Editing Comitative case

{{Short description|Grammatical case denoting accompaniment}}
{{Grammatical categories|Subfields1}}
In [[grammar]], the '''comitative case''' ([[list of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] {{sc|'''com'''}}) is a [[grammatical case]] that denotes accompaniment.<ref name=Stolz2006>{{cite book|last1=Stolz|last2=Stroh|last3=Urdze|first1=Thomas|first2=Cornelia|first3=Aina|title=On Comitatives and Related Categories: A Typological Study with Special Focus on the Languages of Europe|year=2006|location=Berlin|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9783110197648|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYwb6-w1AjkC&q=on+comitatives+and+related+categories}}</ref>{{rp|17–23}} In [[English language|English]], the preposition "with", in the sense of "in company with" or "together with", plays a substantially similar role. Other uses of "with", like in the meaning of "using" or "by means of" (I cut bread with a knife), correspond to the [[instrumental case]] or related cases.

==Core meaning==
The comitative case encodes a relationship of "accompaniment" between two participants in an event, called the "accompanier" and the "companion". In addition, there is a "relator" (which can be of multiple lexical categories, but is most commonly an [[affix]] or [[adposition]]).<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|17–18}} Use of the comitative case gives prominence to the accompanier.<ref name=Stolz2009>{{cite book|last1=Stolz|last2=Stroh|last3=Urdze|first1=Thomas|first2=Cornelia|first3=Aina|title=The Oxford Handbook of Case|year=2009|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=Varieties of Comitative|editor-first1=Andrej |editor-last1=Malchukov |editor-first2=Andrew |editor-last2=Spencer|pages=593–600}}</ref>{{rp|602}} This [[Italian language|Italian]] sentence is an example:

:<nowiki>[</nowiki>''il professore''<nowiki>]</nowiki><sub>accompanier</sub> ''entra nell'aula'' <nowiki>[</nowiki>''con''<nowiki>]</nowiki><sub>relator</sub> <nowiki>[</nowiki>''i suoi studenti''<nowiki>]</nowiki><sub>companion</sub>
:<nowiki>'the professor enters the lecture-hall (together) with his students'</nowiki>.<ref name=Stolz2009 />{{rp|602}}

In this case, {{lang|it|il professore}} is the accompanier, {{lang|it|i suoi studenti}} is the companion, and {{lang|it|con}} is the relator. As the accompanier, {{lang|it|il professore}} is the most prominent.

[[Animacy]] also plays a major role in most languages with a comitative case. One group of languages requires both the accompanier  and the companion to be either human or animate. Another group requires both to be in the same category: both human or both animate. A third group requires an animate accompanier and an inanimate companion. Other languages have no restrictions based on animacy.<ref name=Stolz2009 />{{rp|603–604}}

==Comparison to similar cases==

The comitative case is often conflated or confused with other similar cases, especially the [[instrumental case]] and the [[associative case]].

The comitative relates to an accompanier and a companion, and the instrumental relates to an [[agent (grammar)|agent]], an [[object (grammar)|object]], and a [[patient (grammar)|patient]].<ref name=Narrog>{{cite book|last=Narrog|first=Heiko|title=The Oxford Handbook of Case|year=2009|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press Inc.|chapter=Varieties of Instrumental|editor-first1=Andrej |editor-last1=Malchukov |editor-first2=Andrew |editor-last2=Spencer|pages=601–608}}</ref>{{rp|593}} Enrique Palancar defines the role of Instrumental case as <nowiki>'the role played by the object the Agent manipulates to achieve a change of state of the Patient.'</nowiki><ref>{{cite journal|last=Palancar|first=E. L.|year=1999|title=Instrumental Prefixes in Amerindian Languages: An Overview to their Meanings, Origin, and Functions|journal=Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung|volume=52|pages=151–166}}</ref> Even though the difference is straightforward, because the instrumental and the comitative are expressed the same way in many languages, including [[English language|English]], it is often difficult to separate them.

