Editing Cnidocyte

{{Short description|Stinging cell used by cnidarians}}
{{Redirect|Nematocyst|the subcellular structure in dinoflagellates|Nematocyst (dinoflagellate)|the floating structure formed by algae|Pneumatocyst}}
[[File:Nematocyst1.jpg|thumb|Nomarski [[micrograph]] of a [[ruthenium red]]-stained nematocyst from ''[[Aiptasia]] pallida'', the pale anemone. The red dye stains the polyanionic venom proteins found inside the capsule of this partially-discharged nematocyst.]]

A '''cnidocyte''' (also known as a '''cnidoblast''') is a type of [[Cell (biology)|cell]] containing a large secretory [[organelle]] called a ''cnidocyst'', that can deliver a sting to other organisms as a way to capture prey and defend against predators. A cnidocyte explosively ejects the [[toxin]]-containing cnidocyst which is responsible for the stings delivered by a cnidarian. The presence of this cell defines the phylum [[Cnidaria]], which also includes the [[coral]]s, [[sea anemone]]s, [[Hydra (genus)|hydra]]e, and [[jellyfish]]. Cnidocytes are single-use cells that need to be continuously replaced.

== Structure and function ==
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Nematocyst-discharged.png|thumb|right|A discharged nematocyst seen under a [[scanning electron microscope]]]] -->

Each cnidocyte contains an organelle called a cnidocyst,{{efn|Cnidocyst—also known as a cnida ({{plural abbr|cnidae}}), nematocyst, ptychocyst or spirocyst.}} which consists of a bulb-shaped capsule and a hollow, coiled tubule that is contained within. Immature cnidocytes are referred to as cnidoblasts or nematoblasts. The externally oriented side of the cell has a hair-like trigger called a cnidocil, a mechano-chemical receptor. When the trigger is activated, the tubule shaft of the cnidocyst is ejected and, in the case of the penetrant nematocyst, the forcefully ejected tubule penetrates the target organism. This discharge takes a few microseconds, and is able to reach accelerations of about 40,000&nbsp;''g''.<ref name="Holstein+1984">{{cite journal|author=Holstein T.|author2=Tardent P.|year=1984|title=An ultrahigh-speed analysis of exocytosis: nematocyst discharge|journal=Science|volume=223|issue=4638|pages=830–833|doi=10.1126/science.6695186|pmid=6695186|bibcode=1984Sci...223..830H}}<!--| access-date = 2012-11-11--></ref><ref name="Kass-Simon+2002">{{cite journal | author =Kass-Simon G. | author2 =Scappaticci A. A. Jr. | title =The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts | journal =Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume =80 | issue = 10| pages =1772–1794 | year =2002 | url =http://www.biochem.uci.edu/steele/Kass-Simon.pdf | doi =10.1139/Z02-135 | access-date = 2012-10-25}}</ref> Research from 2006 suggests the process occurs in as little as 700&nbsp;nanoseconds, thus reaching an acceleration of up to 5,410,000&nbsp;''g''.<ref name="Timm+2006">{{cite journal | author =Nüchter Timm | author2 =Benoit Martin | author3 =Engel Ulrike | author4 =Özbek Suat | author5 =Holstein Thomas W | title =Nanosecond-scale kinetics of nematocyst discharge | journal =Current Biology | volume =16 | issue =9 | pages =R316–R318 | year =2006 | doi =10.1016/j.cub.2006.03.089 | pmid=16682335| doi-access =free }}</ref> After penetration, the toxic content of the nematocyst is injected into the target organism, allowing the sessile cnidarian to capture the immobilized prey. Recently, in two sea anemone species (''[[Nematostella vectensis]]'' and ''Anthopleura elegantissima''), the type I [[neurotoxin]] protein Nv1 was shown to be localized in ectodermal gland cells in the tentacles, next to but not in nematocysts. Upon encounter with a crustacean prey, nematocysts discharge and pierce the prey, and Nv1 is massively secreted into the extracellular medium by the nearby gland cells, thus suggesting another mode of entry for toxins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Yehu|last2=Genikhovich|first2=Grigory|last3=Gordon|first3=Dalia|last4=Wienkoop|first4=Stefanie|last5=Zenkert|first5=Claudia|last6=Ozbek|first6=Suat|last7=Technau|first7=Ulrich|last8=Gurevitz|first8=Michael|date=2012-04-07|title=Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones|journal=Proceedings. Biological Sciences|volume=279|issue=1732|pages=1351–1358|doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.1731|issn=1471-2954|pmc=3282367|pmid=22048953}}</ref>

