Editing Columbite

{{Short description|Mineral group}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name        = Columbite
| category    = [[Oxide minerals]]
| boxwidth    = 
| boxbgcolor  = 
| image       = Columbite-75444.jpg
| imagesize   = 260px
| caption     = 
| formula     = {{chem2|(Fe^{II},Mn^{II})Nb2O6}}, or in oxide formula {{chem2|(Fe^{II},Mn^{II})O*Nb2O5}}
| IMAsymbol=Clb<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warr|first=L.N.|date=2021|title=IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|volume=85|issue=3|pages=291–320|doi=10.1180/mgm.2021.43|bibcode=2021MinM...85..291W|s2cid=235729616|doi-access=free}}</ref>  
| molweight   = 
| strunz      = 4.DB.35
| system      = [[Orthorhombic]]
| class       = Dipyramidal (mmm) <br />[[H-M symbol]]: (2/m 2/m 2/m)
| symmetry    = ''Pbcn''
| color       = Black, brownish black.
| habit       = Massive – Granular – Common texture observed in granite and other igneous rock; Striated - Parallel lines on crystal surface or cleavage face. 
| cleavage    = [010] Distinct 
| fracture    = Sub Conchoidal: Fractures developed in brittle materials characterized by semi-curving surfaces.
| mohs        = 6
| luster      = Sub-metallic 
| refractive  = 
| opticalprop = Biaxial (+), b = 2.29–2.4
| birefringence = 
| pleochroism = 
| streak      = Blackish brown
| gravity     = 5.3–7.3, Average = 6.3
| melt        = 
| fusibility  = 
| diagnostic  = 
| solubility  = 
| diaphaneity = 
| other       = [[Image:Radioactive.svg|25px]] [[Radioactive]], non-fluorescent.
| references  = <ref>[https://www.mineralienatlas.de/lexikon/index.php/MineralData?mineral=Columbite Mineralienatlas]</ref><ref>[http://webmineral.com/data/Columbite-(Fe).shtml Columbite-(Fe) Mineral Data]</ref><ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.html Columbite-(Fe) on Mindat.org]</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226993063 |doi=10.1007/s10967-005-0860-0|title=Simultaneous determination of tantalum, niobium, thorium and uranium in placer columbite-tantalite deposits from the Akim Oda District of Ghana by epithermal instrumental neutron activation analysis |year=2005 |last1=Dampare |first1=S. B. |last2=Nyarko |first2=B. J. B. |last3=Osae |first3=S. |last4=Akaho |first4=E. H. K. |last5=Asiedu |first5=D. K. |last6=Serfor-Armah |first6=Y. |last7=Nude |first7=P. |journal=Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |bibcode=2005JRNC..265...53D |s2cid=97891922 }}</ref>
}}
'''Columbite''', also called '''niobite''', '''niobite-tantalite''' and '''columbate''', with a general chemical formula of {{chem2|(Fe^{II},Mn^{II})Nb2O6|auto=yes}}, is a black [[mineral]] group that is an ore of niobium. It has a submetallic [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]], a high density, and is a niobate of iron and manganese. Niobite has many applications in aerospace, construction and the medical industry. Dating columbite minerals is primarily completed by uranium lead (U-Pb) dating, a slow process. 

Columbite has the same composition and [[crystal symmetry]] ([[orthorhombic]]) as [[tantalite]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chukanov |first1=Nikita V. |last2=Pasero |first2=Marco |last3=Aksenov |first3=Sergey M. |last4=Britvin |first4=Sergey N. |last5=Zubkova |first5=Natalia V. |last6=Yike |first6=Li |last7=Witzke |first7=Thomas |date=2022-09-08 |title=Columbite supergroup of minerals: nomenclature and classification |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/mgm.2022.105 |journal=Mineralogical Magazine |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=18–33 |doi=10.1180/mgm.2022.105 |s2cid=252172669 |issn=0026-461X}}</ref> In fact, the two are often grouped together as a semi-singular mineral series called [[coltan|columbite-tantalite]] or coltan in many mineral guides. However, tantalite has a much greater [[specific gravity]] than columbite, more than 8.0 compared to columbite's 5.2.<ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-3882.html mindat.org Tantalite]</ref> The formation of columbite depends on the concentrations of metals present that affect the crystalline structure of the mineral and the environmental impact.

