Editing Chinese classics

{{Short description|Classic texts of Chinese literature}}
{{Distinguish|Classic Chinese Novels}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Excessive examples|date=October 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2023}}
}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|t={{linktext|中國古籍}}
|s={{linktext|中国古籍}}
|p=Zhōngguó gǔjí
}}
The '''Chinese classics''' or '''canonical texts''' are the works of [[Chinese literature]] authored prior to the establishment of the imperial [[Qin dynasty]] in 221&nbsp;BC. Prominent examples include the [[Four Books and Five Classics]] in the [[Neo-Confucian]] tradition, themselves an abridgment of the [[Thirteen Classics]]. The Chinese classics used a form of [[written Chinese]] consciously imitated by later authors, now known as [[Classical Chinese]]. A common Chinese word for "classic" ({{zhi|first=t|t=經|s=经|p=jīng}}) literally means '[[warp (weaving)|warp thread]]', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes.<ref name=Voorst>{{cite book |title=Anthology of World Scriptures |last=van Voorst|first=Robert E.  |publisher=Cengage |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-50387-3 |page=140}}</ref>

Texts may include ''shi'' ({{lang|zh|史}}, '[[Chinese historiography|histories]]') ''zi'' ({{lang|zh|子}} 'master texts'), [[Chinese philosophy|philosophical treatises]] usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, [[Traditional Chinese medicine|medicine]], mathematics, [[Chinese astronomy|astronomy]], divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and ''ji'' ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|集}}}} 'literary works') as well as the cultivation of ''[[jing (Chinese medicine)|jing]]'', 'essence' in Chinese medicine.

In the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those [[Confucian]] scholars who wished to take the [[imperial examination]] and needed to pass them in order to become [[scholar-official]]s. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of the literati—or even a military officer in some periods—without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the [[Chinese characters]] of the ''[[Three Character Classic]]'' and ''[[Hundred Family Surnames]]'' and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Confucianism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism/The-Five-Classics |access-date=2023-06-25 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

==Qin dynasty==
===Loss of texts===
According to [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', after [[Qin Shi Huang]], the first [[emperor of China]], unified China in 221&nbsp;BC, his chancellor [[Li Si]] suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]], with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]]. According to the ''Shiji'', three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.{{sfnp|Chan|1972|pp=105–107}}

Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding the alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period,<ref name="Smith 2003" /> and the "schools of thought" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|Nylan|2003|pp=59–99}}{{sfnp|Meyer|2012|pp=247–249}}{{sfnp|Grebnev|2022|pp=2–3, 254–255}} [[Michael Nylan]] observes that despite its mythic significance, the "[[burning of books and burying of scholars]]" legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian [[Five Classics]] was partly to "slander" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as Confucian. Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' and the ''[[Book of Documents]]'', which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the ''[[Book of Rites]]'' and the ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207&nbsp;BC and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time.{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=29–30}} Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially the ''Documents'' and the ''Classic of Poetry'', which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qY32-zfTU9AC&q=%22status+of+the+Classics%22 111–112]}}

== Western Han dynasty ==
===Five Classics===
The '''Five Classics''' ({{zhi|t=五經|p=Wǔjīng}}) are five pre-Qin texts that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the [[Western Han dynasty]], which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics".<ref>Nylan, Michael. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205031/http://yalepress.yale.edu/YupBooks/pdf/0300081855.pdf (Internet Archive Copy) ''The Five "Confucian" Classics'']. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.</ref> Several of the texts were already prominent by the [[Warring States period]], but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles. [[Mencius]], the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods.

;''[[Classic of Poetry]]''
:A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house. 
;''[[Book of Documents]]''
:A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.
;''[[Book of Rites]]''
:Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself. 
;''[[I Ching]]''
:The book contains a [[divination]] system comparable to Western [[geomancy]] or the West African [[Ifá]] system.{{cn|date=April 2024}} In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.
;''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''
:A historical record of the [[State of Lu]], Confucius's native state, 722–481&nbsp;BC.

Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn.


===Han imperial library===
[[File:Liu Xiang (Han scholar).PNG|thumb|The Han-era scholar [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]] edited the text of many Chinese classical works such as the ''[[Book of Rites]]'', and compiled the ''[[Biographies of Exemplary Women]]''.]]

