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{{short description|African island country in the Indian Ocean}} {{about|the country|the archipelago|Comoro Islands}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}} {{Use British English|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Union of the Comoros | common_name = Comoros | native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|zdj-Latn|Udzima wa Komori}}|{{native name|fr|Union des Comores}}|{{native name|ar|جمهورية القمر المتحدة}}|<small>''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Jamhuriyat al-Qumur al-Muttaḥida}}''</small>}} | image_flag = Flag of the Comoros.svg | flag_type = [[Flag of the Comoros|Flag]] | image_coat = Seal of the Comoros.svg | symbol_type = [[National seal of the Comoros|Seal]] | image_map = File:Comoros (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Location of the Comoros (circled) | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{vunblist |{{native phrase|fr|"Unité – Solidarité – Développement"|italics=off}}|{{native phrase|ar|وحدة، تضامن، تنمية|italics=off}} |"Unity – Solidarity – Development"}} | national_anthem = ''[[Udzima wa ya Masiwa]]''{{nbsp|2}}(Comorian)<br />''The Unity of the Great Islands''<div style="padding-top:0.5em;">[[File:National Anthem of Comoros by US Navy Band.ogg|center]]</div> | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Comorian language|Comorian]]|[[French language|French]]|[[Arabic]]}} | ethnic_groups = <!--The following is sourced (see ethnic_groups_year above), so please do not change it without also replacing that source:-->{{ublist | 97.1% [[Comorians]] | 1.6% [[Makua people|Makua]] | 1.3% [[Demographics of the Comoros|Others]] }} | demonym = {{hlist|Comorian|Comorese}} | capital = [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] | coordinates = {{Coord|11.69|S|43.26|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="Comoros - People {{!}} Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Comoros – People {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Comoros/People |access-date=25 September 2022 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219213908/https://www.britannica.com/place/Comoros/People |url-status=live }}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2000 | religion = | government_type = Unitary [[presidential republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of the Comoros|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Azali Assoumani]] | leader_title2 = [[Assembly of the Union of the Comoros#Presidents of the Assembly|President of the Assembly]] | leader_name2 = [[Moustadroine Abdou]] | legislature = {{nowrap|[[Assembly of the Union of the Comoros|Assembly of the Union]]}} | area_rank = 170th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_km2 = 2,235<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros/ | title=Comoros | date=6 December 2023 }}</ref> | area_sq_mi = 719 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 883,075<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/COM/comoros/population#google_vignette | title=Comoros Population 1950-2025 }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_estimate_rank = 160th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | population_census = | population_census_year = | population_density_km2 = 457 | population_density_sq_mi = 1,184 | population_densitymi³ = <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 27th | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.432 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=632,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook database: October 2023 (Comoros) |publisher=International Monetary Fund |work=World Economic Outlook, October 2023 |access-date=16 January 2024 |date=October 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,463<ref name=imf2 /> | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.364 billion<ref name=imf2 /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,377<ref name=imf2 /> | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | Gini_year = 2014 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 45.3<!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |access-date=26 September 2024 |title=Gini Index coefficient }}</ref> | HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.586 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2024 |title=HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24 |url=http://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |website=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |pages=274–277 |language=en}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 152nd | sovereignty_type = [[History of the Comoros|Formation]] | established_event1 = A part of [[Kilwa Sultanate]] | established_date1 = 957-1513 | established_event2 = French colony of [[Mayotte]] | established_date2 = 25 April 1841 | established_event3 = Province of [[French Madagascar]] | established_date3 = 31 March 1914 | established_event4 = [[French overseas departments and territories|French Overseas Territory]] | established_date4 = 27 October 1946 | established_event5 = Internal autonomy | established_date5 = 22 December 1961 | established_event6 = [[List of sovereign states by date of formation|Independence]] from [[France]] | established_date6 = 6 July 1975 | established_event7 = Federal [[Islamic Republic]] | established_date7 = 1 October 1978<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/km1978.htm |title=Comoros Constitution of October 1, 1978 |publisher=Digithèque MJP |date=2012 |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027171729/https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/km1978.htm |url-status=live }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref> | established_event8 = Union | established_date8 = 23 December 2001{{efn|The current constitution has been slightly revised in February 2018.}} | currency = [[Comorian franc]] | currency_code = KMF | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[+269]] | cctld = [[.km]] | today = | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite book |first1=Martin |last1=Ottenheimer |first2=Harriet |last2=Ottenheimer |year=1994 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands |publisher=Scarecrow |page=73 |isbn=978-0-8108-2819-3}}</ref> }} The '''Comoros''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Comoros.ogg|ˈ|k|ɒ|m|ər|oʊ|z}} {{respell|KOM|ə|rohz}}; {{langx|zdj|Komori|label=[[Comorian languages|Comorian]]:}}, {{IPA|zdj|ko.mo.ri|pron}}; {{langx|ar|جزر القمر}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Juzur al-Qumur{{\}}Qamar}}''; {{langx|fr|Comores}}}} officially the '''Union of the Comoros''',{{efn|{{langx|zdj|Udzima wa Komori|label=[[Comorian languages|Comorian]]:}}; {{langx|fr|Union des Comores}}; {{langx|ar|الاتحاد القمري}} ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-Ittiḥād al-Qumurī{{\}}Qamarī}}''}} is an [[archipelagic country]] made up of three islands in [[Southeastern Africa]], located at the northern end of the [[Mozambique Channel]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]. Its capital and largest city is [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]. The religion of the majority of the population, and the official state religion, is [[Sunni Islam]]. Comoros proclaimed its [[List of sovereign states by date of formation|independence]] from France on 6 July 1975. The Comoros is the only country of the [[Arab League]] which is entirely in the [[Southern Hemisphere]]. It is a member state of the [[African Union]], the ''[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]'', the [[Organisation of Islamic Co-operation]], and the [[Indian Ocean Commission]]. The country has three official languages: [[Shikomori]], [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic]]. At {{cvt|1659|km2|mi2}}, the Comoros is the third-smallest African country by area.<ref>Walker, Iain. "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros." Hurst Publishers. 2019, p 8-9.</ref> In 2019, its population was estimated to be 850,886.{{UN Population|ref}} The sovereign state consists of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all of the volcanic [[Comoro Islands]] with the exception of [[Mayotte]]. Mayotte voted against independence from France in [[1974 Comorian independence referendum|a referendum in 1974]], and continues to be administered by France as an [[overseas department]]. France has [[List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions|vetoed a United Nations Security Council resolution]] that would have affirmed Comorian sovereignty over the island.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 October 1976 |title=Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte |url=http://un.cti.depaul.edu/Countries/Comoros/1156213396.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408191407/http://un.cti.depaul.edu/Countries/Comoros/1156213396.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2008 |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=United Nations General Assembly Resolution}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2008 |title=Comoros – Permanent Mission to the United Nations |url=http://un.cti.depaul.edu/public/Comoros/10/English/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106080523/http://un.cti.depaul.edu/public/Comoros/10/English/ |archive-date=6 January 2008 }}</ref><ref name="GlobalPolicy_SC-Vetoes">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/membship/veto/vetosubj.htm |title=Subjects of UN Security Council Vetoes |publisher=Global Policy Forum |access-date=27 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317010910/http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/membship/veto/vetosubj.htm |archive-date=17 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="article33">{{cite web |url=http://legal.un.org/repertory/art33/english/rep_supp5_vol2-art33_e.pdf |title=Article 33, Repertory, Supplement 5, vol. II (1970–1978) |work=United Nations, Office of Legal Affairs (OLA)|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084240/http://legal.un.org/repertory/art33/english/rep_supp5_vol2-art33_e.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011 following a referendum which was passed overwhelmingly. The Comoros were likely first settled by [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]/[[Malagasy people]]s, [[Bantu language|Bantu]] speakers from [[East Africa]], and seafaring Arab traders.