Editing Claudius Gothicus

{{short description|Roman emperor from 268 to 270}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg
| alt          = Gold medallion depicting laureate bust facing right
| caption      = Gold medallion (worth 8 [[aurei]]) depicting Claudius Gothicus. Legend: {{nowrap|{{Smallcaps|{{abbr|imp|IMPERATOR}} {{abbr|c|CAESAR}} {{abbr|m|MARCUS}} {{abbr|aurl|AURELIUS}} claudius {{abbr|p f|PIUS FELIX}} {{abbr|aug|AUGUSTUS}}}}}}
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]]
| reign        = 268–270
| predecessor  = [[Gallienus]]
| successor    = [[Quintillus]]
| birth_date   = 10 May 214
| death_date   = {{circa}} August 270 (aged 55)
| death_place  = 
| full name    = Marcus Aurelius Claudius
| regnal name  = Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Augustus{{sfn|Henze|1896|loc=col. 2458}}
| dynasty      = [[Gordian dynasty|Gordian]]?
| father       = Unknown, possibly [[Gordian II]]
| mother       = Unknown
}}

'''Marcus Aurelius Claudius''' "'''Gothicus'''" (10 May 214 – August/September 270), also known as '''Claudius II''', was [[Roman emperor]] from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the [[Alemanni]] and decisively defeated the [[Goths]] at the [[Battle of Naissus]]. He died after succumbing to a "pestilence", possibly the [[Plague of Cyprian]] that had ravaged the provinces of the Empire.

== Early life and origin ==
The most significant source for Claudius II (and the only one regarding his early life) is the collection of imperial biographies called the ''[[Historia Augusta]]''. However, his story, like the rest of the ''Historia Augusta'', is riddled with fabrications and obsequious praises. In 4th century, Claudius was declared a relative of [[Constantine the Great]]'s father, [[Constantius Chlorus]], and, consequently, of the ruling dynasty. The ''Historia Augusta'' should be used with extreme caution and supplemented with information from other sources: the works of [[Aurelius Victor]], Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], [[Orosius]], [[Joannes Zonaras]], and [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], as well as coins and inscriptions.<ref name="roman-emperors.org">{{cite web |last=Weigel |first=Richard D. |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudgot.htm |title=Claudius II Gothicus (268—270) |publisher=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors |date=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830085225/http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudgot.htm |archive-date=30 August 2011}}</ref>

The future emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius was born on 10 May 214.{{sfn|Damerau|1934|loc=s. 39}} Some researchers suggest a later date of 219 or 220.{{sfn|Henze|1896|loc=s. 2458}} Nevertheless, most historians adhere to the first version. Moreover, as the 6th century Byzantine historian [[John Malalas]] reports, at the time of his death Claudius was 56 years old.{{sfn|Kienast|2017|p=222}}<ref name="roman-emperors.org" /> The birthplace of Claudius is unknown.{{sfn|Damerau|1934|loc=s. 39}} He might have been born somewhere near the [[Danube]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Drinkwater |first=John Frederick |title=Claudius (II) Gothicus, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, 268–270 CE |date=2016-03-07 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1624 |access-date=2024-04-26 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1624 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5}}</ref>

According to the fourth-century ''[[Epitome de Caesaribus]]'', he was thought to be a bastard son of [[Gordian II]],<ref>[https://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm]
"Many think this man was fathered by Gordian, when, as a youth, he was being prepared by a grown woman for a wife."</ref> although this is doubted by some historians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hekster |first=Olivier |date=2015 |title=Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the Constraints of Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPgJCAAAQBAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=225 |isbn=978-0-19-873682-0}}</ref>

The ''Historia Augusta'' refers to him as a member of the ''[[Flavia (gens)|gens Flavia]]'', likely an attempt to further connect him with the future emperor [[Flavius Valerius Constantius]].<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html]''Historia Augusta'', The Life of Claudius</ref>