Columbite is a polymorph of [[tapiolite]]; they have the same chemical composition but different crystal symmetry: orthorhombic for columbite and [[tetragonal]] for tapiolite.<ref>P. Cerny et al. "The tantalite-tapiolite gap: natural assemblages versus experimental data" Canadian Mineralogist 30 (1992) 587 [http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/cm/vol30/CM30_587.pdf free download]</ref> The largest documented single crystal of columbite consisted of plates {{convert|6|mm|abbr=on}} thick measuring {{convert|76|x|61|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM66/AM66_885.pdf| journal = American Mineralogist| volume = 66| pages = 885–907| year= 1981| title= The largest crystals| author = P. C. Rickwood}}</ref>

Columbite contains varying amounts of [[thorium]] and [[uranium]], making it radioactive.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Simultaneous determination of tantalum, niobium, thorium and uranium in placer columbite-tantalite deposits from the Akim Oda District of Ghana by epithermal instrumental neutron activation analysis|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226993063|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-02|website=}}</ref> Coltan, a tantalum dominate species of columbite, is often mined by [[Artisanal mining|artisan]] and small scale miners with risks to the environment and human health due to unregulated working conditions.

== History and etymology ==
This mineral group was first found in [[Haddam, Connecticut]], in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Edgar F. |date=1905 |title=Observations on Columbium and Tantalum |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/983511 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=44 |issue=180 |pages=151–158 |jstor=983511 |issn=0003-049X}}</ref> The occurrence of columbite in the United States was made known on April 13, 1905, through the publication of research into the composition of an older specimen, presumably stemming from [[John Winthrop the Younger|John Winthrop]] (1606–1676), first Governor of the [[Connecticut Colony]] and avid mineral collector. Amidst 600 other samples, the relevant specimen had been donated by the Governor's namesake and grandson, [[Wait Winthrop#Son|John Winthrop]] (1681–1747) to [[Hans Sloane]], President of the [[List of presidents of the Royal Society|Royal Society]] of London, upon Winthrop's becoming a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society W,X,Y,Z|Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1737.<ref>
{{cite web 
|url         = https://archive.org/details/mobot31753002152251 
|title       = Art. V. Selections from an Ancient Catalogue of objects of Natural History, formed in New England more than one hundred years ago 
|website     = The Amer. J. Science and Arts 47
|last        = Winthrop
|first       = John
|editor1-last  = Silliman
|editor1-first = Benjamin
|year        = 1844 
|publisher   = Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy
|location    = New Haven
|page        = 282
|access-date = 12 February 2015 
|quote       = ...&nbsp;(p.282:) ''Mr. Winthrop was grandson of the first governor of Connecticut, great grandson of the first governor of Massachusetts'' ... (p.290:) A black mineral ... ''Is this the Columbite? ... it appeared that it had been sent ... to Sir Hans Sloane, by Mr. Winthrop of Massachusetts.'' ...'
}}</ref>

In 1801, [[Charles Hatchett]] had discovered the element [[niobium]] in the same specimen,<ref>
{{cite journal 
|url         = http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/57/3/299.full.pdf
|title       = Charles Hatchett FRS (1765–1847), Chemist and Discoverer of Niobium 
|journal     = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 
|last1       = Griffith
|first1      = William P.
|last2       = Morris
|first2      = Peter J.T.
|date        = 22 September 2003
|volume = 57 
|issue = 3 
|publisher   = The Royal Society Publishing
|location    = London
|page        = 359
|doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216 
|s2cid = 144857368 
|access-date = 12 February 2015 
|quote       = ...&nbsp;In 1800–01, while he was arranging some minerals at the British Museum in Bloomsbury, he became particularly interested in a specimen which was described in Sir Hans Sloane’s catalogue of the ‘Metalls’, no. 2029 from his collection, as ‘a very heavy black stone with golden streaks ... from Nautneague. From Mr. Winthrop’ ... ''The donor was probably John Winthrop (1681–1747), a great-grandson of the founder of Massachusetts Bay colony.'' When Winthrop was elected FRS in 1734 he gave Sir Hans Sloane, then President of the Society, a collection of about 600 minerals.&nbsp;...'
}}</ref> which he had named columbium in honour of explorer [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref>
{{cite book 
|url         = https://books.google.com/books?id=UL8TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA582
|title       = System of Mineralogy, Vol. II.
|last        = Jameson
|first       = Robert
|year        = 1805
|publisher   = Bell and Bradfute (et al.)
|location    = Edinburgh
|page        = 582
|access-date = 15 February 2015 
|quote       = ...&nbsp;Mr Hatchett found it to contain a metal, which, from its properties, could not be referred to any hitherto known; hence he was of opinion that it should be considered as ''a new genus, to which he gave the name Columbium, in honour of the discoverer of America''.&nbsp;...'
}}</ref>