=== Cnidocyte capsule composition ===
The cnidocyte capsule is made of novel Cnidaria-specific gene products which combine known protein domains. Minicollagen gene products (proteins) are one of the major structural components of the capsule. They are very short genes containing the characteristic collagen-triple helix sequence, as well as polyproline domains and cysteine-rich domains.<ref name="Beckmann">{{Cite journal|last1=Beckmann|first1=Anna|last2=Özbek|first2=Suat|date=2012-06-05|title=The Nematocyst: a molecular map of the Cnidarian stinging organelle|url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper/113472ab|journal=International Journal of Developmental Biology|language=en|volume=56|issue=6–7–8|pages=577–582|doi=10.1387/ijdb.113472ab|issn=0214-6282|pmid=22689365|doi-access=free}}</ref> Trimeres of mini collagen proteins assemble through their terminal cysteine-rich domain, forming highly organized and rigid supra-structures. Minicollagen 1 Ncol-1 polymers assemble on the inner shell while the outer capsule is composed of polymerized NOWA (Nematocyst Outer Wall Antigen) proteins. Nemato Galectin, minicollagen Ncol-15 and chondroitin are novel proteins used to build the tubule shaft. In piercing cnidocytes, the novel protein {{chem name|spinalin}} is used to make the spines present at the base of the shaft.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shpirer|first1=Erez|last2=Chang|first2=E Sally|last3=Diamant|first3=Arik|last4=Rubinstein|first4=Nimrod|last5=Cartwright|first5=Paulyn|last6=Huchon|first6=Dorothée|date=2014-09-29|title=Diversity and evolution of myxozoan minicollagens and nematogalectins|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=14|issue=1 |pages=205|doi=10.1186/s12862-014-0205-0|issn=1471-2148|pmc=4195985|pmid=25262812 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014BMCEE..14..205S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Balasubramanian|first1=Prakash G.|last2=Beckmann|first2=Anna|last3=Warnken|first3=Uwe|last4=Schnölzer|first4=Martina|last5=Schüler|first5=Andreas|last6=Bornberg-Bauer|first6=Erich|last7=Holstein|first7=Thomas W.|last8=Özbek|first8=Suat|date=2012-03-23|title=Proteome of Hydra Nematocyst|journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume=287|issue=13|pages=9672–9681|doi=10.1074/jbc.M111.328203|issn=0021-9258|pmc=3323026|pmid=22291027|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="David">{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=Charles N.|last2=Özbek|first2=Suat|last3=Adamczyk|first3=Patrizia|last4=Meier|first4=Sebastian|last5=Pauly|first5=Barbara|last6=Chapman|first6=Jarrod|last7=Hwang|first7=Jung Shan|last8=Gojobori|first8=Takashi|last9=Holstein|first9=Thomas W.|date=2008-09-01|title=Evolution of complex structures: minicollagens shape the cnidarian nematocyst|journal=Trends in Genetics|volume=24|issue=9|pages=431–438|doi=10.1016/j.tig.2008.07.001|pmid=18676050|issn=0168-9525}}</ref>

=== Discharge mechanism ===
[[File:Fluids-05-00020-g002.png|thumb|Discharge mechanism of a nematocyst.]]

The cnidocyst capsule stores a large concentration of [[calcium]] [[ion]]s, which are released from the capsule into the [[cytoplasm]] of the ''cnidocyte'' when the trigger is activated. This causes a large concentration gradient of calcium across the cnidocyte plasma membrane. The resulting [[osmotic pressure]] causes a rapid influx of water into the cell. This increase in water volume in the cytoplasm forces the coiled cnidae tubule to eject rapidly. Prior to discharge the coiled cnidae tubule exists inside the cell in an "inside out" condition. The back pressure resulting from the influx of water into the cnidocyte together with the opening of the capsule tip structure or operculum, triggers the forceful eversion of the cnidae tubule causing it to right itself as it comes rushing out of the cell with enough force to impale a prey organism.