== Rise to power ==
[[File:Coin of Claudis II.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|[[Antoninianus]] of Claudius II. Legend: IMPerator Caesar CLAVDIVS AVGustus]]
Before coming to power, Claudius served with the Roman army, where he had a successful career and secured appointments to the highest military posts. The ''Historia Augusta'' says that he was a [[military tribune]] in the reign of [[Decius]] (249–251).<ref>See SHA, ''Vita Claudii'', 14. It is in fact doubtful that Claudius was a military tribune at the time of Gallienus's murder. At that time a military tribune was usually the commander of a legionary [[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]] or an ''[[Ala (Roman cavalry unit)|ala]]'' of auxiliary cavalry. For Claudius to have been demoted to this level from the heights he had previously occupied (''Hipparchos'' of the Cavalry and Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armies) would suggest a serious rift between himself and Gallienus. It is possible, but there is no evidence for it in any of the ancient sources; even Zosimus, who is notably cool towards Claudius, gives no hint of it. The most likely explanation for the suggestion is that the author of the ''Historia Augusta'', writing in the Fourth Century AD after the Constantinian reform of the army, had no notion what the term 'tribune' denoted in the seventh decade of the previous century.</ref> The same source describes his being sent to defend [[Thermopylae]], in connection with which the governor of [[Achaea]] was ordered to supply him with soldiers. However, there is no evidence that the Goths who invaded at that time threatened the region, since their activities did not extend beyond the middle Balkans. Most likely the account in the ''Historia Augusta'' is an anachronism, since it is known that the garrison at Thermopylae appeared in 254. Historian François Pashau suggests that this passage was invented in order to contrast the successful pagan commander Claudius with the unlucky Christian generals who allowed the ruin of Greece by the Gothic leader [[Alaric I]] in 396.{{sfn|Paschoud|1992|pp=25–26}} In addition, Trebellius Pollio reveals that Decius rewarded Claudius after he demonstrated his strength while fighting another soldier at the Games of Mars.<ref>Aurelius Victor, 33</ref>

His troops then proclaimed him emperor{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol 1, p. 209}} amid charges, never proven, that he murdered his predecessor [[Gallienus]].<ref name="roman-emperors.org" /> However, he soon showed himself to be less than bloodthirsty, as he asked the [[Roman Senate]] to spare the lives of Gallienus's family and supporters. He was less magnanimous toward Rome's enemies and it was to this that he owed his popularity.<ref name="Gibbon, Ch. 11">Gibbon, Ch. 11</ref>

It is possible Claudius gained his position and the respect of the soldiers by being physically strong and especially cruel. A legend tells of Claudius knocking out a horse's teeth with one punch. When Claudius performed as a wrestler in the 250s, he supposedly knocked out the teeth of his opponent when his genitalia had been grabbed in the match.<ref>Meijer, pg. 98</ref>

Claudius, like [[Maximinus Thrax]] before him, was of [[barbarian]] birth. After a period of failed [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] Roman emperors following Maximinus's death, Claudius was the first in a series of tough "[[soldier emperor]]s" who would eventually restore the Empire after the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lightfoot |first=Christopher |title=The Roman empire (27 B.C.-393 A.D.) |series=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roem/hd_roem.htm |date=October 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=What were the causes of the 3rd century crisis in the Roman Empire? |access-date=2 August 2019 |date=2018 |url=https://dailyhistory.org/What_were_the_causes_of_the_3rd_century_crisis_in_the_Roman_Empire%3F |website=dailyhistory.org}}</ref>

=== Downfall of Gallienus ===
[[File:Roman Emperor Gallienus, 253-260 CE. Marble. Acquired in Paris, France, in 1742 CE. Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany.jpg|thumb|Roman emperor [[Gallienus]], ({{reign}}253–268)]]
During the 260s, the breakup of the [[Roman Empire]] into three distinct governing entities (the core Roman Empire, the [[Gallic Empire]] and the [[Palmyrene Empire]]) placed the whole Roman imperium in a precarious position. [[Gallienus]] was seriously weakened by his failure to defeat [[Postumus]] in the West, and his acceptance of [[Odaenathus]] ruling a de facto independent kingdom within the Roman Empire in the East. By 268, this situation had changed, as Odaenathus was assassinated, most likely due to court intrigue, and Gallienus fell victim to a mutiny in his own ranks. Upon the death of Odaenathus, power fell to his younger son, who was dominated by his mother, [[Zenobia]].<ref name="Potter, pg. 263">Potter, pg. 263</ref>