== Columbite species ==
[[File:Yttrocolumbite-(Y)-796200.jpg|left|thumb|Yttrocolumbite; a species of columbite|146x146px]]
Columbite forms opaque crystals that are black to dark brown in colour.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Siachoque |first1=Astrid |last2=Garcia |first2=Rodolfo |last3=Vlach |first3=Silvio R.F. |date=2020-05-04 |title=Occurrence and Composition of Columbite-(Fe) In the Reduced A-Type Desemborque Pluton, Graciosa Province (S-SE Brazil) |journal=Minerals |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=411 |doi=10.3390/min10050411 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Mine...10..411S |issn=2075-163X}}</ref> The formation of the crystals vary based on the species present.

Columbite forms a series with the [[tantalum]]-dominant analogue [[ferrotantalite]] and the manganese-dominant analogue '''manganocolumbite'''. Manganocolumbite has a chemical formula of (Mn, Fe)(Nb, Ta)<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, often with small concentrations of tantalum and iron. Manganocolumbite is often found in pegmatites, course-grained igneous rocks.<ref name=":1" />[[File:Ferrocolumbite-pb50a.jpg|left|thumb|182x182px|Ferrocolumbite; a species of columbite]]

The iron-rich member of the columbite group is '''ferrocolumbite,''' FeNb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, and small concentrations of [[tin]] and [[tungsten]] may be present. This species of columbite is often found in pegmatites as course-grained igneous rocks.<ref name=":1" />

'''Yttrocolumbite''' is the [[yttrium]]-rich columbite with the formula {{chem|(Y|,U|,Fe)|(Nb|,Ta)|O|4}}, is a [[radioactive]] mineral found in [[Mozambique]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abdel Gawad |first1=Ahmed E. |last2=Ali |first2=Khaled |last3=Eliwa |first3=Hassan |last4=Sayyed |first4=M. I. |last5=Khandaker |first5=Mayeen Uddin |last6=Bradley |first6=David A. |last7=Osman |first7=Hamid |last8=Elesawy |first8=Basem H. |last9=Hanfi |first9=Mohamed Y. |date=2021-12-07 |title=Radiological Investigation on Sediments: A Case Study of Wadi Rod Elsayalla the Southeastern Desert of Egypt |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=11 |issue=24 |pages=11884 |doi=10.3390/app112411884 |issn=2076-3417 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This mineral forms due to pegmatites and rare-metal granites.<ref name=":1" />

== Structure ==
Columbite atoms form an octahedral structure where [[niobium]] or [[tantalum]] atoms surround an oxygen atom. Overall, Columbite forms [[Orthorhombic crystal system|orthorhombic]] crystals which give approximate lengths of the crystal axes as a ≈ 14.27, b ≈ 5.73, and c ≈ 5.06 Å.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Balassone |first1=Giuseppina |last2=Danisi |first2=Rosa Micaela |last3=Armbruster |first3=Thomas |last4=Altomare |first4=Angela |last5=Moliterni |first5=Anna Grazia |last6=Petti |first6=Carmela |last7=Mondillo |first7=Nicola |last8=Ghiara |first8=Maria Rosaria |last9=Saviano |first9=Michele |date=2015-07-01 |title=An insight into crystal chemistry and cation order of columbite-(Fe) and columbite-(Mn) from worldwide occurrences |url=http://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/njma/detail/192/84961/An_insight_into_crystal_chemistry_and_cation_order?af=crossref |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Abhandlungen |language=en |volume=192 |issue=3 |pages=275–287 |doi=10.1127/njma/2015/0285 |issn=0077-7757}}</ref> Different columbite species such as manganocolumbite or ferrocolumbite can change the lengths of the crystal axes.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Face-centered orthorhombic.png|thumb|195x195px|Face centered crystal structure of columbite (orthorhombic)]]
Since columbite can form species with other minerals, the physical properties of the mineral can change. When ferrocolumbite is introduced to heat, an equal expansion of the ‘a’ and ‘b’ axis occurs.<ref name=":2" /> In addition, due to the size of the ions and the overall structure, ferrocolumbite is more compressible than manganocolumbite.<ref name=":2" /> When manganocolumbite is introduced to heat, an expansion of the ‘a’ axis occurs resulting in an uneven change to the structure.<ref name=":2" />