<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=American Society of Human Genetics |date=4 January 2018 |title=The Comoros Show the Earliest Austronesian Gene Flow into the Swahili Corridor |author1=Nicolas Brucato |author2=Veronica Fernandes |author3=Stéphane Mazières |author4=Pradiptajati Kusuma |author5=Murray P. Cox |author6=Joseph Wainaina Ng'ang'a |author7=Mohammed Omar |author8=Marie-Claude Simeone-Senelle |author9=Coralie Frassati |author10=Farida Alshamali |author11=Bertrand Fin |author12=Anne Boland |author13=Jean-Francois Deleuze |author14=Mark Stoneking |author15=Alexander Adelaar |author16=Alison Crowther |author17=Nicole Boivin |author18=Luisa Pereira |author19=Pascal Bailly |author20=Jacques Chiaroni |author21=François-Xavier Ricaut |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=58–68 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.11.011 |pmid=29304377 |pmc=5777450}}</ref> From 1500 the [[List of sultans on the Comoros#Sultans of Ndzuwani (Anjouan)|Sultanate of Anjouan]] dominated the islands, with [[Grande Comore]] split between [[List of sultans on the Comoros#Sultans on Ngazidja (Grande Comore)|several sultans]]. It became part of the [[French colonial empire]] during the 19th century, before its independence in 1975. It has experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated.<ref name="20Coups" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Intrigue in the world's most coup-prone island paradise |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/12/22/intrigue-in-the-worlds-most-coup-prone-island-paradise |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=25 January 2019 |ref=print issue: 22 December 2018, p. 75 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125081810/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/12/22/intrigue-in-the-worlds-most-coup-prone-island-paradise |archive-date=25 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Along with this constant political instability, it has one of the highest levels of [[List of countries by income equality|income inequality]] of any nation, and ranks in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index#Low human development|medium quartile]] on the [[Human Development Index]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|year=2022|page=283}}</ref> Between 2009 and 2014, about 19% of the population lived below the [[international poverty line]] of US$1.90 a day by [[purchasing power parity]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|year=2022|page=297}}</ref> == Etymology == The name "Comoros" derives from the Arabic word {{lang|ar|<big>[[wikt:قمر#Noun|قمر]]</big>}} ''qamar'' ("[[moon]]").<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.comores-online.com/mwezinet/histoire/islandsofthemoon.htm |title=The Islands of the Moon |journal=Aramco World |volume=47 |issue=4 |date=July–August 1996 |pages=40 |access-date=20 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013214138/http://comores-online.com/mwezinet/histoire/islandsofthemoon.htm |archive-date=13 October 2007|url-status=usurped}}</ref> However, this popular etymology is apocryphal, the word coming rather from the old Arabic name of Madagascar, “Q(u)mr’” ({{langx|ar|جزر القمر}}):<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.al-kanz.org/2018/03/22/comores/ |title=Les Comores sont les « îles de la lune », selon leur nom arabe « جزر القمر » |website=al-kanz.org |language=fr |date=22 March 2018 |access-date=14 May 2025}}</ref> the Comoros were, for the Arabs, the “Malagasy islands”. == History == {{Main|History of the Comoros}} === Settlement === [[File:Dhow.jpg|right|thumb|A large [[dhow]] with [[lateen]] sail rigs]] [[File:Vanilla plantation in wood dsc00190.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[vanilla]] plantation]] According to [[mythology]], a [[jinn]]i dropped a [[Gemstone|jewel]], which formed a great circular inferno. This became the [[Mount Karthala|Karthala volcano]], which created the island of Ngazidja (Grande Comore). [[King Solomon]] is also said to have visited the island accompanied by his queen [[Queen of Sheba|Bilqis]]. The first attested human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are now thought to have been [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] settlers travelling by boat from [[Island Southeast Asia|islands in Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ancient crops provide first archaeological signature of the westward Austronesian expansion |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=24 |pages=6635–6640 |author1=Alison Crowther |author2=Leilani Lucas |author3=Richard Helm |author4=Mark Horton |author5=Ceri Shipton |author6=Henry T. Wright |display-authors=etal |date=2016 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1522714113 |pmid=27247383 |pmc=4914162 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6635C |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Comoros show the earliest Austronesian gene flow into the Swahili Corridor |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=102 |pages=58–68 |author1=Nicolas Brucato |author2=Veronica Fernandes |author3=Stéphane Mazières |author4=Pradiptajati Kusuma |author5=Murray P. Cox|display-authors=etal |date=2018 |issue=1 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.11.011 |pmid=29304377 |pmc=5777450 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These people arrived in the area no later than the eighth century AD, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found on [[Mayotte]], although settlement beginning in the first century has been postulated.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Country Study: Comoros |publisher=US Department of the Army |author=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program |date=August 1994 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/kmtoc.html |access-date=15 January 2007 |location=Washington, D.C. |editor=Ralph K. Benesch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070112164802/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/kmtoc.html |archive-date=12 January 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequent settlers came from the east coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Malay Archipelago]], and [[Madagascar]]. [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking settlers were present on the islands from the beginnings of settlement {{Chronology citation needed|date=October 2024}}, probably brought to the islands as slaves.<ref name="Walker, Iain 2019">Walker, Iain. "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros." Hurst Publishers. 2019.</ref> Development of the Comoros is divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase is the Dembeni phase (eighth to tenth centuries), during which there were several small settlements on each island.<ref name=spear>{{cite journal |author=Thomas Spear |title=Early Swahili History Reconsidered |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=33 |issue=2 |year=2000 |pages=257–290 |doi=10.2307/220649 |jstor=220649}}</ref> From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the [[Swahili coast]] and the [[Middle East]] flourished, more villages were founded and existing villages grew. Settlers from the Arabian peninsula, particularly [[Hadhramaut]], arrived during this period. === Medieval Comoros === According to legend, in 632, upon hearing of [[Islam]], islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to [[Mecca]]—but by the time he arrived there, the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] had died. Nonetheless, after a stay in Mecca, he returned to Ngazidja, where he built a mosque in his home town of Ntsaweni, and led the gradual conversion of the islanders to Islam.<ref name=verin>{{cite journal |author=Pierre Vérin |title=Mtswa Muyindza et l'introduction de l'Islam à Ngazidja; au sujet de la tradition et du texte de Pechmarty |journal=Études Océan Indien |volume=2 |year=1982 |pages=95–100}}</ref> In 933, the Comoros was referred to by [[Oman]]i sailors as the Perfume Islands.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708134026/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199604/the.islands.of.the.moon.htm "Saudi Aramco World : The Islands of the Moon"]. saudiaramcoworld.com. Archived from the [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199604/the.islands.of.the.moon.htm original] on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 2023-12-06.</ref> Among the earliest accounts of East Africa, the works of [[Al-Masudi]] describe early Islamic trade routes, and how the coast and islands were frequently visited by [[Muslim]]s including [[Persia]]n and [[Arab]] merchants and sailors in search of [[coral]], [[ambergris]], [[ivory]], [[tortoiseshell]], [[gold]] and slaves for the [[Arabic slave trade]]. They also brought Islam to the people of the [[Zanj]] including the Comoros. As the importance of the Comoros grew along the East African coast, both small and large [[mosque]]s were constructed. The Comoros are part of the [[Swahili Coast|Swahili]] cultural and economic complex and the islands became a major hub of trade and an important location in a network of trading towns that included [[Kilwa]], in present-day Tanzania, Sofala (an outlet for [[Zimbabwe]]an gold), in [[Mozambique]], and [[Mombasa]] in [[Kenya]].<ref name=spear /> The Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean at the end of the 15th century and the first Portuguese visit to the islands seems to have been that of [[Vasco da Gama]]'s second fleet in 1503.<ref>Walker, Iain. "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros." Hurst Publishers. 2019, p 49-50.</ref> For much of the 16th century the islands provided provisions to the Portuguese fort at Mozambique and although there was no formal attempt by the Portuguese crown to take possession, a number of Portuguese traders settled and married local women. By the end of the 16th century local rulers on the African mainland were beginning to push back and, with the support of the Omani Sultan [[Saif bin Sultan]] they began to defeat the Dutch and the Portuguese. One of his successors, [[Said bin Sultan]], increased Omani Arab influence in the region, moving his administration to nearby [[Zanzibar]], which came under [[Oman]]i rule. Nevertheless, the Comoros remained independent, and although the three smaller islands were usually [[List of sultans on the Comoros|politically unified]], the largest island, Ngazidja, was divided into a number of [[List of sultans on the Comoros|autonomous kingdoms]] (''ntsi'').<ref name="Thomas Spear 1984 291–305">{{cite journal |author=Thomas Spear |title=The Shirazi in Swahili Traditions, Culture, and History |journal=History in Africa |volume=11 |year=1984 |pages=291–305 |doi=10.2307/3171638 |publisher=African Studies Association |jstor=3171638 |s2cid=162212370}}</ref> The islands were well placed to meet the needs of Europeans, initially supplying the Portuguese in Mozambique, then ships, particularly the English, on the route to India, and, later, slaves to the plantation islands in the [[Mascarenes]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prestholdt |first1=Jeremy |year=2007 |title=Similitude and empire: on Comorian strategies of Englishness |journal=Journal of World History |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=113–138 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2007.0015 |s2cid=145310983}}</ref><ref name="Thomas Spear 1984 291–305" /> === European contact and French colonisation === [[File:Carte des isles de Comore Johanna ou Anjouan Mohilla ou Moaly et Mayote Bnf40600530t.jpg|thumb|left|French map of the Comores, 1747]] [[File:Map of Africa (1808) - CAMORA excerpt.jpg|thumb|left|An 1808 map refers to the islands as "Camora".]] [[File:Moroni-Place des Assemblées.jpg|thumb|A public square, Moroni, 1908]] In the last decade of the 18th century, Malagasy warriors, mostly [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]] and [[Sakalava]], started raiding the Comoros for [[slave]]s and the islands were devastated as crops were destroyed and the people were slaughtered, taken into captivity or fled to the African mainland: it is said that by the time the raids finally ended in the second decade of the 19th century only one man remained on Mwali.