That force is to be calculated as the mass of the mechanism's stylet multiplied by its acceleration. The pressure that is generated by this impact into its prey is to be calculated by the stylet's force divided by its area. Researchers have calculated an ejected mass of 1&nbsp;nanogram, an acceleration of 5,410,000&nbsp;g and a stylet tip radius of 15&nbsp;±&nbsp;8&nbsp;nm.<ref name="Timm+2006" /> Therefore, a pressure of more than 7&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|GPa]] was estimated at the stylet tip which they write is in the range of technical bullets.<ref name="Timm+2006" />

=== Fluid dynamics in nematocyst discharge ===
[[File:Model Overview.png|thumb|Computational fluid dynamics model parameters of nematocyst discharge.]]
Few papers have modeled the discharge aside from direct observation. Observational studies typically used a tentacle solution assay with a chemical stimulant to create discharge and cameras to record them. One in 1984<ref name="Holstein+1984" /> and another in 2006<ref name="Timm+2006" /> as imaging technology improved. One study involved [[computational fluid dynamics]] where variables such as barb plate size, prey cylindrical diameter and fluid medium Reynolds number were manipulated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hamlet |first1=Christina |last2=Strychalski |first2=Wanda |last3=Miller |first3=Laura |date=March 2020 |title=Fluid Dynamics of Ballistic Strategies in Nematocyst Firing |journal=Fluids |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=20 |doi=10.3390/fluids5010020 |bibcode=2020Fluid...5...20H |issn=2311-5521 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Observational studies indicate that velocities of the barb/stylet decrease throughout the discharge. As such, the incredible maximum acceleration is achieved at the beginning. Dynamic traits such as maximum discharge velocities and trajectory patterns may not correspond to static traits such as tubule lengths and capsule volumes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Colin |first1=Sean P. |last2=Costello |first2=John H. |date=2007-11-23 |title=Functional characteristics of nematocysts found on the scyphomedusa Cyanea capillata |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022098107003206 |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |language=en |volume=351 |issue=1 |pages=114–120 |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2007.06.033 |s2cid=51791589 |issn=0022-0981}}</ref> Therefore, caution is appropriate when using medusan nematocyst assemblages as indicators of prey selection and trophic role.<ref name=":0" /> This is possibly the case for other jelly species and hence one cannot generally infer nematocyst static traits to prey size.

=== Prey detection ===

Cnidae are "single use" cells, and thus represent a large expenditure of energy to produce. In [[Hydrozoa]]ns, in order to regulate discharge, cnidocytes are connected as "batteries", containing several types of cnidocytes connected to supporting cells and neurons. The supporting cells contain [[Chemoreceptor|chemosensor]]s, which, together with the [[mechanoreceptor]] on the cnidocyte (cnidocil), allow only the right combination of stimuli to cause discharge, such as prey swimming, and chemicals found in prey [[cuticle]] or cutaneous tissue. This prevents the cnidarian from stinging itself although sloughed off cnidae can be induced to fire independently.