Under threat of invasion in the Balkans by multiple Germanic tribes, Gallienus's troubles primarily lay with [[Postumus]], whom he could not attack because his attention was required in dealing with an insurrection led by [[Macrianus Major|Macrianus]] and the threats created by the invading [[Scythians]]. After four years of delay, Postumus had established some control over the Empire. In 265, when Gallienus and his men crossed the Alps, they defeated and besieged Postumus in an (unnamed) [[Gallic Empire|Gallic]] city. When victory appeared to be near, Gallienus made the mistake of approaching the city walls too closely and was gravely injured, compelling him to cease his campaign against Postumus. Over the next three years, Gallienus's troubles only got worse. The Scythians successfully invaded the Balkans in the early months of 268, and [[Aureolus]], a commander of the Roman cavalry based in [[Milan]], declared himself an ally of Postumus and went so far as to claim the imperial throne for himself.<ref name="Potter, pg. 263" />

At this time, another invasion was taking place. In 268, a tribe or grouping called the [[Herulians]] moved through [[Asia Minor]] and then into Greece on a naval expedition. Despite this, scholars assume Gallienus's efforts were focused on Aureolus, the officer who betrayed him, and the defeat of the Herulians was left to his successor, Claudius Gothicus.<ref name="EmpireAtBay">{{cite book |title=The Roman empire at bay, AD 180-395 |first=David |last=Potter |edition=second |series=Routledge history of the ancient world |date=2004 |chapter=7 |isbn=978-1-315-88256-7}}</ref>

The death of Gallienus was surrounded by conspiracy and betrayal, as were many emperors' deaths. Different accounts of the incident have been recorded, but they agree that senior officials wanted Gallienus dead. According to two accounts, the prime conspirator was [[Aurelius Heraclianus]], the [[Praetorian Prefect]]. One version of the story tells of Heraclianus bringing Claudius into the plot while the account given by the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' exculpates the soon-to-be emperor and adds the prominent general [[Lucius Aurelius Marcianus]] into the plot. The removal of Claudius from the conspiracy may be due to his later role as the progenitor of the [[house of Constantine]], a fiction of [[Constantine I|Constantine]]'s time, and suggests that the original version from which these two accounts derive was current prior to the reign of Constantine. It was written that while sitting down at dinner, Gallienus was told that Aureolus and his men were approaching the camp. Gallienus rushed to the front lines, ready to give orders, when he was struck down by a commander of his cavalry. In a different and more controversial account, Aureolus forges a document in which Gallienus appears to be plotting against his generals and makes sure it falls into the hands of the emperor's senior staff. In this plot, [[Aurelian]] is added as a possible conspirator. The tale of his involvement in the conspiracy might be seen as at least partial justification for the murder of Aurelian himself under circumstances that seem remarkably similar to those in this story.<ref name="Potter, pg. 264">Potter, pg. 264</ref>

Whichever story is true, Gallienus was killed in the summer of 268, probably between July and October,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Stein |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Stein (historian) |year=1924 |title=Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian |journal=Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=30–51 |doi=10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30 |s2cid=161464046 |language=de}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/romanemperorsbio0000gran/page/180 |title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |year=1985 |isbn=0-684-18388-9 |place=New York |pages=178–182 |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}</ref>{{sfn|Kienast|2017|p=222}} and Claudius was chosen by the army outside of [[Milan]] to succeed him. Accounts tell of people hearing the news of the new emperor, and reacting by murdering Gallienus's family members until Claudius declared he would respect the memory of his predecessor. Claudius had the deceased emperor deified and buried in a family tomb on the [[Appian Way]]. The traitor Aureolus was not treated with the same reverence, as he was killed by his besiegers after a failed attempt to surrender.<ref name="Potter, pg. 264" />

== Reign ==
At the time of Claudius's accession, the [[Roman Empire]] was in serious danger from several incursions, both inside and outside its borders. The most pressing of these was an invasion of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Pannonia]] by the [[Goths]].<ref name="Gibbon, Ch. 11" /> Although [[Gallienus]] had already inflicted some damage on them at the Battle of Nestus,<ref name="Southern, pg. 109">Southern, pg. 109</ref> Claudius, not long after being named emperor, followed this up by winning his greatest victory, and one of the greatest in the history of Roman arms.<ref name="EmpireAtBay" />

[[File:Map of Ancient Rome 271 AD.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|The Roman Empire in 268]]

