1-904687-34-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Winchester |first=Jim |year=2005b |title=X-Planes and Prototypes: From Nazi Secret Weapons to the Warplanes of the Future |publisher=Amber Books Ltd |isbn=978-1-84013-815-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

===Legacy===
* [http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/index.html British Airways Concorde page]
* [https://www.baesystems.com/en/heritage/bac-concorde BAC Concorde at BAE Systems site]
* [http://www.designmuseum.org/design/concorde Design Museum (UK) Concorde page]
* [http://heritageconcorde.com/ Heritage Concorde preservation group site]

=== Articles===
* {{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20%282%20of%202%29.pdf |title= Concorde Enters Flight Test Phase |author= Donald Fink |magazine= [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] |date= 10 March 1969 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150316210132/http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20(2%20of%202).pdf|archive-date= 16 March 2015|url-status=dead}} <!--from http://aviationweek.com/blog/1969-concordes-hopeful-first-flight -->
* {{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20%281%20of%202%29.pdf |title= First Concorde Supersonic Transport Flies |date= 17 March 1969 |magazine= [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232546/http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/02/1969-%20First%20Concorde%20Flight%20(1%20of%202).pdf|archive-date= 16 March 2015|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news |title= Concorde as viewed from the flightdeck |author= Capt R. E. Gillman |date= 24 January 1976 |magazine= Flight International |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1976/1976%20-%200119.html}}
* {{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/blog/2003-concorde-end-era |title= End of an Era |author= Dave North |work= [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] |date= 20 October 2003}}
* {{cite news |url= https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/stories/2019-03-the-day-concorde-flew-into-the-history-books |title= The day Concorde flew into the history books |work= Airbus |date= 2 March 2019}}

===Videos===
<!--Only list videos from "official" accounts!-->
* "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pn0PJc-v510&list=PLNxwX7r4A557deayljDNLqVA7Pl9Y8K9Z&index=14 Video: Roll-out]." [[British Movietone]]/[[Associated Press]]. 14 December 1967, posted online on 21 July 2015.
* "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_wuykzfFzE This plane could cross the Atlantic in 3.5 hours. Why did it fail?]." [[Vox Media]]. 19 July 2016.

{{British Aircraft Corporation aircraft}}
{{BAE aircraft}}
{{Sud/Aérospatiale aircraft}}
{{Supersonic transport}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Concorde| ]]
[[Category:Air France–KLM]]
[[Category:British Airways]]
[[Category:British Aircraft Corporation aircraft]]
[[Category:Tailless delta-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:France–United Kingdom relations]]
[[Category:1960s international airliners]]
[[Category:Quadjets]]
[[Category:Supersonic transports]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1969]]
[[Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear]]