== Types of cnidae ==
Over 30 types of cnidae are found in different cnidarians. They can be divided into the following groups:
# Nematocyst (Penetrant or Piercing<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Babonis |first1=Leslie S. |last2=Enjolras |first2=Camille |last3=Reft |first3=Abigail J. |last4=Foster |first4=Brent M. |last5=Hugosson |first5=Fredrik |last6=Ryan |first6=Joseph F. |last7=Daly |first7=Marymegan |last8=Martindale |first8=Mark Q. |date=2023-02-16 |title=Single-cell atavism reveals an ancient mechanism of cell type diversification in a sea anemone |url=https://rdcu.be/dqIyq |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=885 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-36615-9 |pmid=36797294 |pmc=9935875 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14..885B |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>): The penetrant or stenotele is the largest and most complex nematocyst. When discharged, it pierces the skin or [[chitin]]ous exoskeleton of the prey and injects the venomous fluid, [[hypnotoxin]], that either paralyzes the victim or kills it.
# Ptychocysts (Glutinant or Adhesive<ref name=":1" />): a sticky surface used to stick to prey, referred to as [[ptychocyst]]s and found on burrowing (tube) anemones, which help create the tube in which the animal lives
# Spirocysts (Volvent or Ensnaring<ref name=":1" />): The volvent or desmoneme is a small and pear-shaped cnidocyte. It contains a short, thick, spineless, smooth and elastic thread tube forming a single loop and closed at the far end. When discharged, it tightly coils around the prey. They are the smallest cnidocytes. A lasso-like string is fired at prey and wraps around a cellular projection on the prey, which are referred to as spirocysts.

Cnidocyte subtypes can be differentially localized in the animal. In the sea anemone ''[[Nematostella vectensis]]'', the majority of its non-penetrant sticky cnidocytes, the spherocytes, are found in the tentacles, and are thought to help with prey capture by sticking to the prey. By contrast, the two penetrant types of cnidocytes present in this species display a much broader localization, on the outer [[epithelium|epithelial]] layer of the tentacles and body column, as well as on the [[pharynx]] epithelium and within [[mesenteries]].<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Zenkert|first1=Claudia|last2=Takahashi|first2=Toshio|last3=Diesner|first3=Mark-Oliver|last4=Özbek|first4=Suat|date=2011-07-28|title=Morphological and Molecular Analysis of the Nematostella vectensis Cnidom|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=6|issue=7|pages=e22725|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022725|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3145756|pmid=21829492|bibcode=2011PLoSO...622725Z|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The diversity of cnidocytes types correlates with the expansion and diversification of structural cnidocyst genes like mini collagen genes.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Khalturin|first1=Konstantin|last2=Shinzato|first2=Chuya|last3=Khalturina|first3=Maria|last4=Hamada|first4=Mayuko|last5=Fujie|first5=Manabu|last6=Koyanagi|first6=Ryo|last7=Kanda|first7=Miyuki|last8=Goto|first8=Hiroki|last9=Anton-Erxleben|first9=Friederike|last10=Toyokawa|first10=Masaya|last11=Toshino|first11=Sho|date=May 2019|title=Medusozoan genomes inform the evolution of the jellyfish body plan|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume=3|issue=5|pages=811–822|doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0853-y|issn=2397-334X|pmid=30988488|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019NatEE...3..811K |url=https://oist.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=1020&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1}}</ref> [[Minicollagen]] genes form compact gene clusters in Cnidarian [[genome]]s, suggesting a diversification through gene duplication and subfunctionalization. [[Anthozoan]]s display less capsule diversity and a reduced number of mini collagen genes, and [[medusozoans]] have more capsule diversity (about 25 types) and a vastly expanded minicollagen genes repertoire.<ref name=":12" /> In the [[sea anemone]] ''[[Nematostella vectensis]]'', some minicollagens display a differential expression pattern in different cnidocytes subtypes.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sebé-Pedrós|first1=Arnau|last2=Saudemont|first2=Baptiste|last3=Chomsky|first3=Elad|last4=Plessier|first4=Flora|last5=Mailhé|first5=Marie-Pierre|last6=Renno|first6=Justine|last7=Loe-Mie|first7=Yann|last8=Lifshitz|first8=Aviezer|last9=Mukamel|first9=Zohar|last10=Schmutz|first10=Sandrine|last11=Novault|first11=Sophie|date=31 May 2018|title=Cnidarian Cell Type Diversity and Regulation Revealed by Whole-Organism Single-Cell RNA-Seq|journal=Cell|volume=173|issue=6|pages=1520–1534.e20|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2018.05.019|issn=1097-4172|pmid=29856957|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Cnidocyte development ==
Cnidocytes are single-use cells that need to be continuously replaced throughout the life of the animal with different mode of renewal across species.