== Applications ==
When niobite is extracted from columbite, in the ore refining process, applications can be observed in the aerospace, construction, and medical industry.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Sanchez-Segado |first1=Sergio |last2=Monti |first2=Tamara |last3=Katrib |first3=Juliano |last4=Kingman |first4=Samuel |last5=Dodds |first5=Chris |last6=Jha |first6=Animesh |date=2017-12-21 |title=Towards sustainable processing of columbite group minerals: elucidating the relation between dielectric properties and physico-chemical transformations in the mineral phase |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18272-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=18016 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18272-3 |pmid=29269887 |bibcode=2017NatSR...718016S |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> In the aerospace industry, [[Superalloy|super alloys]] can be created. Super alloys from niobite create a low mass, and high resistance material often used in spacecrafts.<ref name=":5" /> In construction, some [[High-strength low-alloy steel|high-strength low-alloy]] (HSLA) steel is created from niobite.<ref name=":5" /> In addition, niobite extracted from columbite can be used to create electronic components used in medical equipment such as [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) and [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR).<ref name=":5" />

== Formation ==
Columbite is often found in [[pegmatite]] and alluvial deposits, as well as [[Granite|granitic]] rocks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Wise |first1=Michael A. |last2=Brown |first2=Cathleen D. |date=2011-12-01 |title=Chemical composition of coexisting columbite-group minerals and cassiterite from the Black Mountain pegmatite, Maine |url=http://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/ejm/detail/23/76409/Chemical_composition_of_coexisting_columbite_group?af=crossref |journal=European Journal of Mineralogy |language=en |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=817–828 |doi=10.1127/0935-1221/2011/0023-2102 |bibcode=2011EJMin..23..817W |issn=0935-1221}}</ref> Columbite minerals are mainly composed of [[magnesium]], [[iron]], [[niobium]], and [[tantalum]] where trace amounts of [[tin]], [[titanium]], and [[scandium]] have been observed.<ref name=":0" /> The overall composition of columbite influences the crystalline structure resulting in different formation processes. Currently, there are two prominent theories for the formation of columbite. One theory was developed due to a strong attraction of [[niobium]] and [[tantalum]], within columbite, to silicate melts found in the earth's crust or mantle.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Zuo |first1=Yushan |last2=Gao |first2=Zhengxi |last3=Zuo |first3=Lei |last4=Zhang |first4=Peng |last5=Liu |first5=Rui |last6=Zhang |first6=Qing |last7=Zhang |first7=Tingting |date=2022-12-03 |editor-last=Yang |editor-first=Fan |title=Ultrastructure of a Columbite-Tantalite Mineral from the Zhaojinggou Ta-Nb Deposit in the North China Craton: Direct Evidence of the Formation Mechanism of the Columbite-Group Minerals |journal=Geofluids |language=en |volume=2022 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1155/2022/8125419 |doi-access=free |issn=1468-8123}}</ref> In addition, the presence of magma forms columbite by undergoing two [[crystallization]] processes.<ref name=":1" /> The first [[crystallization]] process creates a [[niobium]] core and the second [[crystallization]] process creates a [[tantalum]] rim.<ref name=":1" /> This theory is prominent due to the texture of the mineral during the fluid stage, and the magmatic fractional [[crystallization]] that occurs during formation.<ref name=":6" /> Another prominent theory of the formation of [[niobium]] and [[tantalum]], in Columbite minerals, occurs due to hydrothermal fluids.<ref name=":6" /> This theory suggests that hydrothermal fluids interact with columbite during formation and as a result irregular crystals are formed.<ref name=":1" />

It is possible that both theories work in conjunction with one another to form columbite minerals as well as different species of columbite such as mangancolumbite, ferrocolumbite, and yttrocolumbite.