At the [[Battle of Naissus]], Claudius and his legions routed a huge Gothic army.<ref name="roman-emperors.org" />  Together with his cavalry commander, the future Emperor [[Aurelian]], the Romans took thousands of prisoners and destroyed the Gothic cavalry as a force.  The victory earned Claudius his surname of "Gothicus" (conqueror of the Goths). The Goths were soon driven back across the Danube by Aurelian, and nearly a century passed before they again posed a serious threat to the empire.<ref name="EmpireAtBay" />

Around the same time, the [[Alamanni]] had crossed the [[Alps]] and attacked the empire. Claudius responded quickly, routing the Alamanni at the [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] in the late fall of 268, a few months after the Battle of Naissus.<ref name="Southern, pg. 110">Southern, pg. 110</ref> For this he was awarded the title of "Germanicus Maximus."<ref name="roman-emperors.org" /> He then turned on the [[Gallic Empire]], ruled by a pretender for the past eight years and encompassing [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Gaul]], and the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. He won several victories and soon regained control of [[Hispania]] and the Rhone river valley of Gaul.<ref name="Southern, pg. 109" />  This set the stage for the later destruction of the Gallic Empire under Aurelian.<ref name="roman-emperors.org" />

=== Government and foreign affairs ===
[[File:5313 - Brescia - S. Giulia - Ritratto di Claudio II il Gotico - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 25 Giu 2011.jpg|thumb|left|Possible bust of Claudius, [[Santa Giulia Museum]], [[Brescia]] (Italy).<ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=John |title=The Roman Emperor Aurelian: Restorer of the World |publisher=Casemate |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4738-4569-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanemperoraure0000whit/page/138/mode/2up?view=theater |page=139}}</ref>]]
Claudius was not the only man to reap the benefits of holding high office after the death of [[Gallienus]]. Before the rule of Claudius Gothicus, there had only been two emperors from the [[Balkans]], but afterwards there would only be one emperor who did not hail from the provinces of [[Pannonia]], [[Moesia]] or [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] until 378, when [[Theodosius I]] from [[Hispania]] would take the throne. Four inscriptions provide an insight into the government at the time. The first is a dedication to [[Aurelius Heraclianus]], the prefect involved in the conspiracy against Gallienus, from Traianus Mucianus, who also gave a dedication to Heraclianus's brother, Aurelius Appollinaris, who was the equestrian governor of the province of [[Thracia]] in 267–68 AD.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Christol |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Christol |title=Une carrière équestre sous le règne de l'empereur Gallien |journal=Latomus |year=1976 |volume=35 |pages=866–874 |language=fr}}</ref> Because these men shared the family name, Marcus Aurelius, a name given to those made citizens by the [[constitutio Antoniniana]], these men did not come from the imperial ''élite''. The third inscription reveals the career of [[Marcianus]], another leading general by the time that Gallienus died. The fourth honours Julius Placidianus, the prefect of the [[vigiles]]. Heraclianus, Appollinaris, [[Placidianus]], or Marcianus may not have been of [[Danubian]] origin themselves, but none of them were members of the [[Severan]] aristocracy, and all of them appear to owe their prominence to their military roles. [[Marcus Aurelius Probus]] (another emperor in waiting) was also of Balkan background, and from a family enfranchised in the time of [[Caracalla]].<ref name="Potter-265">Potter, p. 265</ref>

Although their influence was weakened, there were still a number of men with influence from the older [[aristocracy]]. Claudius assumed the consulship in 269 with [[Paternus (consul 269)|Paternus]], a member of the prominent senatorial family, the Paterni, who had supplied consuls and urban prefects throughout Gallienus's reign, and thus were quite influential. In addition, [[Flavius Antiochianus]], one of the consuls of 270, who was an urban prefect the year before, would continue to hold his office for the following year. A colleague of Antiochianus, Virius Orfitus, also the descendant of a powerful family, would continue to hold influence during his father's term as prefect. Aurelian's colleague as consul was another such man, Pomponius Bassus, a member of one of the oldest senatorial families, as was one of the consuls in 272, Junius Veldumnianus.<ref name="Potter-265" />