=== Modes of renewal ===
[[File:Cnidocyte development in hydra.png|left|thumb|400x400px|Overview of the development of the 4 different capsule types of Hydra polyps.]]
In [[Hydra (genus)|Hydra]] [[polyps]], cnidocytes differentiate from a specific population of [[stem cells]], the interstitial cells (I-cells) located within the body column. Developing nematocysts first undergo multiple rounds of [[mitosis]] without [[cytokinesis]], giving rise to nematoblast nests with 8, 16, 32 or 64 cells. After this expansion phase, [[nematoblasts]] develop their capsules. Nests separate into single nematocysts when the formation of the capsule is complete.<ref name="Beckmann" /> Most of them migrate to the tentacles where they are incorporated into battery cells, which hold several nematocysts, and [[neurons]]. Battery cells coordinate firing of nematocysts.

In the [[hydrozoan]] jellyfish ''[[Clytia hemisphaerica]]'', nematogenesis takes place at the base of the tentacles, as well as in the [[manubrium]]. At the base of the tentacles, nematoblasts proliferate then differentiate along a proximal-distal [[gradient]], giving rise to mature nematocytes in the tentacles through a conveyor belt system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Denker|first1=Elsa|last2=Manuel|first2=Michaël|last3=Leclère|first3=Lucas|last4=Le Guyader|first4=Hervé|last5=Rabet|first5=Nicolas|date=2008-03-01|title=Ordered progression of nematogenesis from stem cells through differentiation stages in the tentacle bulb of Clytia hemisphaerica (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria)|journal=Developmental Biology|volume=315|issue=1|pages=99–113|doi=10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.12.023|issn=1095-564X|pmid=18234172|doi-access=}}</ref>

In the Anthozoan sea anemone ''[[Nematostella vectensis]]'', nematocytes are thought to develop throughout the animal from epithelial progenitors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Babonis|first1=Leslie S.|last2=Martindale|first2=Mark Q.|date=2017-09-04|title=PaxA, but not PaxC, is required for cnidocyte development in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis|journal=EvoDevo|volume=8|pages=14|doi=10.1186/s13227-017-0077-7|issn=2041-9139|pmc=5584322|pmid=28878874 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, a single regulatory gene that codes for the transcription factor ZNF845 also called CnZNF1 promotes the development of a cnidocyte and inhibits the development of a RFamide producing neuron cell.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Babonis |first1=Leslie S. |last2=Enjolras |first2=Camille |last3=Ryan |first3=Joseph F. |last4=Martindale |first4=Mark Q. |date=2022-05-10 |title=A novel regulatory gene promotes novel cell fate by suppressing ancestral fate in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=19 |pages=e2113701119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2113701119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9172639 |pmid=35500123|bibcode=2022PNAS..11913701B }}</ref> This gene evolved in the stem cnidarian through domain shuffling.<ref name=":2" />

=== Cnidocyst maturation ===
The nematocyst forms through a multi-step assembly process from a giant post-Golgi vacuole. [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|Vesicle]]s from the [[Golgi apparatus]] first fuse onto a primary vesicle: the capsule primordium. Subsequent vesicle fusion enables the formation of a [[tubule]] outside of the capsule, which then invaginates into the capsule. Then, an early maturation phase enables the formation of long arrays of barbed spines onto the invaginated tubule through the condensation of [[spinalin]] proteins. Finally, a late maturation stage gives rise to undischarged capsules under high [[osmotic pressure]] through the synthesis of [[Poly-gamma-glutamate|poly-γ-glutamate]] into the matrix of the capsule. This trapped osmotic pressure enables rapid thread discharge upon triggering through a massive osmotic shock.<ref name="David" />