In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]] (77–6&nbsp;BC{{sfn|Twitchett|Loewe|1986|p=192}}) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the ''Abstracts'' ({{zhi|first=t|t=別錄|s=别录|p=Bielu}}), and is the first known editor of the ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas]]'', which was finished by his son.<ref>E.L. Shaughnessy, ''Rewriting Early Chinese Texts'', pp. 2–3.</ref> Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the ''[[Biographies of Exemplary Women]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reading ''Lienüzhuan'' (''Biographies of Women'') through the life of Liu Xiang |first=Bret |last=Hinsch |journal=Journal of Asian History |volume=39 |number=2 |year=2005 |pages=129–157 |jstor=41933413 |publisher=Harrassowitz}}</ref> He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the ''[[Biographies of the Immortals]]'', a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.<ref name="lxzck">{{citation |contribution-url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Daoists/liexianzhuan.html |contribution=Liexianzhuan |title=China Knowledge |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de |last=Theobald |first=Ulrich |date=24 July 2010 |location=Tübingen}}.</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024}} Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the "[[Nine Laments]]" that appears in the ''[[Chu Ci]]''.<ref>Hawkes, 280</ref>

The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include:
{{columns-list|colwidth=35em|
*''[[Book of Documents]]''
*''[[Classic of Rites]]''{{sfn|Riegel|1993|p=295}}
*''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]''{{sfn|Boltz|1993b|p=144}}
*''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]''{{sfn|Shaughnessy|1993b|p=239}}
*''[[Strategies of the Warring States]]''{{sfn|Tsien|1993|p=1}}
*''[[Analects]]''{{sfn|Cheng|1993|p=315}}
*''[[Xunzi (book)|Xunzi]]''{{sfn|Loewe|1993b|p=178}}
*''[[Shen Dao#Text|Shenzi]]''{{sfn|Thompson|1993|p=400}}
*''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' 
*''[[Liezi]]''{{sfn|Barrett|1993|p=299}}
*''[[Huainanzi]]''{{sfn|Le Blanc|1993|p=190}}
*''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]''{{sfn|Rickett|1993|p=246}}
*''[[Yanzi Chunqiu]]''{{sfn|Durrant|1993|p=484}}
*''[[Shuoyuan]]''{{sfn|Knechtges|1993c|p=443}} (initial compilation)
*''[[Xinxu]]'' ({{lang|zh|新序}}; ''New Prefaces''){{sfn|Nylan|1993b|p=155}} (authorship)
}}

This work was continued by his son, [[Liu Xin (scholar)|Liu Xin]], who finally completed the task after his father's death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nylan |first=Michael |title="Empire" in the Classical Era in China (304 BC–AD 316) |journal=Oriens Extremus |volume=46 |year=2007 |pages=48–83 |publisher=Harrassowitz |jstor=24047664}}</ref>{{rp|51}}

== Song dynasty ==
=== Four Books ===
[[File:Zhu xi.jpg|thumb|[[Zhu Xi]] selected the list of four books in the Song dynasty.]]
The '''Four Books''' ({{zhi|t=四書|p=Sìshū}}) are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in [[Confucianism]]. They were selected by [[Zhu Xi]] (1130–1200) during the [[Song dynasty]] to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.<ref name="Gardner">Daniel K. Gardner. ''The Four Books: The Basic Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition''. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-872-20826-1}}.</ref>
They are:

; ''[[Great Learning]]''
: Originally one chapter in the ''[[Book of Rites]]''. It consists of a short main text attributed to [[Confucius]] and nine commentary chapters by [[Zengzi]], one of the [[disciples of Confucius]]. Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked.

; ''[[Doctrine of the Mean]]''
: Another chapter in ''Book of Rites'', attributed to Confucius's grandson [[Zisi]]. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect [[virtue]]. It focuses on the [[Tao]] that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue of ''[[De (Chinese)|de]]''. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.

; ''[[Analects]]''
: Thought to be a compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Confucius Beyond the ''Analects'' |last=Hunter |first=Michael |pages=4–8 |series=Studies in the History of Chinese Texts|volume=7 |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=978-9-004-33902-6 |doi=10.1163/9789004339026_002}}</ref> Since Confucius's time, the ''Analects'' has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The [[imperial examinations]], started in the [[Sui dynasty]] and eventually abolished with the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.

; ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''
: A collection of conversations of the scholar [[Mencius]] with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the ''Mencius'' consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.

==Ming dynasty==
===Thirteen Classics===
The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the [[Thirteen Classics]]. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates.

* ''[[I Ching]]''
* ''[[Book of Documents]]''
* ''[[Classic of Poetry]]''
* The Three Ritual Classics ({{zhi|c=三禮|p=Sānlǐ}})
** ''[[Rites of Zhou]]''
** ''[[Yili (text)|Ceremonies and Rites]]''
** ''[[Book of Rites]]''
*** "[[Great Learning]]" chapter ({{zhi|c=大學|p=Dà xué}})
*** "[[Doctrine of the Mean]]" chapter ({{zhi|c=中庸|p=Zhōng yōng}})
* The Three Commentaries on the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''
** ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' 
** ''[[Gongyang Zhuan|The Commentary of Gongyang]]''
** ''[[Guliang Zhuan|The Commentary of Guliang]]''
* ''[[Analects]]''
* ''[[Xiao Jing|Classic of Filial Piety]]''
* ''[[Erya]]''
* ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''

==List of classics==
===Before 221 BC===
It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors".<ref>Cambridge History of Ancient China chapter 11</ref>

The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the ''[[Siku Quanshu]]'' (''Complete Library of the Four Treasuries''), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the [[Qianlong Emperor]]. The ''Siku Quanshu'' classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch.

====Classics branch====
{|class=wikitable
|-
!Title
!Description
|-
| ''[[I Ching]]''
|A manual of divination based on the [[bagua|eight trigram]]s attributed to the mythical figure [[Fuxi]]—by at least the Eastern Zhou, these eight trigrams had been multiplied to create 64 [[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagram]]s.
|-
|''[[Book of Documents]]''
|A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Western Zhou]] periods, and even earlier. It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose.
|- 
|''[[Classic of Poetry]]''
|Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation edited by Confucius. A standard version, named ''Maoshi Zhengyi'', was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership of [[Kong Yingda]].
|-
!The Three Rites
|
|-
|''[[Rites of Zhou]]''
|Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century, in place of the lost ''[[Classic of Music]]''.
|-
|''[[Yili (text)|Book of Etiquette and Ceremony]]'' 
|Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies.
|-
| ''[[Classic of Rites]]''
|Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites.
|-
!''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''
|Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of the [[state of Lu]] from 722 to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc.
|-
| ''[[Zuo zhuan]]''
| A different report of the same events as the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''<!--; until 463 BC it was often regarded as the tradition commentary among the three-->.
|- 
|''[[Gongyang Zhuan|Commentary of Gongyang]]'' 
|Another surviving commentary on the same events (see ''Spring and Autumn Annals'').
|-
| ''[[Guliang Zhuan|Commentary of Guliang]]'' 
| Another surviving commentary on the same events (see ''Spring and Autumn Annals'').
|- 
|''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]''
|A small book giving advice on [[filial piety]]; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler).
|-
!The Four Books
!
|-
|''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''
|A book of anecdotes and conversations of [[Mencius]].
|-
| ''[[Analects]]''
|A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius's own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars.
|-
|[[Doctrine of the Mean]]
|A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by [[Zhu Xi]]
|-
|[[Great Learning]]
|A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi
|-
!Philology
!
|-
|''[[Erya]]''
|A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon.
|}

====History branch====
{|class=wikitable
!Title
!Description
|-
|''[[Bamboo Annals]]''
|History of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]].
|-
|''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]''
|Similar in style to the ''[[Book of Documents]]''
|-
|''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]'' 
|A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from the [[Western Zhou]] to 453 BC.
|-
|''[[Strategies of the Warring States]]'' 
|Edited by [[Liu Xiang (author)|Liu Xiang]].
|-
|''[[Yanzi chunqiu]]''
|Attributed to the statesman [[Yan Ying]], a contemporary of Confucius
|}