Russian is one of many languages that differentiate morphologically between instrumental and comitative:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|lang=ru
|Я пойду в кино с мамой
|Ya poydu v kino s mamoy
|I go in cinema with mom.COM
|'I'll go to the cinema with my mom.'}}

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|lang=ru|abbreviations=INSTR:instrumental case
|Я нарезал хлеб этим ножом
|Ya narezal khleb etim nozhom
|I cut bread this.INSTR knife.INSTR
|'I cut the bread with this knife.'<ref name=Heine&Kuteva />}}

In Russian, the comitative is marked by adding a preposition {{lang|ru|с}} and by declining the companion in the instrumental case; the design {{lang|ru|с мамой}} as a whole becomes comitative. In the instrumental case, the object is declined, but no preposition is added.<ref name=Heine&Kuteva>{{cite book|last1=Heine|last2=Kuteva|first1=Bernd|first2=Tania|title=The Changing Languages of Europe|year=2006|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=188}}</ref>

The comitative case is often confused with the associative case. Before the term comitative was applied to the accompanier-companion relationship, the relationship was often called associative case, a term still used by some linguists.<ref>{{cite book|last=Haspelmath|first=Martin|title=The Oxford Handbook of Case|year=2009|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-first1=Andrej |editor-last1=Malchukov |editor-first2=Andrew |editor-last2=Spencer|chapter=Terminology of Case|pages=514}}</ref>

It is important to distinguish between the comitative and the associative because the associative also refers to a specific variety of the comitative case that is used in Hungarian.<ref name=Stolz2009 />{{rp|605}}

==Expressions of comitative semantic relation==

Grammatical case is a category of inflectional morphology. The comitative case is an expression of the comitative semantic relation through inflectional [[affixation]], by [[prefix]]es, [[suffix]]es and [[circumfix]]es. Although all three major types of affixes are used in at least a few languages, suffixes are the most common expression. Languages which use affixation to express the comitative include [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], which uses suffixes; [[Totonac languages|Totonac]], which uses prefixes; and [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]], which uses circumfixes.<ref name=Stolz2009 />{{rp|602}}

Comitative relations are also commonly expressed by using [[prepositions|adpositions]]: prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions. Examples of languages that use adpositional constructions to express comitative relations are French, which uses prepositions; [[Wayampi language|Wayãpi]], which uses postpositions; and [[Bambara language|Bambara]], which uses circumpositions.<ref name=Stolz2009/>{{rp|603}}

[[Adverb|Adverbial constructions]] can also mark comitative relations, but they act very similarly to adpositions. One language that uses adverbs to mark the comitative case is Latvian.<ref name=Stolz2009 />{{rp|603}}

The final way in which comitative relations can be expressed is by [[Serial verb construction|serial-verb constructions]]. In these languages, the comitative marker is usually a verb whose basic meaning is "to follow". A language which marks comitative relations with serial-verb constructions is [[Chinese language|Chinese]].<ref name=Stolz2009/>{{rp|603}}

==Examples==

===Indo-European languages===
====Latvian====
In Latvian, both instrumental and comitative are expressed with the preposition {{lang|lv|ar}}<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|102}} However, it is used only when the companion is in accusative and singular or when it is in dative and plural. Otherwise the co-ordinating conjunction {{lang|lv|un}} is used.<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|21}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=lv
|un Nelda ar Rudolfu ļoti nozīmīgi pa-skatījās uz Ernestīni
|and Nelda.NOM COM Rudolf.ACC very significantly at-look.PRET.REFL.3 on Ernestine.ACC
|'And Nelda and Rudolf looked very knowingly at Ernestine.'<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|21}}}}

In the example above, {{lang|lv|ar}} is used because Rudolf, the companion, is in accusative and singular. Below, it is used in the other case that it is allowed, with a dative plural companion.