<ref>Walker, Iain. "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros." Hurst Publishers. 2019, p 254.</ref> The islands were [[Slavery in the Comoros|repopulated by slaves]] from the mainland, who were [[Comoros slave trade|traded to the French]] in Mayotte and the Mascarenes. On the Comoros, it was estimated in 1865 that as much as 40% of the population consisted of slaves.<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/comoros/2.htm Comoros – Early Visitors and Settlers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613173553/http://countrystudies.us/comoros/2.htm |date=13 June 2011 }}". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]</ref> France first established colonial rule in the Comoros by taking possession of Mayotte in 1841 when the [[Sakalava]] usurper sultan {{ill|Andriantsoly|fr}} (also known as Tsy Levalo) signed the Treaty of April 1841,<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Islam 1979, vol. v, p. 381">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://isamveri.org/pdfdkm/12/DKM120302.pdf |title=French acquisition of Comoros |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam 1979, vol. v, p. 381 |access-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208052216/http://isamveri.org/pdfdkm/12/DKM120302.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> which ceded the island to the French authorities.<ref>[[#Ottenheimer|Ottenheimer]], pp. 53–54</ref> After its annexation, France attempted to convert Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. Meanwhile, Ndzwani (or Johanna as it was known to the British) continued to serve as a way station for English merchants sailing to India and the Far East, as well as American whalers, although the British gradually abandoned it following their possession of [[British Mauritius|Mauritius]] in 1814, and by the time the [[Suez Canal]] opened in 1869 there was no longer any significant supply trade at Ndzwani. Local commodities exported by the Comoros were, in addition to slaves, coconuts, timber, cattle and tortoiseshell. British and American settlers, as well as the island's sultan, established a plantation-based economy that used about one-third of the land for export crops. In addition to sugar on Mayotte, ylang-ylang and other perfume plants, vanilla, cloves, coffee, cocoa beans, and sisal were introduced.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=African Studies Bulletin |title=The Comoro Islands: A Bibliographical Essay |author=Barbara Dubins |date=September 1969 |pages=131–137 |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/523155 |publisher=African Studies Association |jstor=523155}}</ref> In 1886, Mwali was placed under French protection by its Sultan Mardjani Abdou Cheikh. That same year, Sultan Said Ali of [[Sultanate of Bambao|Bambao]], one of the sultanates on Ngazidja, placed the island under French protection in exchange for French support of his claim to the entire island, which he retained until his abdication in 1910. In 1908 the four islands were unified under a single administration (''Colonie de Mayotte et dépendances'') and placed under the authority of the French colonial [[Governor-General of Madagascar]]. In 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Ndzwani abdicated in favour of French rule and in 1912 the protectorates were abolished and the islands administered as a single colony. Two years later the colony was abolished and the islands became a province of the [[French Madagascar|colony of Madagascar]].<ref name="Walker, Iain 2019"/> Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978, despite the deputies of [[Mayotte]] voting for increased integration with France. A [[1974 Comorian independence referendum|referendum]] was held on all four of the islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted against. On 6 July 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the Comorian State (''État comorien''; دولة القمر) and became its first president. France did not recognise the new state until 31 December, and retained control of Mayotte. === Independence (1975) === {{Main|State of the Comoros}} [[File:Flag of the Comoros (1963–1975).svg|thumb|[[Flag of the Comoros]] (1963–1975)]] [[File:Flag of the Comoros (1975–1978).svg|thumb|[[Flag of the Comoros]] (1975–1978)]] [[File:Ikililou Dhoinine 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ikililou Dhoinine]], [[President of the Comoros]] from 2011 to 2016]] The next 30 years were a period of political turmoil. On 3 August 1975, less than one month after independence, president [[Ahmed Abdallah]] was removed from office in an armed coup and replaced with United National Front of the Comoros (FNUK) member [[Said Mohamed Jaffar]]. Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favour of his Minister of Defence [[Ali Soilihi]].<ref name="Mukonoweshuro:555-577">{{cite journal |title=The Politics of Squalor and Dependency: Chronic Political Instability and Economic Collapse in the Comoro Islands |author=Eliphas G. Mukonoweshuro |journal=African Affairs |volume=89 |issue=357 |date=October 1990 |pages=555–577 |jstor=722174 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098331}}</ref> The population of [[Mayotte]] voted against independence from France in three referendums during this period. The [[1974 Comorian independence referendum|first]], held on all the islands on 22 December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining ties with France on Mayotte; the [[1976 Mahoran status referendum|second]], held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%, while the third, in April 1976, confirmed that the people of Mayotte wished to remain a French territory. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilihi, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On 13 May 1978, [[Bob Denard]], once again commissioned by the French intelligence service ([[SDECE]]), returned to [[1978 Comorian coup d'état|overthrow]] President Soilihi and reinstate Abdallah with the support of the French, Rhodesian and South African governments. Ali Soilihi was captured and executed a few weeks later.<ref name="Mukonoweshuro:555-577" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Rhodesian War: A Military History |last1=Moorcraft |first1=Paul L.|author-link1=Paul Moorcraft |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter|author-link2=Peter McLaughlin |date=April 2008|orig-year=1982 |place=Barnsley |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |isbn=978-1-84415-694-8 |pages=120–121}}</ref> In contrast to Soilihi, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam<ref name="Bakar:181-191">{{cite journal |title=Small Island Systems: A Case Study of the Comoro Islands |journal=Comparative Education |author=Abdourahim Said Bakar |volume=24 |issue=2, Special Number (11): Education and Minority Groups |year=1988 |pages=181–191 |doi=10.1080/0305006880240203}}</ref> and the country was renamed the Federal [[Islamic Republic]] of the Comoros (''République Fédérale Islamique des Comores''; جمهورية القمر الإتحادية الإسلامية). Bob Denard served as Abdallah's first advisor; nicknamed the "Viceroy of the Comoros", he was sometimes considered the real strongman of the regime. Very close to South Africa, which financed his "presidential guard", he allowed Paris to circumvent the international embargo on the apartheid regime via Moroni. He also set up from the archipelago a permanent mercenary corps, called upon to intervene at the request of Paris or Pretoria in conflicts in Africa. Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though later sources claim an antitank missile was launched into his bedroom and killed him.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mercenary Holding Island Nation Seeks Deal |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1989 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/09/world/mercenary-holding-island-nation-seeks-deal.html |access-date=6 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320032602/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/09/world/mercenary-holding-island-nation-seeks-deal.html |archive-date=20 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Although Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier under his command.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mercenaries seek fun and profit in Africa |author=Judith Matloff |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor |date=6 October 1995 |volume=87 |issue=219 |issn=0882-7729 |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1995/1006/06013.html |access-date=24 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024004303/http://www.csmonitor.com/1995/1006/06013.html |archive-date=24 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. [[Said Mohamed Djohar]], Soilihi's older half-brother, then became president, and served until September 1995, when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 October 1995 |newspaper=The New York Times |title=1,000 French Troops Invade Comoros to Put Down Coup |author=Marlise Simons |id=Section A; Page 10; Column 3 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/05/world/1000-french-troops-invade-comoros-to-put-down-coup.html |access-date=6 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722065731/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/05/world/1000-french-troops-invade-comoros-to-put-down-coup.html |archive-date=22 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |title=French Mercenary Gives Up in Comoros Coup |date=6 October 1995 |agency=Associated Press |id=Section A; Page 7; Column 1 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/06/world/french-mercenary-gives-up-in-comoros-coup.html |access-date=6 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722065736/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/06/world/french-mercenary-gives-up-in-comoros-coup.html |archive-date=22 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The French removed Djohar to Reunion, and the Paris-backed [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]] became president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labour crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death in November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim President [[Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros president dies from heart attack |author=Kamal Eddine Saindou |agency=Associated Press |pages=International News |date=6 November 1998 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19411384.