====Philosophy branch====
The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself.<ref name="Smith 2003">{{Cite journal |first=Kidder |last=Smith |title=Sima Tan and the Invention of Daoism, 'Legalism,' et cetera |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=62 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=129–156 |jstor=3096138 |publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.2307/3096138 }}</ref> The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|Nylan|2003|pp=59–99}}{{sfnp|Meyer|2012|pp=247–249}}{{sfnp|Grebnev|2022|pp=2–3, 254–255}}
{|class=wikitable
|-
!Title
!Description
|-
!Confucianism (excluding Classics branch)
!
|-
|''[[Kongzi Jiayu]]''
|Collection of stories about Confucius and his disciples. Authenticity disputed.
|-
|''[[Xunzi (book)|Xunzi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Xun Kuang]], an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education.
|-
!Seven Military Classics
!{{main|Seven Military Classics}}
|- 
|''[[Six Secret Teachings]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Jiang Ziya]]
|-
| ''[[The Art of War]]''
|Attributed to [[Sunzi]].
|-
| ''[[Wuzi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Wu Qi]].
|-
| ''[[The Methods of the Sima]]''
|Attributed to [[Sima Rangju]].
|-
| ''[[Wei Liaozi]]'' 
|Attributed to Wei Liao.
|-
| ''[[Three Strategies of Huang Shigong]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Jiang Ziya]].
|-
|  ''[[Thirty-Six Stratagems]]'' 
| Recently recovered.
|-
!Legalism
!
|-
| ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Guan Zhong]].
|-
|''[[Deng Xizi]]''{{csni|date=August 2024}}
|Fragment
|-
|''[[The Book of Lord Shang]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Shang Yang]].
|-
| ''[[Han Feizi (book)|Han Feizi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Han Fei]].
|-
| ''Shenzi'' 
|Attributed to [[Shen Buhai]]. All but one chapter is lost.
|-
|''[[Canon of Laws]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Li Kui (legalist)|Li Kui]].
|-
!Medicine
!
|-
|''[[Huangdi Neijing]]''
|
|-
|''[[Nan Jing (Chinese medicine)|Nan Jing]]''
|
|-
!Miscellaneous
!
|-
|''[[Yuzi (book)|Yuzi]]''{{csni|date=August 2024}}
|Fragment
|-
|''[[Mozi#Works and influence|Mozi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Mozi]].
|-
|''Yinwenzi''{{csni|date=August 2024}}
|Fragment
|-
|''Shenzi''
| Attributed to [[Shen Dao]]. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost.
|-
|''[[Heguanzi]]''
|
|-
|''[[Gongsun Long|Gongsun longzi]]''
|
|-
|''[[Guiguzi]]''
|
|-
|''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' 
|An encyclopedia of ancient classics edited by [[Lü Buwei]].
|-
|''[[Shizi (book)|Shizi]]'' 
|Attributed to Shi Jiao
|-
!Mythology
!
|-
|''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas]]''
|A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eOUYcJXKrO8C&q=classic+of+mountains+and+seas |title=The Classic of Mountains and Seas |year=2000 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-140-44719-4}}</ref>
|-
|[[Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven]]
|tells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover.
|-
!Taoism
!
|-
|''[[Tao Te Ching]]''
|Attributed to [[Laozi]].
|-
|''[[Guan Yinzi]]''{{csni |date=August 2024}}
|Fragment
|-
| ''[[Liezi]]''
|Attributed to [[Lie Yukou]].
|-
| ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' 
|Attributed to [[Zhuang Zhou]].
|-
|''[[Wenzi]]''
|
|}

====Poetry====
{|class=wikitable
!Title
!Description
|-
|''[[Chu Ci]]''
|Aside from the [[Classic of Poetry|Shi Jing]] (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}. Attributed to the southern [[state of Chu]], and especially [[Qu Yuan]].
|}