In his first full year of power, Claudius was greatly assisted by the sudden destruction of the imperium Galliarum. When Ulpius Cornelius [[Laelianus]], a high official under [[Postumus]], declared himself emperor in [[Germania Superior]], in the spring of 269, Postumus defeated him, but in doing so, refused to allow the sack of [[Mainz]], which had served as Laelianus's headquarters. This proved to be his downfall, for out of anger, Postumus's army mutinied and murdered him. Selected by the troops, [[Marcus Aurelius Marius]] was to replace Postumus as ruler. Marius's rule did not last long though, as [[Victorinus]], Postumus's praetorian prefect, defeated him. Now emperor of the [[Gaul]]s, Victorinus was soon in a precarious position, for the Spanish provinces had deserted the [[Gallic Empire]] and declared their loyalty to Claudius, while in southern Gaul, [[Placidianus]] had captured [[Grenoble]]. Luckily, it was there that Placidianus stopped and Victorinus's position stabilized. In the next year, when [[Autun]] revolted, declaring itself for Claudius, the central government made no moves to support it. As a result, the city went through a siege, lasting many weeks, until it was finally captured and sacked by Victorinus.<ref name="Potter-266">Potter, p. 266</ref>
[[File:Claudiusgothicus77000981cng.jpg|thumb|400x400px|Medallion of Claudius. An attempt of his to reform Roman currency is commemorated on the reverse with three [[Moneta|''Monetae'']], personifications of gold, silver, and bronze]]
It is still unknown why Claudius did nothing to help the city of Autun, but sources tell us his relations with [[Palmyra]] were waning in the course of 269. An obscure passage in the ''[[Historia Augusta]]''{{'}}s life of Gallienus states that he had sent an army under [[Aurelius Heraclianus]] to the region that had been annihilated by [[Zenobia]]. But because Heraclianus was not actually in the east in 268 (instead, at this time, he was involved in the conspiracy of Gallienus's death), this cannot be correct. But the confusion evident in this passage, which also places the bulk of Scythian activity during 269 a year earlier, under Gallienus, may stem from a later effort to pile all possible disasters in this year into the reign of the former emperor. This would keep Claudius's record of being an ancestor of [[Constantine I|Constantine]] from being tainted. If this understanding of the sources is correct, it might also be correct to see the expedition of Heraclianus to the east as an event of Claudius's time.<ref name="Potter-266" />

[[File:Carska palata Sirmijum1.JPG|thumb|Ruins of Imperial Palace at [[Sirmium]], today in [[Sremska Mitrovica]]]]

The victories of Claudius over the [[Goths]] would not only make him a hero in [[Latin]] tradition, but an admirable choice as an ancestor for [[Constantine I]], who was born at [[Niš|Naissus]], the site of Claudius's victory in 269. Claudius is also held in high esteem by [[Zonaras]], whose [[Greeks|Greek]] tradition seems to have been influenced by Latin. For [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], a more reasoned contemporary view shows Claudius as less grand. Claudius's successes in the year 269 were not continued in his next year as emperor. As the Scythians starved in the mountains or surrendered, the legions pursuing them began to see an epidemic spreading throughout the men. Also, Claudius's unwillingness to do anything at the siege of [[Autun]] likely provoked a quarrel with [[Zenobia]].<ref name="Potter-267">Potter, p. 267</ref>

Although it is not proven that the invasion of [[Gaul]] was the breaking point between Claudius and Zenobia, the sequence of events point to the siege as an important factor. The issue at hand was the position that [[Odaenathus]] held as ''corrector totius orientis'' (imparting overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region). [[Vaballathus]], the son of Zenobia, was given this title when Zenobia claimed it for him. From then on, tension between the two empires would only get worse. [[Aurelius Heraclianus]]'s fabled arrival might have been an effort to reassert central control after the death of Odaenathus, but, if so, it failed. Although coins were never minted with the face of Odaenathus,<ref>{{cite book |last=Young |first=Gary K. |date=2003 |title=Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-54793-7}}</ref> soon after his death coins were made with image of his son<ref>{{cite book |last=Southern |first=Patricia |date=2008 |title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-4248-1}}</ref> – outstripping his authority under the emperor.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coins with power |first=Liesbeth |last=Claes |publisher=Jaarboek voor Munt |date=2015 |issue=102 |pages=15–60 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/37219/Claes%202015%20JMP%20Coins%20with%20power_def.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>