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328162054/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19411384.html|url-status=dead |archive-date=28 March 2015}}</ref> The islands of [[Ndzwani]] and [[Mwali]] declared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels.<ref>{{cite news |title=COMORO ISLANDS: Tension Rising in the Indian Ocean Archipelago |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/1997/09/comoro-islands-tension-rising-in-the-indian-ocean-archipelago/ |author=Moyiga Nduru |publisher=IPS-Inter Press Service/Global Information Network |date=17 September 1997 |access-date=24 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024014506/http://www.ipsnews.net/1997/09/comoro-islands-tension-rising-in-the-indian-ocean-archipelago/ |archive-date=24 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 1999, Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]], Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a [[1999 Comorian coup d'état|bloodless coup]], overthrowing the Interim President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was the Comoros' 18th coup, or attempted coup d'état since independence in 1975.<ref>{{cite news |title=COMOROS: COUP LEADER GIVES REASONS FOR COUP |publisher=BBC Monitoring Africa (Radio France Internationale) |date=1 May 1999}}</ref> Assoumani failed to consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the subject of international criticism. The [[African Union]], under the auspices of President [[Thabo Mbeki]] of South Africa, imposed sanctions on Ndzwani to help broker negotiations and effect reconciliation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Breakaway island's ruler says no civilian rule until secession crisis resolved |agency=Associated Press |author=Rodrique Ngowi |date=3 August 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mbeki flies in to Comoros islands summit in bid to resolve political crisis |publisher=Agence France Presse |date=20 December 2003}}</ref> Under the terms of the Fomboni Accords,<ref>{{cite web |title=Accord cadre pour la reconciliation aux Comores (Accord de Fomboni) |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/comoros-accordfomboni2001 |website=UN Peacemaker |language=fr |date=17 February 2001 |access-date=1 May 2024 }}</ref> signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros; the new state was to be highly decentralised and the central union government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each led by a president. The Union president, although elected by national elections, would be chosen in rotation from each of the islands every five years. Assoumani stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force, and was not always democratic while in office, Assoumani led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new elections.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros said "calm" after Azali Assoumani declared elected as federal president |date=10 May 2002 |publisher=BBC Monitoring Africa}}</ref> A ''Loi des compétences'' law was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won by [[Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi]], a Sunni Muslim cleric nicknamed the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Assoumani honoured the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and democratic exchange of power for the archipelago.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros; Ahmed Abdallah Sambi Set to Win Presidency by a Landslide |date=15 May 2006 |publisher=AllAfrica, Inc. Africa News |author=UN Integrated Regional Information Networks}}</ref> Colonel [[Mohammed Bacar]], a French-trained former gendarme elected President of Ndzwani in 2001, refused to step down at the end of his five-year mandate. He staged a vote in June 2007 to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal government and the African Union. On 25 March 2008 hundreds of soldiers from the African Union and the Comoros seized rebel-held Ndzwani, generally welcomed by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of people tortured during Bacar's tenure.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMOROS: The legacy of a Big Man on a small island |date=10 December 2008 |publisher=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=81898 |access-date=25 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220055102/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=81898 |archive-date=20 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11 civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in a speedboat to Mayotte to seek asylum. Anti-French protests followed in the Comoros (see [[2008 invasion of Anjouan]]). Bacar was eventually granted asylum in Benin. Since independence from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups.<ref name=20Coups>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7316177.stm |title=Anti-French protests in Comoros |work=BBC News |date=27 March 2008 |access-date=27 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328234541/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7316177.stm |archive-date=28 March 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Following elections in late 2010, former Vice-president [[Ikililou Dhoinine]] was inaugurated as president on 26 May 2011. Dhoinine is the first President of the Comoros from the island of Mwali. Following the 2016 elections, [[Azali Assoumani]], from Ngazidja, became president for a third term. In 2018 Assoumani held a [[2018 Comorian constitutional referendum|referendum]] on constitutional reform that would permit a president to serve two terms. The amendments passed, although the vote was widely contested and boycotted by the opposition, and in April 2019, and to widespread opposition, Assoumani was [[2019 Comorian presidential election|re-elected]] president to serve the first of potentially two five-year terms.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-comoros-elections-idUKKCN1R72F9 |title=Comoros president named winner in election rejected by opposition |newspaper=[[Reuters]] |date=26 March 2019 |via=www.reuters.com |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415090434/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-comoros-elections-idUKKCN1R72F9 |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2020, the legislative [[2020 Comorian legislative election|elections]] in Comoros were dominated by President Azali Assoumani's party, the [[Convention for the Renewal of the Comoros]], CRC. It took an overwhelming majority in the parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/trend-lines/28540/with-comoros-elections-azali-assoumani-cements-his-authoritarian-rule |title=The Dangers of Assoumani's 'Creeping Authoritarianism' in Comoros |website=worldpoliticsreview.com |date=14 February 2020 |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301053642/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/trend-lines/28540/with-comoros-elections-azali-assoumani-cements-his-authoritarian-rule |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, Comoros signed and ratified the [[Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]], making it a nuclear-weapon-free state.<ref>{{cite web |title=Comoros ratifies UN nuclear weapon ban treaty |url=https://www.icanw.org/comoros_ratification |website=ICAN |language=en |access-date=28 July 2022 |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728222751/https://www.icanw.org/comoros_ratification |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 2023, Comoros was invited as a non-member guest to the G7 summit in [[Hiroshima]].<ref>{{cite web |title=G7 Summit 2023: Scrutinizing the Guest List |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/05/g7-summit-2023-scrutinizing-the-guest-list/ |website=thediplomat.com}}</ref> On 18 February 2023 the Comoros assumed the presidency of the [[African Union]].<ref>{{cite web |title=President Azali Assoumani of the Union of Comoros, Takes Over as the New Chairperson of the African Union (AU) for 2023 {{!}} African Union |url=https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20230218/president-azali-assoumani-union-comoros-takes-over-new-chairperson |website=au.int}}</ref> In January 2024, President Azali Assoumani was re-elected with 63% of the vote in the disputed presidential [[2024 Comorian presidential election|election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros President Azali Assoumani wins fourth term in disputed poll |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68002934 |date=17 January 2024}}</ref> In January 2025, the ruling party of president Azali Assoumani won parliamentary [[2025 Comorian parliamentary election|election]], taking 28 out of 33 parliamentary seats. The opposition parties rejected the results.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros ruling party wins parliamentary elections.The opposition parties rejected the results.|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/comoros-ruling-party-wins-parliamentary-elections-opposition-rejects-results-2025-01-15/ |access-date=20 February 2025 |work=Reuters |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> == Geography == {{more citations needed section|date=December 2017}} {{Main|Geography of the Comoros}} [[File:Cn-map.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of the Comoros]] The Comoros is formed by [[Ngazidja]] (Grande Comore), [[Mwali]] (Mohéli) and [[Ndzwani]] (Anjouan), three major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian-language names, though international sources still use their French names (given in parentheses above). The capital and largest city, [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]], is located on Ngazidja and the most densely populated city is Anjouan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Comoros |date=2024-10-02 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros/ |access-date=2024-10-05 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref> The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in the [[Mozambique Channel]], between the African coast (nearest to [[Mozambique]] and [[Tanzania]]) and [[Madagascar]], with no land borders. At {{cvt|1659|km2|mi2}}, it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to {{cvt|320|km2|sqmi}} of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills. The areas and populations (at the 2017 Census) of the main islands are as follows:<ref name="ReferenceA">Institut Nationale de la Statistique et Études Économiques et Démographiques, Comoros (web).