== Environmental impact ==
Columbite minerals have the potential to be radioactive due to trace amounts of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]]. Radioactive minerals are unstable due to the emission of [[radiation]] which causes negative impacts to the environment and human health. Each country has different laws regarding the transportation of radioactive material.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Isah |first1=Mohammed Engha |last2=Abdulmumin |first2=Nuhu Abdulkadir |last3=Elaoyi |first3=Paul D. |last4=Audu |first4=Ephraim |date=December 2019 |title=Effects of columbite/tantalite (COLTAN) mining activities on water quality in Edege-Mbeki mining district of Nasarawa state, North Central Nigeria |journal=Bulletin of the National Research Centre |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s42269-019-0237-0 |doi-access=free |issn=2522-8307}}</ref>

When mining columbite, contamination of ground and surface water are a concern due to the presence of [[heavy metals]] in waste rock. In addition, waste rock can lead to [[acid mine drainage]] which can affect ground and surface water.<ref name=":7" /> To obtain pure columbite, a large quantity of waste rock is produced, leading to negative impacts to the surrounding environment.<ref name=":7" />

During the extraction of niobite or tantalum from columbite, strong acids at high temperatures are used that have negative impacts to the environment. [[Hydrofluoric acid]] and [[sulfuric acid]] are used in the ore refining processes between temperatures of 250-300<sup>o</sup>C.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Sanchez-Segado |first1=Sergio |last2=Monti |first2=Tamara |last3=Katrib |first3=Juliano |last4=Kingman |first4=Samuel |last5=Dodds |first5=Chris |last6=Jha |first6=Animesh |date=2017-12-21 |title=Towards sustainable processing of columbite group minerals: elucidating the relation between dielectric properties and physico-chemical transformations in the mineral phase |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18272-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=18016 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18272-3 |pmid=29269887 |bibcode=2017NatSR...718016S |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> These acids can cause [[soil acidification]], [[air pollution]], and [[water pollution]] that, in turn, affects ecosystems. Current technology, in the ore refining of columbite, is not selective which leads to impurities present in refined Columbite samples.<ref name=":8" /> To remove impurities, a greater concentration of acid is required, leading to a greater potential of environmental hazards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baba |first1=Alafara Abdullahi |last2=Jacob |first2=Sunday O. |last3=Olaoluwa |first3=Daud T. |last4=Abubakar |first4=Abdulrahman |last5=Womiloju |first5=Adeola O. |last6=Olasinde |first6=Fausat T. |last7=Abdulkareem |first7=Aishat Y. |date=2018-04-23 |title=Processing of a Nigerian columbite-rich ilmenite ore for improved industrial application by sulphuric acid solution |url=http://jurnal.tekmira.esdm.go.id/index.php/imj/article/view/674 |journal=Indonesian Mining Journal |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=9–19 |doi=10.30556/imj.Vol21.No1.2018.674 |issn=2527-8797}}</ref>

== Dating ==
There are three applications to dating columbite group minerals each with advantages and disadvantages. These methods are [[Uranium–lead dating|uranium lead (U-Pb) dating]], laser ablation [[inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry]] (LA-ICP-MS), and [[secondary ion mass spectrometry]] (SIMS). The U-Pb method, can determine the location, and age of a columbite mineral group by the U/Pb ratio.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Tapster |first1=Simon |last2=Bright |first2=Joshua W. G. |date=2020-12-18 |title=High-precision ID-TIMS cassiterite U–Pb systematics using a low-contamination hydrothermal decomposition: implications for LA-ICP-MS and ore deposit geochronology |url=https://gchron.copernicus.org/articles/2/425/2020/ |journal=Geochronology |language=English |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=425–441 |doi=10.5194/gchron-2-425-2020 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020GeChr...2..425T |issn=2628-3697}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Yonggang |last2=Liang |first2=Ting |last3=Zhang |first3=Ze |last4=Wang |first4=Yiqian |last5=Zhou |first5=Yi |last6=Yang |first6=Xiuqing |last7=Gao |first7=Jinggang |last8=Wang |first8=Hui |last9=Ding |first9=Kun |date=August 2019 |title=Columbite U-Pb Geochronology of Kalu'an Lithium Pegmatites in Northern Xinjiang, China: Implications for Genesis and Emplacement History of Rare-Element Pegmatites |journal=Minerals |language=en |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=456 |doi=10.3390/min9080456 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Mine....9..456F |issn=2075-163X}}</ref> This method is often paired with isotope dilution-thermal ionization mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS) to increase precision.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> The LA-ICP-MS method is used in situ to date columbite-tantalite minerals with less than five percent error on the isotopic ratio of uranium and lead.<ref name=":4" /> The SIMS method has a high spatial resolution and has a high accuracy in measuring lead isotopes in columbite minerals.<ref name=":4" /> The LA-ICP-MS and SIMS method are not commonly used due to the lack of certified reference material.<ref name=":4" />