Under [[Zabdas]], a [[Palmyrene Empire|Palmyrene]] army invaded [[Arabia]] and moved into [[Egypt]] in the late summer. At this time, the prefect of Egypt was Tenagino Probus, described as an able soldier who not only defeated an invasion of [[Cyrenaica]] by the nomadic tribes to the south in 269, but also was successful in hunting down Scythian ships in the [[Mediterranean]]. However, he did not see the same success in Egypt, for a group allied to the Palmyrene empire, led by [[Timagenes]], undermined Probus, defeated his army, and killed him in a battle near the modern city of [[Cairo]] in the late summer of 270.<ref name="Potter-267" />
[[File:Portrait head of a Roman man, perhaps Claudius Gothicus (Worcester Art Mus 1915.24) 04.jpg|alt=Marble portrait head of a man with short hair and a short curly beard and mustache, looking slightly upward to the right|thumb|Portrait head of a 3rd-century soldier-emperor, perhaps Claudius Gothicus ([[Worcester Art Museum]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Claudius Gothicus |url=https://viamus.uni-goettingen.de/fr/e/uni/e/08/09 |access-date=2023-07-01 |website=Virtuelles AntikenMuseum Goettingen}}</ref>]]
Generally, when a Roman commander is killed it is taken as a sign that a state of war is in existence, and if we can associate the death of [[Heraclianus]] in 270, as well as an inscription from [[Bostra]] recording the rebuilding of a temple destroyed by the Palmyrene army, then these violent acts could be interpreted the same way. Yet they apparently were not. As [[David Stone Potter|David Potter]] writes, "The coins of [[Vaballathus]] avoid claims to imperial power: he remains vir consularis, rex, imperator, dux Romanorum, a range of titles that did not mimic those of the central government. The status vir consularis was, as we have seen, conferred upon [[Odaenathus]]; the title rex, or king, is simply a Latin translation of [[Malik|mlk]], or king; imperator in this context simply means "victorious general"; and dux Romanorum looks like yet another version of corrector totius orientis" (Potter, 263). These titles suggest that Odaenathus's position was inheritable. In Roman culture, the status gained in procuring a position could be passed on, but not the position itself. It is possible that the thin line between office and the status that accompanied it were dismissed in the Palmyrene court, especially when the circumstance worked against the interests of a regime that was able to defeat [[Persia]], which a number of Roman emperors had failed to do.  Vaballathus stressed the meanings of titles, because in the Palmyrene context, the titles of Odaenathus meant a great deal. When the summer of 270 ended, things were looking very different in the empire than they did a year before. After its success, Gaul was in a state of inactivity and the empire was failing in the east. Insufficient resources plagued the state, as a great deal of silver was used for the [[antoninianus]], which was again diluted.<ref name="Potter-267" />

=== Death ===
Claudius did not live long enough to fulfil his goal of reuniting all the lost territories of the empire. Late in 269 he had travelled to [[Sirmium]]{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol 1, p. 209}} and was preparing to go to war against the [[Vandals]], who were raiding in [[Pannonia]].<ref name="Southern, pg. 110" /> However, he fell victim to the [[Plague of Cyprian]] (possibly [[smallpox]]), and died early in 270.<ref>"Now when the war with the Goths was finished, there spread abroad a most grievous pestilence, and then Claudius himself was stricken by the disease, and, leaving mankind, he departed to heaven, an abode befitting his virtues." (''[[Historia Augusta]]'').</ref> Before his death, he is thought to have named Aurelian as his successor, though Claudius's brother [[Quintillus]] briefly seized power.<ref name="Gibbon, Ch. 11" /> The [[Roman Senate|Senate]] immediately deified Claudius as "Divus Claudius Gothicus".<ref>Bowman, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337'', pg. 50</ref>