===After 206 BC===
* The ''[[Twenty-Four Histories]]'', a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties:
** The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]] 
** The ''[[Book of Han]]'' by [[Ban Gu]].
** The ''[[Book of Later Han]]'' by [[Fan Ye (historian)|Fan Ye]]
** The ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of Three Kingdoms]]'' by [[Chen Shou]]
** The ''[[Book of Jin]]'' by [[Fang Xuanling]]
** The ''[[Book of Song]]'' by [[Shen Yue]]
** The ''[[Book of Southern Qi]]'' by [[Xiao Zixian]]
** The ''[[Book of Liang]]'' by [[Yao Silian]]
** The ''[[Book of Chen]]'' by [[Yao Silian]]
** The ''[[History of the Southern Dynasties]]'' by [[Zhao Yanshou|Li Yanshou]]
** The ''[[Book of Wei]]'' by [[Wei Shou]]
** The ''[[Book of Zhou]]'' by [[Linghu Defen]]
** The ''[[Book of Northern Qi]]'' by [[Li Baiyao]]
** The ''[[History of the Northern Dynasties]]'' by [[Liu Yanshou|Li Yanshou]]
** The ''[[Book of Sui]]'' by [[Wei Zheng]]
** The ''[[Old Book of Tang]]'' by [[Liu Xu]]
** The ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' by [[Ouyang Xiu]]
** The ''[[Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of Five Dynasties]]'' by [[Xue Juzheng]]
** The ''[[New History of the Five Dynasties|New History of Five Dynasties]]'' by [[Ouyang Xiu]]
** The ''[[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|History of Song]]'' by [[Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)|Toqto'a]]
** The [[Liao Shi|''History of Liao'']] by Toqto'a
** The ''[[History of Jin]]'' by [[Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)|Toqto'a]]
** The ''[[History of Yuan]]'' by [[Song Lian]]
** The ''[[History of Ming]]'' by [[Zhang Tingyu]]
** The ''[[Draft History of Qing]]'' by [[Zhao Erxun]] is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records
** The ''[[New History of Yuan]]'' by [[Ke Shaomin]] is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records
* The ''[[Chronicles of Huayang]]'', an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to [[Chang Qu]].
* The ''[[Biographies of Exemplary Women]]'', a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]].
* The ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms]]'', a historical record of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], attributed to Cui Hong, is lost.
* The ''[[Shiming]]'', is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century.
* ''[[A New Account of the Tales of the World]]'', a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters.
* The ''[[Thirty-Six Strategies]]'', a military strategy book attributed to [[Tan Daoji]].
* ''[[The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons]]'', a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by [[Liu Xie]].
* The ''[[Commentary on the Water Classic]]'', a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer [[Li Daoyuan]].
* The ''[[Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong]]'', a military strategy book attributed to [[Li Jing (Tang dynasty)|Li Jing]]
* The ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', with [[Sima Guang]] as its main editor.
* The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue'', a historical record of the states of [[state of Wu|Wu]] and [[state of Yue|Yue]] during the [[Spring and Autumn period]], attributed to Zhao Ye.
* The ''[[Zhenguan Zhengyao]]'', a record of governance strategies and leadership of [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]], attributed to Wu Jing.
* The ''[[Jiaoshi Yilin]]'', a work modeled after the ''[[I Ching]]'', composed during the [[Western Han dynasty]] and attributed to Jiao Yanshou.
* ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of [[Han dynasty]].
* The ''[[Thousand Character Classic]]'', attributed to Zhou Xingsi.
* The ''[[Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era]]'', compiled by [[Gautama Siddha]], is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination.
* The ''[[Shitong]]'', written by [[Liu Zhiji]], a work on historiography.
* The ''[[Tongdian]]'', written by [[Du You]], a contemporary text focused on the [[Tang dynasty]].
* The ''[[Tang Huiyao]]'', compiled by [[Wang Pu (Song dynasty)|Wang Pu]], a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty.
* The ''[[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions]]'', compiled by [[Bianji]]; a recount of [[Xuanzang]]'s journey.
* The ''[[Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang]]'', written by [[Duan Chengshi]], records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs.
* The ''[[Four Great Books of Song]]'', a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of [[Song dynasty]]:
** The ''[[Taiping Yulan]],'' a ''[[leishu]]'' encyclopedia.
** The ''[[Taiping Guangji]]'', a collection of folk tales and [[theology]].
** The ''[[Wenyuan Yinghua]]'', an [[anthology]] of poetry, odes, songs and other writings.
** The ''[[Cefu Yuangui]]'', a ''[[leishu]]'' encyclopedia of political essays, [[autobiographies]], [[memorials]] and [[decrees]].
* The ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'', a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by [[Shen Kuo]].
* The ''[[Tiangong Kaiwu]]'', an [[encyclopedia]] compiled by [[Song Yingxing]].
* The ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]'', a classic book of medicine written by [[Li Shizhen]].
* The ''[[Complete Library of the Four Treasuries]]'', the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history.
* The ''[[New Songs from the Jade Terrace]]'', a poetry collection from the [[Six Dynasties]] period.
* The ''[[Complete Tang Poems]]'', compiled during the [[Qing dynasty]], published in 1705.
* The ''[[Xiaolin Guangji]]'', a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty.