== Nematocyst toxicity ==
[[File:Chironex fleckeri nematocysts 01.jpg|thumb|Nematocysts from ''[[Chironex fleckeri]]'' (400x magnification).]]
Nematocysts are very efficient weapons. A single nematocyst has been shown to suffice in paralyzing a small [[arthropod]] (''[[Drosophila]]'' [[larva]]). The most deadly cnidocytes (to humans, at least) are found on the body of a [[box jellyfish]].<ref name="pmid16928389">{{cite journal |author=Tibballs J |title=Australian venomous jellyfish, envenomation syndromes, toxins and therapy |journal=Toxicon |volume=48 |issue=7 |pages=830–59 |date=December 2006 |pmid=16928389 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.020 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17688901">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brinkman D, Burnell J |title=Identification, cloning and sequencing of two major venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri |journal=Toxicon |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=850–60 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17688901 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.06.016 }}</ref><ref name="pmid18243272">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brinkman D, Burnell J |title=Partial purification of cytolytic venom proteins from the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri |journal=Toxicon |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=853–63 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18243272 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.017 }}</ref> One member of this family, the sea wasp, ''[[Chironex fleckeri]]'', is "claimed to be the most venomous marine animal known," according to the [[Australian Institute of Marine Science]]. It can cause excruciating pain to humans, sometimes followed by death. Other cnidarians, such as the jellyfish ''[[Lion's mane jellyfish|Cyanea capillata]]'' (the "[[The Adventure of the Lion's Mane|Lion's Mane]]" made famous by [[Sherlock Holmes]]) or the siphonophore ''Physalia physalis'' ([[Portuguese man o' war]], "Bluebottle") can cause extremely painful and sometimes fatal stings. On the other hand, [[Shoaling and schooling|aggregating]] sea anemones may have the lowest sting intensity, perhaps due to the inability of the nematocysts to penetrate the skin, creating a feeling similar to touching sticky candies. Besides feeding and defense, sea anemone and coral colonies use cnidocytes to sting one another in order to defend or win space.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQEiYWGitKs| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609073538/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQEiYWGitKs| archive-date=2014-06-09 | url-status=dead|title=YouTube|website=www.youtube.com|access-date=6 April 2018}}</ref> Despite their effectiveness in prey-predator interactions, there is an evolutionary tradeoff as cnidarian venom systems are known to reduce the cnidarian's reproductive fitness and overall growth.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2023.07.24.550294 |title=Venom tradeoff shapes interspecific interactions, physiology and reproduction |last1=Surm |first1=Joachim M. |last2=Birch |first2=Sydney |date=2023-07-26 |publisher=Evolutionary Biology |doi=10.1101/2023.07.24.550294 |language=en |last3=Macrander |first3=Jason |last4=Jaimes-Becerra |first4=Adrian |last5=Fridrich |first5=Arie |last6=Aharoni |first6=Reuven |last7=Rozenblat |first7=Rotem |last8=Sharabany |first8=Julia |last9=Appelbaum |first9=Lior}}</ref>

[[Venom]] from animals such as cnidarians, [[scorpion]]s and [[spider]]s may be species-specific. A substance that is weakly toxic for humans or other mammals may be strongly toxic to the natural prey or predators of the venomous animal. Such specificity has been used to create new medicines and bioinsecticides, and [[biopesticides]].

Animals in the phylum [[Ctenophora]] ("sea-gooseberries" or "comb jellies") are transparent and jelly-like but have no nematocysts, and are harmless to humans.

Certain types of sea slugs, such as the nudibranch aeolids, are known to undergo kleptocnidy (in addition to [[kleptoplasty]]), whereby the organisms store nematocysts of digested prey at the tips of their cerata.

==See also==
* [[Cnidosac]], the sac in which an aeolid nudibranch stores the cnidocytes from its prey species

== Notes ==
<references group="lower-alpha" />
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.aims.gov.au/docs/projectnet/sea-wasp.html Dangerous marine animals of Northern Australia: the Sea Wasp] Australian Institute of Marine Science; dangers of box jellyfish
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zJiBc_N1Zk Nematocysts Firing Movie]
* {{Cite web|url=http://jellieszone.com/nematocysts.htm |title=Nematocysts |first=David |last=Wrobel |website=The JelliesZone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330162532/http://jellieszone.com/nematocysts.htm |archive-date=2010-03-30 |url-status=dead }}
* [https://portuguesemanofwar.com/ Portuguese Man-of-War: Real Stories, Real People, Real Encounters.]

[[Category:Animal cells]]
[[Category:Cnidarian anatomy]]