Historians date Claudius's death in either January,<ref name=":0" /> April,<ref name=":1" /> August, or September.{{sfn|Kienast|2017|p=222}} These discrepancies are the result of the various conflicting sources. The ''[[Chronograph of 354]]'' gives Claudius a reign of "1 year and 4 months",<ref>[[Filocalus]], [https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chronography_of_354_16_chronicle_of_the_city_of_rome.htm ''Chronicle of the City of Rome''.]</ref> [[Jerome]] and [[Aurelius Victor]] both give "1 year and 9 months".<ref>''[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]]'', [https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm s. 269]; ''[[Epitome de Caesaribus]]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020340/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm s. 34]</ref> Some Alexandrian coins have been dated to his third year, suggesting that he died in September 270 (the [[Coptic calendar]] began on 29 August).<ref>{{cite book |last=Peachin |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/ritac235/page/n33/mode/1up?view=theater |title=Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284 |publisher=Gieben |year=1990 |isbn=90-5063-034-0 |place=Amsterdam |page=42}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> [[Arthur Stein (historian)|Arthur Stein]] dated Claudius' death to April, citing a document of Aurelian that he dated to 25 May 270.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> However, modern scholars believe this document to be dated to 271.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kotula |first=Tadeusz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZpoAAAAMAAJ |title=Aurélien et Zénobie: l'unité ou la division de l'Empire? |date=1997 |publisher=Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego |isbn=978-83-229-1638-4 |language=fr |quote=25 mai 270 considéré comme la date la plus ancienne d'Aurélien dans les papyrus doit être reporté à 271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johne |first=Klaus-Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqvpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA363 |title=Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235-284) |date=2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-05-008807-5 |pages=363 (note 52) |language=de}}</ref> The date is strangely given as the "3rd" and "1st year", which most likely refers to the third year of Claudius and first of Aurelian (who dated his reign from Claudius' death).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grenfell |first1=Bernard P. |url=http://archive.org/details/oxyrhynchuspapyr09gren |title=The Oxyrhynchus papyri |last2=Hunt |first2=Arthur S. |date=1898 |publisher=Egypt Exploration Fund |others=Harold B. Lee Library |isbn=978-0-85698-065-7 |pages=223 (no. 1200)}}</ref> The last confirmed document is dated to 20 September 270, although another undated papyri could be tentatively dated to October.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rathbone |first=D. W. |date=1986 |title=The Dates of the Recognition in Egypt of the Emperors from Caracalla to Diocletianus |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=62 |pages=120–125 |jstor=20186314 |issn=0084-5388}}</ref>

== Religion ==
A short history of imperial Rome, entitled ''De Caesaribus'',  written by [[Aurelius Victor]] in 361, states that Claudius consulted the ''[[Sibylline Books]]'' prior to his campaigns against the [[Goths]]. Hinting that Claudius "revived the tradition of the Decii", Victor illustrates the senatorial view, which saw Claudius's predecessor, [[Gallienus]], as too relaxed when it came to religious policies.<ref>Curran, pg. 15</ref>

== Links to the Constantinian dynasty ==
The unreliable ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' reports Claudius and Quintillus having another brother named Crispus and through him a niece, [[Claudia (mother of Constantius)|Claudia]],  who reportedly married Eutropius and was mother to [[Constantius Chlorus]].<ref>''Historia Augusta'', Claudius, 13:2</ref> The same source also gives Claudius the nomina "[[Flavius]] [[Valerius]]" to strengthen his connection to Constantius.<ref>''[[Historia Augusta]]'', ''Life of Claudius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html#13 1 (note 1)]. [[LacusCurtius]].</ref> Zonaras and [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] on the other hand claim Chlorus was Claudia's daughter's son.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the Constraints of Tradition |last=Hekster |first=Olivier |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-105655-0 |page=225}}</ref> Historians suspect these accounts to be a [[genealogical]] fabrication intended to link the family of [[Constantine I]] to that of a well-respected emperor.<ref name="roman-emperors.org" />

== Saint Valentine ==
Claudius Gothicus has been linked to [[Saint Valentine]] since the [[Middle Ages]]. Contemporary records of his deeds were most probably destroyed during the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] in early 4th century<ref name="oruch" /> and a tale of martyrdom was recorded in ''Passio Marii et Marthae'', a work published in the 5th or 6th century.<ref name="oruch" /><ref name="kelly" /> 20th-century historians agree that the accounts from this period cannot be verified.<ref name="oruch">Jack Oruch, "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February", ''Speculum'' '''56'''.3 (July 1981 pp 534–565) p 535.</ref><ref name="kelly" /> The legend refers to "Emperor Claudius", but [[Claudius I]] did not persecute Christians (minus the one mention by [[Suetonius]] of Jewish followers of "Chrestus" being expelled from Rome; ''see'' [[Suetonius on Christians]]), so people believe he was Claudius II even though this emperor spent most of his time warring outside his territory.<ref name="oruch" />