===See also===
*[[List of early Chinese texts]]
*[[Kaicheng Stone Classics]]
*[[Ancient Script Texts]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
==== Primary sources ====
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Sima |first=Qian |title=[[Records of the Grand Historian]]}}
** {{citation |title="The First Emperor of Qín" |chapter=Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars |chapter-url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/Symaa/Symaa25e.html |translator=[[David K. Jordan]].}}
{{refend}}

==== Secondary sources ====
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chan |first=Lois Mai |title=The Burning of the Books in China, 213 B.C. |journal=The Journal of Library History |year=1972 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=101–108 |jstor=25540352 |issn=0022-2259}}
* {{cite journal |author1-first=Mark |author1-last=Csikszentmihalyi |author2-first=Michael |author2-last=Nylan |title=Constructing Lineages and Inventing Traditions Through Exemplary Figures in Early China |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=89 |issue=1–3 |date=2003 |pages=59–99 |publisher=Brill |jstor=4528923 |doi=10.1163/156853203322691329}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Fei |first=Zhangang |title=Liu Xiang |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of China]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-7-5000-7958-3}}
* {{cite book |pages=2–3, 254–255 |first=Yegor |last=Grebnev |year=2022 |publisher=Columbia University Press |title=Mediation of legitimacy in early China: a study of the Yi Zhou shu and the Grand Duke traditions |lccn=2021053942 |isbn=9780231555036 |series=The Tang Center Series in Early China, Vol. 5}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hawkes |editor-first=David |editor-link=David Hawkes (Sinologist) |title=The Songs of the South: An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems By Qu Yuan And Other Poets |year=1985 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-140-44375-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6T5kAAAAMAAJ |access-date=28 December 2021}}
* {{citation |first=Martin |last=Kern |chapter=Early Chinese Literature: Beginnings through Western Han |pages=1–114 |title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature |editor1=Kang-i Sun Chang |editor1-link=Kang-i Sun Chang |editor2=Stephen Owen |editor2-link=Stephen Owen (academic) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780521855587 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qY32-zfTU9AC}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Twitchett |editor-first1=Denis |editor-last2=Loewe |editor-first2=Michael |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220 |date=26 December 1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQLczAEACAAJ |access-date=28 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Loewe |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Loewe |title=Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide |year=1993 |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China |isbn=978-1-55729-043-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e10hAQAAIAAJ |access-date=27 December 2021 |language=en}}
** {{cite book |title=Chan kuo ts'e 戰國策 |title-link=Zhan Guo Ce |first=Tsuen-hsuin |last=Tsien |pages=1–11 |year=1993}}
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** {{cite book |title=Chou li 周禮 |title-link=Zhou li |author=William G. Boltz |pages=24–32 |year=1993a}}
** {{cite book |title=Chou pi suan ching 周髀算經 |title-link=Zhoubi Suanjing |author=Christopher Cullen |pages=33–38 |year=1993b}}
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** {{cite book |title=Chuang tzu 莊子 |title-link=Zhuangzi (book) |author=H.D. Roth |pages=56–66 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Ch'un ch'iu 春秋, Kung yang 公 羊, Ku liang 穀 梁 and Tso chuan 左 傳 |author=Anne Cheng 程艾藍 |pages=67–76 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=Ch'un ch'iu fan lu 春秋繁露 |title-link=Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals |author1=Steve Davidson |author2=Michael Loewe |pages=77–87 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Chung lun 中論 |author=John Makeham |pages=88–93 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Erh ya 爾雅 |title-link=Erya |author=W. South Coblin |pages=94–99 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Fa yen 法言 |author=David R. Knechtges |pages=100–104 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Feng su t'ung i 風俗通義 |author=Michael Nylan |pages=105–112 |year=1993a}}