</ref> {| class="sortable wikitable" |- ! Name || Area <br />km<sup>2</sup>|| Population<br />census 2017<ref name="ReferenceA"/> |- | Mwali ||align="right"|211||align="right"|51,567 |- | Ngazidja ||align="right"|1,024||align="right"|379,367 |- | Ndzwani ||align="right"|424||align="right"|327,382 |- | '''''Totals''''' ||align="right"|1,659||align="right"|758,316 |} Ngazidja is the largest of the Comoros Archipelago, with an area of 1,024 km<sup>2</sup>. It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's two volcanoes, [[Karthala]] (active) and [[La Grille]] (dormant), and the lack of good harbours are distinctive characteristics of its terrain. Mwali, with its capital at [[Fomboni]], is the smallest of the four major islands. Ndzwani, whose capital is [[Mutsamudu]], has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains – [[Sima, Comoros|Shisiwani]], [[Nioumakele]] and [[Jimilime]] – emanating from a central peak, {{ill|Mount Ntingui|fr|Mont Ntringui}} ({{cvt|1575|m|ft|disp=or}}). [[File:Gran Comore landscape.jpg|thumb|Grande Comore landscape]] The islands of the Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an active [[shield volcano]] located on Ngazidja, is the country's highest point, at {{convert|2361|m|abbr=off}}. It contains the Comoros' largest patch of disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May 2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005 eruption, which lasted from 17 to 19 April, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and the [[volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] in the volcano's {{convert|3|by|4|km|mi|frac=2|adj=on|spell=in|abbr=off}} [[caldera]] was destroyed.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} The Comoros also lays claim to the [[Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean|''Îles Éparses'' or ''Îles éparses de l'océan indien'']] (Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean) – [[Glorioso Islands]], comprising [[Grande Glorieuse]], [[Île du Lys]], [[Wreck Rock]], [[South Rock]], {{ill|Verte Rocks|fr|Roches Vertes}} (three islets) and three unnamed islets – one of France's overseas districts. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago. [[Banc du Geyser]], a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in the ''Îles Éparses'', but was annexed by [[Madagascar]] in 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros and France each still view the Banc du Geyser as part of the Glorioso Islands and, thus, part of its particular exclusive economic zone. === Climate === {{Main|Climate of the Comoros}} [[File:Comoros diver with fish (5974549425).jpg|thumb|Comoros diver with fish]] The climate is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their raininess. The temperature reaches an average of {{convert|29|-|30|C|F}} in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (called {{langr|sw|kashkazi/kaskazi}} [meaning north monsoon], which runs from November to April), and an average low of {{convert|19|°C|°F}} in the cool, dry season (kusi (meaning south monsoon), which proceeds from May to October).<ref>[[#Ottenheimer|Ottenheimer]], pp. 20, 72</ref> The islands are rarely subject to [[cyclone]]s. === Biodiversity === {{main|Comoros forests|Comoro Islands|Wildlife of the Comoros}} The Comoros constitute an [[ecoregion]] in their own right, [[Comoros forests]].<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Comoros forests|id=at0105}}</ref><ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287}}</ref> It had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.69/10, ranking it 33rd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G}}</ref> In December 1952 a specimen of the [[West Indian Ocean coelacanth]] fish was re-discovered off the Comoros coast. The 66-million-year-old species was thought to have been long extinct until its first recorded appearance in 1938 off the South African coast.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11755015/prehistoric_fish_offers_rare_glimpse_of/ |title=Prehistoric fish offers rare glimpse of hidden sea life – Coelacanth (1953) |date=23 February 1953 |work=Abilene Reporter-News |access-date=18 June 2017 |pages=25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401075904/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11755015/prehistoric_fish_offers_rare_glimpse_of/ |archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11755368/70millionyearold_fish_dissected/ |title=70-million-year-old fish dissected – Coaelacanth (1975) |date=28 May 1975 |work=Redlands Daily Facts |access-date=18 June 2017 |pages=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401050904/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/11755368/70millionyearold_fish_dissected/ |archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Protected areas=== There are six national parks in the Comoros – [[Karthala]], Coelacanth, and Mitsamiouli Ndroudi on Grande Comore, [[Mount Ntringui]] and [[Shisiwani National Park|Shisiwani]] on Anjouan, and [[Mohéli National Park]] on Mohéli. Karthala and Mount Ntrigui national parks cover the highest peaks on the respective islands, and Coelacanth, Mitsamiouli Ndroudi, and Shisiwani are marine national parks that protect the island's coastal waters and fringing reefs. Mohéli National Park includes both terrestrial and marine areas.<ref>UNEP-WCMC (2021). Protected Area Profile for Comoros from the World Database of Protected Areas. Accessed 31 August 2021. [https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/country/COM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831155830/https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/country/COM|date=31 August 2021}}</ref> == Government == {{Main|Politics of the Comoros}} {{see also|List of rulers of Comoros}} [[File:Moroni harbour (2).jpg|thumb|[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]], capital of the Comoros, with the port and Badjanani Mosque]] Politics of the Comoros takes place in a framework of a [[unitary state|unitary]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Comoros 2018 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2018 |website=Constitute |access-date=30 January 2024}}</ref> [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of the Comoros]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on 23 December 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was a watershed moment as it was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[Forms of government|government]] and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Comoros 2001 (rev. 2009) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009?lang=en#1 |website=Constitute |access-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906053225/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009?lang=en#1 |archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the islands' governments. Up to a referendum on 30.7.2018 (62.7% participation, 92.34% for the amendment according to the Comorian government) the presidency of the Union rotated between the islands.<ref name="CfHR_Law-of-the-Union">{{cite web |url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ComorosC%20(english%20summary)(rev).doc |date=23 December 2001 |format=DOC |title=Fundamental Law of the Union of Comoros (English excerpts) |publisher=Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria, South Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009114022/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ComorosC%20(english%20summary)(rev).doc |archive-date=9 October 2006 |access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref> === Legal system === The Comorian [[legal system]] rests on [[Islamic law]], an inherited French ([[Napoleonic Code]]) legal code, and customary law (mila na ntsi). Village elders, kadis or civilian courts settle most disputes. The [[judiciary]] is independent of the [[legislative]] and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island.<ref name="CfHR_Law-of-the-Union" /> === Political culture === Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country's complex administrative system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the overarching Union government.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMOROS: Reforming 'the coup-coup islands' |date=25 February 2009 |publisher=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83144 |access-date=25 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930032932/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83144 |archive-date=30 September 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> A referendum took place on 16 May 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. Following the implementation of the changes, each island's president became a governor and the ministers became councillors.<ref name=allafrica20090519>{{cite news |title=Comoros: Referendum Approves Downscaling of Government |publisher=AllAfrica Global Media |date=19 May 2009 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200905190777.html |access-date=20 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525063235/http://allafrica.com/stories/200905190777.html |archive-date=25 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of the Comoros}} In November 1975, the Comoros became the 143rd member of the [[United Nations]]. The new nation was defined as comprising the entire [[archipelago]], although the citizens of [[Mayotte]] chose to become French citizens and keep their island as a French territory.<ref>Security Council S/PV. 1888 para 247 S/11967 [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/membship/veto/vetosubj.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317010910/http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/membship/veto/vetosubj.htm|date=17 March 2008}} [http://legal.un.org/repertory/art33/english/rep_supp5_vol2-art33_e.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084240/http://legal.un.org/repertory/art33/english/rep_supp5_vol2-art33_e.pdf|date=6 October 2014}}</ref> The Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to Mayotte before the [[United Nations General Assembly]], which adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to the Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will become ''de facto'' part of the Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including the [[Organisation of African Unity]], the [[Movement of Non-Aligned Countries]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], have similarly questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte.<ref name="GA31_first-resolution">The first UN General Assembly Resolution regarding the matter, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080408191407/http://un.cti.depaul.edu/Countries/Comoros/1156213396.pdf Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte] (PDF)", United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/31/4, (21 October 1976) states "the occupation by France of the Comorian island of Mayotte constitutes a flagrant encroachment on the national unity of the Comorian State, a Member of the United Nations," rejecting the French-administered referendums and condemning French presence in Mayotte.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://un.cti.depaul.edu/Countries/Comoros/1156245840.pdf |title=Forty-ninth session: Agenda item 36: 49/18. Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte |work=United Nations General Assembly |date=6 December 1994|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527195255/http://un.cti.depaul.edu/Countries/Comoros/1156245840.