The legend was retold in later texts, and in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' of 1493, involved the Roman priest being martyred during a general persecution of Christians. The text states that St. Valentine was beaten with clubs and finally beheaded for giving aid to Christians in Rome.<ref name="oruch" /> The ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of 1260 recounts how St. Valentine refused to deny Christ before the "Emperor Claudius" in 270 and as a result was beheaded.<ref name="kelly">Henry Kelly, ''Chaucer and the cult of Saint Valentine'', pg. 49</ref> Since then, February 14 marks [[Valentine's Day]], a day set aside by the Christian church in memory of the Roman priest and physician.<ref>Larue, pg. 1</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Roman emperors]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==

=== Primary sources ===
* [[Aurelius Victor]], [http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Epitome de Caesaribus]
* [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#11 Breviarium ab urbe condita]}}
* [[Historia Augusta]], Life of Claudius The accuracy of this source has been questioned.
* [[Joannes Zonaras]], Compendium of History [https://web.archive.org/web/20080521191250/http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/1049415 extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284]
* [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus01_book1.htm Historia Nova]

=== Secondary sources ===
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudgot.htm Weigel, Richard D. "Claudius II Gothicus (268–270)", ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'', 2001]
* {{cite book |last=Jones |year=1971 |first=A. H. M. |author2=J. R. Martindale |author3=J. Morris |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-07233-6 |name-list-style=amp |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |author-link2=John Robert Martindale |author-link3=John Morris (historian) |ref=CITEREFPLRE |url=https://archive.org/details/prosopography-later-roman-empire/PLRE-I/page/209/mode/1up}}
* Gibbon. Edward ''Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1888)
* Curran, John R. Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000. Print
* Larue, Gerald A. "There They Go Again!" The Humanist Sept. 1999: 1. Print.
* Meijer, Fik. Emperors Don't Die in Bed. London: Routledge, 2004. Print.
* Potter, David S. "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.08.01." The Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 2004.
* {{cite book |last=Homo |first=L. |title=De Claudio Gothico, Romanorum imperatore (268–270) |location=Paris |date=1903 |publisher=H. Jouve}}
* {{cite book |last=Damerau |first=P. |title=Kaiser Claudius II. Goticus (268–270 n. Chr.) |location=Leipzig |date=1934 |publisher=Dieterich}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Henze, Walter, "[[s:de:RE:Aurelius 82|Aurelius 82]]", ''[[Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft]]'', volume 4 (II.2), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1896), columns 2458–2462.|ref={{sfnref|Henze|1896}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Kienast |first=D. |title=Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie |location=Darmstadt |date=2017 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |isbn=978-3-534-13289-8 |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last=Paschoud |first=F. |title=Claude II aux Thermopyles? A propos de HA, ''Claud''. 16,1, Zosime 5,5 et Eunape, ''Vitae Soph''. 7, 3, 4-5 |journal=Publications de l'École française de Rome |volume=159 |year=1992 |pages=21–28 |language=fr}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kotula |first=T. |title=Autour de Claude II le Gothique: péripéties d'un mythe |journal=Revue des Études Anciennes |year=1994 |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=499–509 |doi=10.3406/rea.1994.4592 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Southern |first=Pat |title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine |location=London, New York |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-23943-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Watson |chapter=A. |title=Aurelian and the Third Century |location=London |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-90815-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=D. S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180—395 |location=London |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-10058-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=U. |last2=Gerhardt |first2=T. |title=Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235-284) |editor=Johne K.-P |location=Berlin |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-05-008807-5 |language=de}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Claudius II}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Claudius, Marcus Aurelius}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Gallienus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]
        | years=268–270 }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Quintillus]]}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Aspasius Paternus]] |before2=[[Publius Licinius Egnatius Marinianus|P. Licinius Egnatius Marinianus]]|before3=[[Postumus]] }}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Roman consul]]|years=269 |regent1=[[Paternus (consul 269)|Paternus]],<br />[[Victorinus]],<br /> Sanctus}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Flavius Antiochianus]]|after2=[[Virius Orfitus]]|after3=[[Victorinus]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}<!--LC authority file gives birth year as 214-->

[[Category:214 births]]
[[Category:270 deaths]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman emperors]]
[[Category:3rd-century Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]
[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Gothicus Maximus]]
[[Category:Aurelii]]
[[Category:Claudii]]
[[Category:Illegitimate children of Roman emperors]]
[[Category:People from Sirmium]]
[[Category:People from Roman Dalmatia]]
[[Category:Illyrian emperors]]