** {{cite book |title=Han chi 漢記 |title-link=Book of Han |author=A.F.P. Hulsewé |pages=113–114 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Han fei tzu 韓非子 |title-link=Hanfeizi |author=Jean Levi |pages=115–124 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Han shih wai chuan 韓詩外傳 |author=James R. Hightower |pages=125–128 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Han shu 漢書 |author=A.F.P. Hulsewé |pages=129–136 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Ho kuan tzu 鶡冠子 |author=David R. Knechtges |pages=137–140 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsiao ching 孝經 |first=William G. |last=Boltz |pages=141–153 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsin hsü 新序 |author=David R. Knechtges |pages=154–157 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsin lun 新論 |author=Timoteus Pokora |pages=158–160 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsin shu 新書 |first=Michael |last=Nylan |pages=161–170 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsin yü 新語 |author=Michael Loewe |pages=171–177 |year=1993a}}
** {{cite book |title=Hsün tzu 荀子 |first=Michael |last=Loewe |pages=178–188 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=Huai nan tzu 淮南子 |title-link=Huainanzi |first=Charles |last=Le Blanc |pages=189–195 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Huang ti nei ching 黃帝內經 |author=Nathan Sivin |pages=196–215 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=I ching 易經 |title-link=I Ching |author=Edward L. Shaughnessy |pages=216–228 |year=1993a}}
** {{cite book |title=I Chou shu 逸周書 |first=Edward L. |last=Shaughnessy |pages=229–233 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=I li 儀禮 |author=William G. Boltz |pages=234–243 |year=1993c}}
** {{cite book |title=Kuan tzu 管子 |first=W. Allyn |last=Rickett |pages=244–251 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Kung sun Lung tzu 公孫龍子 |author=A.C. Graham |pages=252–257 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=K'ung tzu chia yü 孔子家語 |author=R.P. Kramers |pages=258–262 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Kuo yü 國語 |author1=Chang I-jen |author2=William G. Boltz |author3=Michael Loewe |pages=263–268 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Lao tzu Tao te ching 老子道德經 |author=William G. Boltz |pages=269–292 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Li chi 禮記 |first=Jeffrey K. |last=Riegel |pages=293–297 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Lieh tzu 列子 |first=T.H. |last=Barrett |pages=298–308 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Lun heng 論衡 |author=Timoteus Pokora and Michael Loewe |pages=309–312 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Lun yü 論語 |first=Anne |last=Cheng |pages=313–323 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Lü shih ch'un ch'iu 呂氏春秋 |author=Michael Carson and Michael Loewe |pages=324–330 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Meng tzu 孟子 |author=D.C. Lau 劉殿爵 |pages=331–335 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Mo tzu 墨子 |title-link=Mozi (book) |author=A.C. Graham |pages=336–341 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Mu t'ien tzu chuan 穆天子傳 |author=Rémi Mathieu |pages=342–346 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Pai hu t'ung 白虎通 |author=Michael Loewe |author-link=Michael Loewe |pages=347–356 |year=1993c}}
** {{cite book |title=Shan hai ching 山海經 |author=Riccardo Fracasso |pages=357–367 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shang chün shu 商君書 |author=Jean Levi |pages=368–375 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shang shu 尚書 (Shu ching 書經) |title-link=Book of Documents |author=Edward L. Shaughnessy |pages=376–389 |year=1993c}}
** {{cite book |title=Shen chien 申鑒 |author=Ch'en Ch'i-yün 陳啟雲 |pages=390–393 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shen tzu 申子 (Shen Pu-hai 申不害) |author=Herrlee G. Creel |pages=394–398 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shen tzu 慎子 (Shen Tao 慎到) |first=P.M. |last=Thompson |pages=399–404 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shih chi 史記 |title-link=Records of the Grand Historian |author=A.F.P. Hulsewé |pages=405–414 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shih ching 詩經 |author=Michael Loewe |author-link=Michael Loewe |pages=415–423 |year=1993d}}
** {{cite book |title=Shih ming 釋名 |author=Roy Andrew Miller |pages=424–428 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Shuo wen chieh tzu 說文解字 |author=William G. Boltz |pages=429–442 |year=1993d}}
** {{cite book |title=Shuo yüan 說苑 |first=David R. |last=Knechtges |pages=443–445 |year=1993c}}
** {{cite book |title=Sun tzu ping fa 孫子兵法 |author=Krzysztof Gawlikowski and Michael Loewe |pages=446–455 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Ta Tai Li chi 大戴禮記 |author=Jeffrey K. Riegel |pages=456–459 |year=1993b}}
** {{cite book |title=T'ai hsüan ching 太玄經 |author=Michael Nylan |pages=460–466 |year=1993c}}
** {{cite book |title=Tu tuan 獨斷 |author=Michael Loewe |author-link=Michael Loewe |pages=467–470 |year=1993e}}
** {{cite book |title=Tung kuan Han chi 東觀漢記 |author=Hans Bielenstein and Michael Loewe |pages=471–472 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Wu Yüeh ch'un ch'iu 吳越春秋 |author=John Lagerwey |pages=473–476 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Yen t'ieh lun 鹽鐵論 |author=Michael Loewe |author-link=Michael Loewe |pages=477–482 |year=1993f}}
** {{cite book |title=Yen tzu ch'un ch'iu 晏子春秋 |first=Stephen W. |last=Durrant |pages=483–489 |year=1993}}
** {{cite book |title=Yüeh chüeh shu 越絕書 |author=Axel Schuessler and Michael Loewe |pages=490–494 |year=1993}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mair |first1=Victor H. |last2=Steinhardt |first2=Nancy Shatzman |last3=Goldin |first3=Paul R. |title=Hawaii Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture |date=31 January 2005 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2785-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AZgBEAAAQBAJ |access-date=27 December 2021}}
* {{ cite book |first=Dirk |last=Meyer |title=Philosophy on Bamboo: Text and the Production of Meaning in Early China |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |series=Studies in the History of Chinese Texts, Vol. 2 |isbn=978-9-004-20808-7 |pages=247–249 ''et passim''}}
* {{citation |last=Neininger |first=Ulrich |chapter=Burying the Scholars Alive: On the Origin of a Confucian Martyrs' Legend", Nation and Mythology |title=East Asian Civilizations. New Attempts at Understanding Traditions vol. 2 |year=1983 |editor-first=Wolfram |editor-last=Eberhard |pages=121–136}} [http://ulrichneininger.de/?p=461 Online]
* {{cite book |last=Nylan |first=Michael |title=The Five "Confucian" Classics |year=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-08185-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svgWzRA8uMgC |access-date=27 December 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last=Petersen |first=Jens Østergȧrd |title=Which Books Did the First Emperor of Ch'in Burn? on the Meaning of Pai Chia in Early Chinese Sources |journal=Monumenta Serica |date=January 1995 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–52 |doi=10.1080/02549948.1995.11731268}}
* [[Endymion Wilkinson]]. ''Chinese History: A New Manual.'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series. New Edition; Second, Revised printing March 2013). {{ISBN|9780674067158}} {{ISBN|0674067150}}. See esp. pp.&nbsp;365– 377, Ch. 28, "The Confucian Classics."
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource}}
* [http://ctext.org Chinese Text Project] ([http://ctext.org English] [http://ctext.org/zh Chinese]) (Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations)
*[http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html The Canonical Books of Confucianism], David K. Jordan
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100304142410/http://www.princeton.edu/~classbib/02electr.htm Relevant Electronic Resources for Chinese Classical Studies]

; in Traditional Chinese
* [http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/ftmsw3 Scripta Sinica] Big classic texts database by [[Academia Sinica]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071109061234/http://210.69.170.100/S25/ Palace Museum Chinese Text Database]
* [http://www.taconet.com.tw/terry55/ 中國電子古籍世界] Classics database
* [http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/rccat/ Research Center for Chinese Ancient Texts] includes [http://www.chant.org CHANT (CHinese ANcient Texts) Database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040603100322/http://www.chinapage.com/big5/classic/classic.html Chinese classic text online]

; in Simplified Chinese
* [http://www.nebulis.org 凌云小筑] In Chinese, with articles and discussions on literature, history, and philosophy.
* [http://www.guoxue123.com 国学导航]

; in Japanese
* [http://kanji.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/db-machine/toho/html/top.html 東方學デジタル圖書館]

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[[Category:Confucian texts| ]]
[[Category:Classical Chinese philosophy]]
[[Category:Series of Chinese books]]