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=lv
|jo ne-bija ne-kāda prieka dzīvot zem sveša jumta un vēl ar vis-iem zirg-iem un rat-iem
|because NEG-be.PAST.3 NEG-some.GEN fun.GEN live.INF under foreign.GEN roof.GEN and still COM all-DAT.PL horse-DAT.PL and cart-DAT.PL
|'Because it was no fun to live under someone else's roof, especially with all the horses and the cart'.<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|307}}}}

===Uralic languages===

====Estonian====

In Estonian, the comitative ({{lang|et|kaasaütlev}}) marker is the suffix {{lang|et|-ga}}.<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|90}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=et
|ja Barber rüüpa-b koos Balthasari-ga sügava sõõmu
|and Barber drink-3SG together Balthasar-COM deep.GEN mouthful.GEN
|'And Barber takes a sip together with Balthasar.'<ref name=Stolz2006 />{{rp|90}}}}

====Finnish====
In Finnish, the comitative case ({{lang|fi|komitatiivi}}) consists of the suffix {{lang|fi|-ne}} with adjectives and {{lang|fi|-ne-}} + a mandatory [[possessive suffix]] with the main noun. There is no singular-plural distinction; only the plural of the comitative exists and is used in both singular and plural senses, and thus it always appears as {{lang|fi|-ine-}}.  For instance, "with their big ships" is

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=fi
|suuri-ne laivo-i-ne-en
|big-COM ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3PL
}}
while "with his/her big ships" is
{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=fi
|suuri-ne laivo-i-ne-nsa
|big-COM ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3SG
|}}

It is rarely used and is mainly a feature of formal literary language, appearing very rarely in everyday speech.

The much more common, less formal way of expressing "with" is with the postposition {{lang|fi|kanssa}}, e.g., {{lang|fi|suurten laivojensa kanssa}} {{gloss|with their big ships}}. The two forms may contrast, however, since the comitative always comes with the possessive suffix and thus can only be used when the agent has some sort of possession of the thing expressed by the main noun. For instance, {{lang|fi|Ulkoministeri jatkaa kollegoineen neuvotteluja sissien kanssa}}, {{gloss|The foreign minister, with [assistance from] his colleagues, is continuing the negotiations with the guerrillas}}, has {{lang|fi|kollegoineen}} {{gloss|with his colleagues}} contrasted with {{lang|fi|sissien kanssa}} {{gloss|with the guerrillas}}, the former "possessed", the latter not.

Colloquial Finnish also has the postposition {{lang|fi|kaa}}, derived from {{lang|fi|kanssa}} and cognate with the Estonian {{lang|et|-ga}}. With pronouns it is written as a suffix, {{lang|fi|-kaa}}. Compare also [[Ingrian language|Ingrian]] {{lang|izh|-nka/-nkä}}, e.g., {{lang|izh|talonka}} {{gloss|with a house}}.

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=fi
|mun-kaa
|1SG.GEN-with
|'with me'}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=fi
|mun kavereitten kaa
|1SG-GEN friend-GEN-PL with
|'with my friends'}}

====Sami languages====
As there are many [[Sami languages]] there are variations between them. In the largest Sami language, [[Northern Sami]], the comitative case means either communion, fellowship, connection - or instrument, tool. It can be used either as an [[Object (grammar)|object]] or as an [[adverbial]].

It is expressed through the suffix {{lang|se|-in}} in the singular and {{lang|se|-iguin}} in the plural.

An example of the object use in Northern Sami is {{lang|se|Dat láve álo riidalit isidi'''in'''}} {{gloss|She always argues '''with''' her husband}}. An example of the adverbial use is {{lang|se|Mun čálán bleahka'''in'''}} {{gloss|I write '''with''' ink}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nickel|first=Klaus Peter|title=Samisk Grammatikk |trans-title=Sami Grammar|edition=2nd|year=1994|location=Karasjok, Norway|publisher=Davvi Girji|page=399}}</ref>

====Hungarian====
{{see also|Sociative case}}

In Hungarian, comitative case is marked by the suffix {{lang|hu|-stul/-stül}}, as shown in the example below.<ref name=Kenesei>{{cite book|last1=Kenesei|last2=Vago|last3=Fenyvesi|first1=István|first2=Robert M.|first3=Anna|title=Hungarian|year=1998|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbGclNrVEEAC&q=comitative|pages=212–213|isbn=9780415021395}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=hu
|ruhá-stul és cipő-stül feküd-t-em az ágy-ban
|clothes-COM and shoe-COM lie-PAST-INDEF.1SG the bed-INE
|'I was lying in bed with my clothes and shoes on.'<ref name=Kenesei />}}

However, the comitative case marker cannot be used if the companion  has a plural marker. So when the comitative marker is added to a noun, it obscures whether that noun is singular or plural.<ref name=Kenesei />

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=hu
|gyerek-estül men-t-ek nyaral-ni
|child-COM go-PAST-INDEF.3PL vacation-INF
|'They went on vacation with their child/children.'<ref name=Kenesei />}}

===Chukchi===

[[Chukchi language|Chukchi]] uses a circumfix to express comitative case.