== Artisanal and small scale mining ==
[[Artisanal mining|Artisanal]] and small-scale mining provides jobs for millions of people but typically has negative impacts to human health and the environment.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Akiwumi |first1=Fenda A. |last2=Hollist |first2=Arthur O. |date=April 2016 |title=The new kid on the old block: Coltan, conflict-prone minerals, and post-war reconstruction in Sierra Leone |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214790X15000945 |journal=The Extractive Industries and Society |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=316–319 |doi=10.1016/j.exis.2015.06.002|bibcode=2016ExIS....3..316A }}</ref> This type of mining is executed by small groups of people, typically under a larger mining cooperation, with simple extraction equipment.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-Novoa |first1=Felipe |last2=Holley |first2=Elizabeth |date=January 2023 |title=Coexistence between large-scale mining (LSM) and artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Perú and Colombia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103162 |journal=Resources Policy |volume=80 |pages=103162 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103162 |bibcode=2023RePol..8003162R |issn=0301-4207}}</ref> This simple extraction equipment can include [[Pickaxe|pickaxes]], [[Shovel|shovels]], basins, and minimal [[Heavy equipment|heavy machinery]].<ref name=":10" /> [[Coltan]], the tantalum dominant species of columbite, is often mined artisanally due to its vast applications in electronics.<ref>{{Citation |title=Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining |date=2016-12-05 |work=Breaking New Ground |pages=313–334 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315541501-17 |access-date=2024-04-06 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315541501-17 |isbn=978-1-315-54150-1}}</ref> [[Artisanal mining|Artisanal]] and small-scale mining of materials are common in regions such as Africa, Asia, Oceania, Central American, and South America.<ref name=":10" /> While this type of mining is important for local economies and livelihood, it is often unregulated, which leads to [[illegal mining]] and unsafe working conditions. Due to unregulated conditions, the mistreatment of artisanal miners, violence, illegal trading, and sometimes [[child labour]] can occur.<ref name=":10" /> In addition, long term health effects are common when mining coltan, due to the presence of radioactive material within the mineral.<ref name=":9" /> In countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, lucrative trading of minerals, such as coltan, has occurred due to lack of state control of [[Artisanal mining|artisanal]] and small-scale mining in the region.<ref name=":10" />

==Further reading==
*{{Cite journal |last1=Isah |first1=Mohammed Engha |last2=Abdulmumin |first2=Nuhu Abdulkadir |last3=Elaoyi |first3=Paul D. |last4=Audu |first4=Ephraim |date=2019-12-09 |title=Effects of columbite/tantalite (COLTAN) mining activities on water quality in Edege-Mbeki mining district of Nasarawa state, North Central Nigeria |journal=Bulletin of the National Research Centre |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=179 |doi=10.1186/s42269-019-0237-0 |doi-access=free |issn=2522-8307}}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Zuo |first1=Yushan |last2=Gao |first2=Zhengxi |last3=Zuo |first3=Lei |last4=Zhang |first4=Peng |last5=Liu |first5=Rui |last6=Zhang |first6=Qing |last7=Zhang |first7=Tingting |date=2022-12-03 |title=Ultrastructure of a Columbite-Tantalite Mineral from the Zhaojinggou Ta-Nb Deposit in the North China Craton: Direct Evidence of the Formation Mechanism of the Columbite-Group Minerals |journal=Geofluids |language=en |volume=2022 |pages=e8125419 |doi=10.1155/2022/8125419 |doi-access=free |issn=1468-8115}}

==See also==
* [[Coltan]]
* [[List of minerals]]


== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
** {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Columbite|short=x|noicon=x}}
** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Columbite|short=x|noicon=x}}
** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Columbite|short=x|noicon=x}}
}}

{{Manganese minerals}}
{{ores}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Iron(II) minerals]]
[[Category:Manganese(II) minerals]]
[[Category:Niobium minerals]]
[[Category:Orthorhombic minerals]]
[[Category:Minerals in space group 60]]
[[Category:Oxide minerals]]
[[Category:Tantalum minerals]]