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2008}}</ref> To close the debate and to avoid being integrated by force in the Union of the Comoros, the population of Mayotte overwhelmingly chose to become an [[overseas department]] and a [[region of France]] in a [[2009 Mahoran status referendum|2009 referendum]]. The new status was effective on 31 March 2011 and Mayotte has been recognised as an [[outermost region]] by the [[European Union]] on 1 January 2014. This decision legally integrates Mayotte in the [[French Republic]]. The Comoros is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Indian Ocean Commission]] and the [[African Development Bank]]. On 10 April 2008, the Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the [[Kyoto Protocol]] to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/application/pdf/kp_ratification.pdf |title=unfccc.int KYOTO PROTOCOL – STATUS OF RATIFICATION |website=Unfccc.int |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918081611/http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/application/pdf/kp_ratification.pdf |archive-date=18 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Comoros signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Azali Assoumani]], President of the Comoros and Chair of the [[African Union]], attended the [[2023 Russia–Africa Summit]] in Saint Petersburg.<ref>{{cite news |title=African leaders leave Russia summit without grain deal or a path to end the war in Ukraine |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-africa-summit-ukraine-grain-war-125d5a6d5052f4221c46be52c1618cf7 |work=AP News |date=30 July 2023}}</ref> In May 2013 the Union of the Comoros became known for filing a referral to the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the events of "the 31 May 2010 Israeli raid on the Humanitarian Aid Flotilla bound for [the] Gaza Strip". In November 2014 the ICC Prosecutor eventually decided<ref>Office of the Prosecutor, Situation on Registered Vessels of Comoros, Greece and Cambodia Article 53(1) Report, [http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/OTP-COM-Article_53%281%29-Report-06Nov2014Eng.pdf "Report of 6th November 2014"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319233648/http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/OTP-COM-Article_53(1)-Report-06Nov2014Eng.pdf |date=19 March 2015 }}</ref> that the events did constitute war crimes but did not meet the gravity standards of bringing the case before ICC.<ref>Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, [[Fatou Bensouda]], on concluding the preliminary examination of the situation referred by the Union of the Comoros: "Rome Statute legal requirements have not been met",[http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/structure%20of%20the%20court/office%20of%20the%20prosecutor/reports%20and%20statements/statement/Pages/otp-statement-06-11-2014.aspx "Statement of 6th November 2014"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602191655/http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/structure%20of%20the%20court/office%20of%20the%20prosecutor/reports%20and%20statements/statement/Pages/otp-statement-06-11-2014.aspx |date=2 June 2015 }}</ref> The emigration rate of skilled workers was about 21.2% in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Dilip |last1=Ratha |author2=Sanket Mohapatra |author3=Ani Silwal |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/Comoros.pdf |title=The Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011: Comoros |work=Worldbank.org |date=2011 |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054019/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/Comoros.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> === Military === {{Main|Army of National Development}} The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 600-member defence force.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/2023/countries/comoros/#military-and-security |title=Military and Security |website=cia.gov |date=2023 |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/2023/field/military-and-security-forces |title=Military and security forces |website=cia.gov |date=2023 |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref> A defence treaty with France<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/cr-cafe/11-12/c1112018.asp |title=– Comores : accord instituant un partenariat de défense (n° 3598) |website=assemblee-nationale.fr |author=Martine Aurillac |date=16 November 2010 |language=fr |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref> provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains the presence of a few senior officers in the Comoros at government request, as well as a small maritime base and a [[French Foreign Legion|Foreign Legion]] Detachment (DLEM) on [[Mayotte]]. Once the new government was installed in May–June 2011, an expert mission from UNREC (Lomé) came to the Comoros and produced guidelines for the elaboration of a national security policy, which were discussed by different actors, notably the national defence authorities and civil society.<ref>FINAL EVALUATION, Peace Building Fund Programme in the Comoros 2008–2011, 19 October 2011 – 8 November 2011</ref> By the end of the programme in end March 2012, a normative framework agreed upon by all entities involved in SSR will have been established.{{Update inline|date=August 2021}} This will then have to be adopted by Parliament and implemented by the authorities. === Human rights === {{Main|Human rights in the Comoros}} Both male and female [[LGBT rights in the Comoros|same-sex sexual acts]] are illegal in Comoros.<ref>{{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Avery |title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal |url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 |work=Newsweek |date=4 April 2019 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=11 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211204842/https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 |url-status=live }}</ref> Such acts are punished with up to five years' imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |title=State-Sponsored Homophobia |url=https://ilga.org/state-sponsored-homophobia-report |website=International Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association |date=20 March 2019 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=8 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208040345/https://ilga.org/state-sponsored-homophobia-report |url-status=live }}</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of the Comoros}} [[File:Historical economic growth of the Comores.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|GDP per capita development, since 1950]] The level of [[poverty]] in the Comoros is high, but "judging by the [[Poverty threshold|international poverty threshold]] of $1.9 per person per day, only two out of every ten Comorians could be classified as poor, a rate that places the Comoros ahead of other [[low-income countries]] and 30 percentage points ahead of other countries in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]."<ref name=2018WorldBank>[https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/comoros/publication/latest-report-on-poverty-in-the-comoros Latest Report on Poverty in the Comoros] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129213150/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/comoros/publication/latest-report-on-poverty-in-the-comoros |date=29 January 2020 }}, World Bank (14 June 2018).</ref> Poverty declined by about 10% between 2014 and 2018, and living conditions generally improved.<ref name=2018WorldBank/> [[Economic inequality]] remains widespread, with a major gap between rural and urban areas.<ref name=2018WorldBank/> [[Remittance]]s through the sizable Comorian diaspora form a substantial part of the country's GDP<ref name=CSIS>[https://www.csis.org/analysis/comoros-big-troubles-some-small-islands Comoros: Big Troubles on Some Small Islands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129222939/https://www.csis.org/analysis/comoros-big-troubles-some-small-islands |date=29 January 2020 }}, Center for Strategic and International Studies (14 April 2008).</ref> and have contributed to decreases in poverty and increases in living standards.<ref name=2018WorldBank/> According to [[ILO]]'s ILOSTAT statistical database, between 1991 and 2019 the [[unemployment rate]] as a percent of the total labor force ranged from 4.38% to 4.3%.<ref>[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612090355/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS |date=12 June 2019 }}, International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT database. Data retrieved in December 2019.</ref> An October 2005 paper by the Comoros Ministry of Planning and Regional Development, however, reported that "registered unemployment rate is 14.3 percent, distributed very unevenly among and within the islands, but with marked incidence in urban areas."<ref name="Office of the General Commissioner for Planning, Ministry of Planning and Regional Development">{{cite web |title=Union of the Comoros: Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy Paper (Updated Interim Paper) |publisher=Office of the General Commissioner for Planning, Ministry of Planning and Regional Development |date=October 2005 |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRS1/Resources/Comoros_IPRSP(Oct2005).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231121817/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRS1/Resources/Comoros_IPRSP(Oct2005).pdf |archive-date=31 December 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, more than 56% of the labor force was employed in agriculture, with 29% employed in industry and 14% employed in services.<ref>[https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/comoros/economy Comoros: Economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129213148/https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/comoros/economy |date=29 January 2020 }}, globalEDGE, Michigan State University (29 January 2020).</ref> The islands' agricultural sector is based on the export of [[spice]]s, including [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]], and [[cloves]], and thus susceptible to price fluctuations in the volatile world [[commodity market]] for these goods.<ref name=CSIS/> The Comoros is the world's largest producer of [[ylang-ylang]], a plant whose extracted [[essential oil]] is used in the [[perfume]] industry; some 80% of the world's supply comes from the Comoros.<ref>Sarah Graingerm [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3652780.stm Comoros seeks sweet smell of success] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129213845/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3652780.stm |date=29 January 2020 }}, BBC News (14 September 2004).</ref> High population densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometre in the densest agricultural zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an environmental crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate of population growth. In 2004 the Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% and real GDP per capita continued to decline. These declines are explained by factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla.<ref name="Office of the General Commissioner for Planning, Ministry of Planning and Regional Development" /> Fiscal policy is constrained by erratic fiscal revenues, a bloated civil service wage bill, and an external debt that is far above the [[Heavily indebted poor countries|HIPC]] threshold. Membership in the franc zone, the main anchor of stability, has nevertheless helped contain pressures on domestic prices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfw4a.org/comoros/comoros-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Comoros: Financial Sector Profile |publisher=mfw4a.org |access-date=15 January 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513113341/http://www.mfw4a.org/comoros/comoros-financial-sector-profile.html |archive-date=13 May 2011}}</ref> The Comoros has an inadequate transportation system,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.carkomori.com/en/blog/enhancing-comoros-transport-network-a-road-to-sustainable-progress |title=Enhancing Comoros' Transport Network: A Road to Sustainable Progress |website=carkomori.com |date=20 September 2024 |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref> a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labour force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high [[unemployment]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Comoros/Youth_unemployment/ |title=Comoros: Youth unemployment |website=theglobaleconomy.com |date=2023 |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref> and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to [[GDP]] and provides most of the exports. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatise commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/comoros |title=Rural Poverty Portal |work=ruralpovertyportal.org |access-date=7 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118042213/https://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/comoros |archive-date=18 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The Comoros is a member of the Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa ([[OHADA]]).<ref name="ohada.com"> {{cite web |title=OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa |url=http://www.ohada.com/index.php |access-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php |archive-date=26 March 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of the Comoros}} {{Largest cities | country = Comoros | stat_ref = Source:<ref name=LESOTHOCITIES>{{cite web |url=https://simplemaps.com/static/data/country-cities/km/km.xlsx|title=Comoros Cities by Population, 2022}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = | div_link = Islands of Comoros{{!}}Island | city_1 = Moroni, Comoros{{!}}Moroni| div_1 = Grande Comore| pop_1 = 111,329| img_1 = Moroni harbour (2).jpg | city_2 = Mutsamudu | div_2 = Anjouan| pop_2 = 30,000| img_2 = Citadel of Mutsamudu (9983241846).jpg | city_3 =Ouani| div_3 =Anjouan| pop_3 = 22,501| img_3 =Stade De ouani anjouan.JPG | city_4 = Mandza | div_4 =Grande Comore| pop_4 = 21,000| img_4 = | city_5 = Fomboni| div_5 = Mohéli| pop_5 = 18,277 | city_6 = Domoni| div_6 = Anjouan| pop_6 = 16,276 | city_7 = Adda-Douéni| div_7 = Anjouan | pop_7 = 10,858 | city_8 =Kourani| div_8 = Grande Comore| pop_8 = 10,000 | city_9 = Bazimini| div_9 = Anjouan | pop_9 = 8,952 | city_10 = Mkazi| div_10 = Grande Comore| pop_10 = 8,438 }} [[File:Moroni Mosque Photo by Sascha Grabow.jpg|thumb|upright|A mosque in Moroni]] With about 850,000 residents, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but its population density is high, with an average of {{convert|275|PD/km2|PD/sqmi}}. In 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, but the urban population has since grown; in recent years rural population growth has been negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high.<ref>Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (2005) [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005WUPHighlights_Final_Report.pdf ''World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623123645/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005WUPHighlights_Final_Report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005WUPHighlights_Final_Report.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |date=23 June 2017 }}.</ref> In 1958 the population was 183,133.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Population census of the Comoro Islands, 1951, 1956 and 1958|publisher=Research Publications|location=New Haven, Connecticut|type=mircofilm|year=1977|oclc=3659638}}</ref> In 2009, almost half the population of the Comoros was under the age of 15.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/129467/Comoros Comoros] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626081927/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/129467/Comoros |date=26 June 2009 }}". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Major urban centres include [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]], [[Mitsamihuli]], [[Foumbouni]], [[Mutsamudu]], [[Domoni]], and [[Fomboni]]. There are between 200,000 and 350,000 Comorians in France.<ref>"[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL27778648 FACTBOX-Relations between France and Comoros] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012030947/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL27778648 |date=12 October 2017 }}". Reuters. 27 March 2008.</ref> === Ethnic groups === The islands of the Comoros are 97.1% ethnically [[Demographics of the Comoros|Comorian]], which is a mixture of [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]], and [[Arab]] people.<ref name="Comoros - People {{!}} Britannica"/> Minorities include [[Makua people|Makua]] and [[South Asian ethnic groups|Indian]] (mostly [[Ismaili]]). There are recent immigrants of [[Chinese people|Chinese]] origin in Grande Comore (especially Moroni). Although most French left after independence in 1975, a small [[Creole peoples|Creole]] community, descended from settlers from France, Madagascar and Réunion, lives in the Comoros.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2018 |title=Comoros country profile |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13229685 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516073917/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13229685 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Languages === {{Further|Languages of the Comoros}} The most common [[Languages of the Comoros|languages in the Comoros]] are the [[Comorian languages]], collectively known as ''Shikomori''. They are related to [[Swahili language|Swahili]], and the four different variants (Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shindzwani and Shimaore) are spoken on each of the four islands. [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Latin script|Latin]] scripts are both used, Arabic being the more widely used, and an [[Official script|official orthography]] has recently been developed for the Latin script.<ref name=chamanga>{{cite book |author=Mohamed Ahmed-Chamanga |title=Introduction à la grammaire structurale du comorien |place=Moroni |publisher=Komedit |year=2010}}</ref> [[Arabic]] and [[French language|French]] are also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching. French is the administrative language and the language of most non-Quranic formal education. === Religion === {{Further|Religion in the Comoros}} [[File:Anjouan - Islands of Comoros.jpg|thumb|A view of Domoni, [[Anjouan]] including mosque]] [[Sunni Islam]] is [[Islam in the Comoros|the dominant religion]], followed by as much as 99% of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros/ |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |work=cia.gov |access-date=15 May 2007 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110042946/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros |url-status=live }}</ref> Comoros is the only Muslim-majority country in Southern Africa and one of the three southernmost Muslim-majority territories, along with [[Mayotte]] and the Australian territory of [[Cocos Islands]]. [[Roman Catholicism in the Comoros|A minority of the population]] of the Comoros are Christian, both Catholic and Protestant denominations are represented, and most Malagasy residents are also Christian. Immigrants from metropolitan France are mostly [[Catholic]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Comoros |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=15 January 2011 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110042946/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros |url-status=live }}</ref> === Health === {{Further|Health in the Comoros}} There are 15 physicians per 100,000 people. The [[fertility rate]] was 4.7 per adult woman in 2004. [[Life expectancy]] at birth is 67 for females and 62 for males.<ref name="afro.who.int">{{cite web |url=http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/comoros.pdf |title=WHO Country Offices in the WHO African Region – WHO Regional Office for Africa |publisher=Afro.who.int |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107104115/http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/comoros.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2010}}</ref> In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Comoros ranks 81st out of 127 countries with sufficient data, with a score of 18.8, which indicates a moderate level of hunger.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en}}</ref> == Education == {{Further|Education in the Comoros}} Almost all children attend Quran religious schools, usually before, although increasingly in tandem with regular schooling. Children are taught about the [[Qur'an]], and memorise it, and learn the [[Arabic]] script. Most parents prefer their children to attend Koran religious schools before moving on to the [[French language|French]]- [[English language|English]] based schooling system. Although the state sector is plagued by a lack of resources, and the teachers by unpaid salaries, there are numerous private and community schools of relatively good standard. The national curriculum, apart from a few years during the revolutionary period immediately post-independence, has been very much based on the French system, both because resources are French and most Comorans hope to go on to further education in [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. There have recently been moves to "Comorianise" the syllabus and integrate the two systems, the formal and the [[Quran]] religious schools, into one, thus moving away from the secular educational system inherited from France.<ref>Damir Ben Ali & Iain Walker. 2017 "Attempts at fusion of the Comorian educational systems: religious education in Comorian and [[Arabic]] and secular education in French". In I. Walker. ed., Contemporary issues in [[Swahili people|Swahili]] ethnography. [[London]], [[Paris]]; [[New York City|New York]]: Routledge.