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|lang=ckt
|а'ачек ңытоскычат-гьэ га-мэлгар-ма
|aʼaček ňytoskyčat-gʹè ga-mèlgar-ma
|boy ran.out-PERF COM.PRED-gun-COM.PRED
|'The boy ran out with a gun.'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kämpfe|last2=Volodin|first1=Hans-Rainer|first2=Alexander P.|title=Abriß der Tschuktschischen Grammatik auf der Basis der Schriftsprache|year=1995|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|pages=53–54}}</ref>}}

In the example, the circumfix га{{circumfix|...}}ма is attached to the root {{lang|ckt|мэлгар}} {{gloss|gun}} to express comitative.

===Drehu===

In [[Drehu language|Drehu]], there are two prepositions which can be used to mark comitative. Which of the prepositions is used is determined by the classes of the accompanier and companion.<ref name=Moyse-Faurie_Lynch>{{cite book|last1=Moyse-Faurie|last2=Lynch|first1=Claire|first2=John|author-link=Claire Moyse-Faurie|title=Coordinating Constructions|year=2004|location=Amsterdam; Philadelphia|publisher=John Benjamins |editor-first=Martin |editor-last=Haspelmath|chapter=Coordination in Oceanic languages and Proto Oceanic|pages=453}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=dhv
|ɑngeic ɑ tro me eni
|3SG PRES go COM 1SG
|'He goes with me.'<ref name=Moyse-Faurie_Lynch />}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=dhv
|eni ɑ ixelë memin lɑ jɑjiny
|1SG PRES meet COM ART girl
|'I met (with) the girl.'<ref name=Moyse-Faurie_Lynch />}}

===Hausa===

The comitative marker in [[Hausa language|Hausa]] is the preposition {{lang|ha|dà}}. In Hausa, a prepositional phrase marked for comitative can be moved to the front of the sentence for emphasis, as shown in the examples below.<ref name=Abdoulaye>{{cite book|last=Abdoulaye|first=Mahamane L.|title=Coordinating Constructions|year=2004|location=Amsterdam; Philadelphia|publisher=John Benjamins |editor-first=Martin |editor-last=Haspelmath|chapter=Comitative, coordinating, and inclusory constructions in Hausa|pages=180}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=ha
|(tàare) dà yâara-n-shì fa, yaa zoo nannìyà
|(together) with children-of-3SG.M indeed 3SG.M.PFV come here
|'With his children indeed, he came here.'}}

{{interlinear|indent=3|lang=ha
|(tàare) dà Bàlaa née na jee kàasuwaa
|(together) with Bala COP 1SG.{{gcl|RP|relative pronoun}} go market
|'It is with Bala that I went to the market.'<ref name=Abdoulaye />}}

In Hausa it is ungrammatical to do the same with coordinating conjunctions. For example, if the companions were "dog and cat", it would be ungrammatical to move either "dog" or "cat" to the front of the sentence for emphasis, while it is grammatical to do so when there is a comitative marker rather than a conjunction.<ref name=Abdoulaye />

==Further reading==
* {{Cite journal |last=Anhava |first=Jaakko |year=2010 |title=Criteria for Case Forms in Finnish and Hungarian Grammars |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/52392 |journal=Studia Orientalia |volume=108 |pages=239–244}}
* {{Cite book |last=Karlsson |first=Fred |title=Finnish - A Comprehensive Grammar |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-82104-0 |location=London and New York}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Grammatical cases}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Comitative Case}}
[[Category:Grammatical cases]]