</ref> Pre-[[colonization|colonisation]] education systems in Comoros focused on necessary skills such as agriculture, caring for livestock and completing household tasks. Religious education also taught [[Islam]]. The education system underwent a transformation during [[colonisation]] in the early 1900s which brought secular education based on the [[France|French]] system. This was mainly for children of the elite. After Comoros gained independence in 1975, the education system changed again. Funding for teachers' salaries was lost, and many went on strike. Thus, the public education system was not functioning between 1997 and 2001. Since gaining independence, the education system has also undergone a democratisation and options exist for those other than the elite. Enrollment has also grown.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} In 2000, 44.2% of children aged 5 to 14 years were attending school. There is a general lack of facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks and other resources. [[Salaries]] for teachers are often so far in arrears that many refuse to work.<ref name=ilab>"Comoros". [http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf |date=9 January 2014 }}. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]]''.</ref> Prior to 2000, students seeking a university education had to attend school outside of the country In [[Europe]] and [[Americas]] especially: [[France]], [[United Kingdom]].: However, in the early 2000s a university was created in the country. This served to help economic growth and to fight the "flight" of many educated people who were not returning to the islands to work.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.univ-comores.km |title=Université des Comores |website=Univ-comores.km |access-date=12 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503010516/http://www.univ-comores.km/ |archive-date=3 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Comorian language|Comorian]] has no native script, but both the [[Arabic]] and [[Latin]] alphabets are used. In 2004, about 57 percent of the population was literate in the [[Latin script]] while more than 90 percent were literate in the [[Arabic script]].<ref>[http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/EDU/countryProfile_en.aspx?code=1740 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, country profile of Comoros; 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231044041/http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/EDU/countryProfile_en.aspx?code=1740 |date=31 December 2006 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://cwur.org/2021-22.php | title=World University Rankings 2021–22 | Global 2000 List | CWUR }}</ref> == Culture == {{See also|Public holidays in the Comoros}} Traditionally, women on Ndzwani wear red and white patterned garments called ''shiromani'', while on Ngazidja and Mwali colourful shawls called ''leso'' are worn. Many women apply a paste of ground [[sandalwood]] and [[coral]] called ''[[msindzano]]'' to their faces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://al-hakawati.net/english/states/comoros.asp |title=Union of Comoros |publisher=Arab Cultural Trust |access-date=29 November 2016|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227144510/http://al-hakawati.net/english/states/comoros.asp |archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> Traditional male clothing is a long white shirt known as a ''nkandu'', and a bonnet called a ''kofia''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comoros-islands.com/index.php?!=15 |title=Comoros Islands: Islands & Beyond |publisher=comoros-islands.com |access-date=29 November 2016|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115135340/http://www.comoros-islands.com/index.php?!=15 |archive-date=15 November 2016}}</ref> === Marriage === There are two types of marriages in Comoros, the little marriage (known as ''Mna daho'' on Ngazidja) and the customary marriage (known as ''ada'' on Ngazidja, ''harusi'' on the other islands). The little marriage is a simple legal marriage. It is small, intimate, and inexpensive, and the bride's dowry is nominal. A man may undertake a number of ''Mna daho'' marriages in his lifetime, often at the same time, a woman fewer; but both men and women will usually only undertake one ''ada'', or grand marriage, and this must generally be within the village. The hallmarks of the grand marriage are dazzling gold jewelry, two weeks of celebration and an enormous bridal dowry. Although the expenses are shared between both families as well as with a wider social circle, an ada wedding on Ngazidja can cost up to €50,000.<ref>Walker, Iain. "Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros." Hurst Publishers. 2019, p 212.</ref> Many couples take a lifetime to save for their ada, and it is not uncommon for a marriage to be attended by a couple's adult children.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Walker |first=Iain |year=2002 |title=Les aspects économiques du grand mariage de Ngazidja |journal=Autrepart |volume=23 |pages=157–171 |doi=10.3917/autr.023.0157}}</ref> The ''ada'' marriage marks a man's transition in the Ngazidja age system from youth to elder. His status in the social hierarchy greatly increases, and he will henceforth be entitled to speak in public and participate in the political process, both in his village and more widely across the island. He will be entitled to display his status by wearing a ''mharuma'', a type of shawl, across his shoulders, and he can enter the mosque by the door reserved for elders, and sit at the front. A woman's status also changes, although less formally, as she becomes a "mother" and moves into her own house. The system is less formalised on the other islands, but the marriage is nevertheless a significant and costly event across the archipelago. The ''ada'' is often criticized because of its great expense, but at the same time it is a source of social cohesion and the main reason why migrants in France and elsewhere continue to send money home. Increasingly, marriages are also being taxed for the purposes of village development.<ref name="Walker, Iain 2010">Walker, Iain. "Becoming the Other, Being Oneself: Constructing Identities in a Connected World." Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2010.</ref> === Kinship and social structure === [[File:JOUR DE L'AÏDE DHUL HAJJ BANGOI-KOUNI.jpg|thumb|Villagers in Bangwa Kuuni, Ngazidja]] Comorian society has a [[bilateral descent]] system. Lineage membership and inheritance of immovable goods (land, housing) is matrilineal, passed in the maternal line, similar to many [[Bantu peoples]] who are also matrilineal, while other goods and patronymics are passed in the male line. However, there are differences between the islands, the matrilineal element being stronger on Ngazidja.<ref name="Walker, Iain 2010"/> === Music === {{Further|Music of the Comoros}} [[Twarab]] music, imported from [[Zanzibar]] in the early 20th century, remains the most influential genre on the islands and is popular at ''ada'' marriages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graebner |first1=Werner |year=2001 |title=Twarab ya shingazidja: a first approach |journal=Swahili Forum |volume=8 |pages=129–143}}</ref> === Media === {{Further|Mass media in the Comoros}} There are two daily national [[newspaper]]s published in the Comoros, the government-owned ''[[Al-Watwan]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alwatwan.net |title=Accueil – Al-watwan, Quotidien comorien |website=Alwatwan.net |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826071119/https://alwatwan.net/ |archive-date=26 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and the privately owned ''La Gazette des Comores'', both published in [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]. There are a number of smaller newsletters published on an irregular basis as well as a variety of news websites. The government-owned ORTC (Office de Radio et Télévision des Comores) provides national radio and television service. There is a TV station run by the [[Anjouan]] regional government, and regional governments on the islands of [[Grande Comore]] and Anjouan each operate a radio station. There are also a few independent and small community radio stations that operate on the islands of Grande Comore and [[Mohéli]], and these two islands have access to Mayotte Radio and French TV.<ref>{{CIA World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/comoros/#communications |article=Comoros: Communications}}</ref> == See also == {{portal|Africa}} *[[Index of Comoros-related articles]] *[[Outline of the Comoros]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|35em}} === Sources === {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |ref=Ottenheimer |title=Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. ''African Historical Dictionaries; No. 59'' |author1=Martin Ottenheimer |author2=Harriet Ottenheimer |year=1994 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, NJ |isbn=978-0-585-07021-6}} *{{cite book |title=Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros |author=Iain Walker |year=2019 |publisher=Hurst Publishers |location=London, England |isbn=9781787381469}} *This article incorporates text from the [[Library of Congress]] Country Studies, which is in the [[public domain]]. {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Comoros|Comoros|collapsible=collapsed}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101210081335/http://www.beit-salam.km/ Union des Comores] – Official government website *{{Wikiatlas|Comoros}} *[https://go2comoros.com/ Tourism website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227184315/https://go2comoros.com/ |date=27 February 2021 }} *[http://www.embassy.org/embassies/km.html Embassy des Comores] – The Federal and Islamic Republic of the Comoros in New York, United States *{{GovPubs|comoros}} *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13229685 Comoros] from the [[BBC News]] *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=KM Key Development Forecasts for Comoros] from [[International Futures]] {{Clear}} {{Comoros topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Somali Plate}} {{Arab League}} {{Organization of Islamic Cooperation |state=collapsed }} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie |state=collapsed }} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|12.3|S|43.7|E|display=title}} {{Years in the Comoros}} [[Category:Comoros| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:1975 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language]] [[Category:Comoros archipelago]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Former federations]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Island countries of the Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Small Island Developing States]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1503]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1975]]
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