Editing Chickpea

{{short description|Species of flowering plant with edible seeds}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Chickpeas
| image_caption = Dried chickpeas. The larger light tan ''kabuli'' and variously coloured ''desi'' are the two main types of chickpea. They are green when picked early and vary through tan or beige, speckled, dark brown to black. Seventy-five percent of world production is of the smaller ''desi'' type.
| image_alt = The two main types of chickpea: the larger light tan ''kabuli'' and variously coloured ''desi'' chickpea. They are green when picked early and vary through tan or beige, speckled, dark brown to black. Seventy-five percent of world production is of the smaller desi type.
| image2 = Chickpea BNC.jpg
| image2_caption = Sprouted chickpea
| image2_alt = Sprouted chickpea
| genus = Cicer
| species = arietinum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| synonyms = {{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
* ''Cicer album'' <small>hort.</small>
* ''Cicer arientinium'' <small>L. [Spelling variant]</small>
* ''Cicer arientinum'' <small>L. [Spelling variant]</small>
* ''Cicer edessanum'' <small>Bornm.</small>
* ''Cicer grossum'' <small>Salisb.</small>
* ''Cicer nigrum'' <small>hort.</small>
* ''Cicer physodes'' <small>Rchb.</small>
* ''Cicer rotundum'' <small>Alef.</small>
* ''Cicer sativum'' <small>Schkuhr</small>
* ''Cicer sintenisii'' <small>Bornm.</small>
* ''Ononis crotalarioides'' <small>M.E.Jones</small>
    }}
| synonyms_ref =<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-4318
|title=''Cicer arietinum'' L.
|publisher=The Plant List
|date=2013
|access-date=22 October 2014}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Cicer arietinum noir MHNT.BOT.2017.12.2.jpg|thumb|''Cicer arietinum noir'' – [[MHNT]]]]
The '''chickpea''' or '''chick pea''' ('''''Cicer arietinum''''') is an [[annual plant|annual]] [[legume]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Fabaceae]], subfamily [[Faboideae]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feedipedia.org/node/319|title=Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) |author=Feedipedia|website=www.feedipedia.org|access-date=26 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:486336-1|title=Cicer arietinum L. – Plants of the World Online |author=Kew Science|website=Plants of the World Online|access-date=26 February 2018}}</ref> cultivated for its edible seeds. Its different types are variously known as '''gram'''<ref name="eb9">"{{Cite EB9|wstitle=Gram|volume=11|pages=36&ndash;37}}</ref><ref name="GRIN">{{GRIN | access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref> '''Bengal gram''',<ref name="GRIN" />  '''garbanzo''',<ref name="GRIN"/> '''garbanzo bean''', or '''Egyptian pea'''.<ref name=eb9/> It is one of the earliest cultivated legumes, the oldest archaeological evidence of which was found in [[Syria]].<ref name="po">{{cite web |last=S |first=Bell |url=http://phys.org/news/2014-03-small-mighty-chickpea.html |publisher=Phys.org |title=The small but mighty chickpea |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=8 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LCiZedYrzIC&q=chickpea+introduced+into+india+in+the+century&pg=PA111|title=Advances in Agronomy|year=2001|publisher=Elsevier|access-date=26 February 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0080543994}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Lucas |first1=Leilani |title=Chickpea: Origins and Development |date=2014 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2324 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology |pages=1384–1387 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Claire |access-date=2023-12-24 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2324 |isbn=978-1-4419-0465-2 |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q.|s2cid=82687381 }}</ref>

Chickpeas are high in [[protein (nutrient)|protein]]. The chickpea is a key ingredient in [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]] and [[Middle Eastern cuisine]]s, used in [[hummus]], and, when soaked and coarsely ground with herbs and spices then made into patties and fried, [[falafel]]. As an important part of [[Indian cuisine]], it is used in salads, soups and stews, and curries. In 2022, India accounted for 75% of global chickpea production.<ref name=faostat/>

==Etymology==

Chickpeas have been cultivated for at least ten thousand years.<ref name="Dean2012"/>  Cultivation spread from the [[Fertile Crescent]] eastward toward [[South Asia]] and into Europe through the [[Balkans]].<ref name="Nene2006"/><ref name="Mikic2011a"/>  [[Historical linguistics]] have found ancestral words relating to chickpeas in the prehistoric [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European language family]] that evolved into the [[Indo-European languages]].<ref name="Mikic2011b"/>  The [[Proto-Indo-European root]]s ''{{PIE|*kek-}}'' and ''{{PIE|*k'ik'-}}'' that denoted both {{gloss|pea}} and {{gloss|oat}} appeared in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] of Eastern Europe between 4,500 and 2,500 BCE.<ref name="Mikic2019"/>{{rp|49}}<ref name="Mikic2012"/><ref name="Balter2015"/>  As speakers of the language became isolated from each other through the [[Indo-European migrations]], the regional dialects diverged due to contact with other languages and dialects, and transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages.<ref name="Campbell2020"/>{{rp|243–244}}  The [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] word {{lang|prg-latn|kekêrs}}, appearing between 1 and 100 CE, retained the {{gloss|pea}} meaning of the word, but in most cases, the word came to be used to denote chickpeas.<ref name="Mikic2012"/>   In [[Ancient Macedonian language|Old Macedonian]], the word {{lang|xmk|κίκερροι}} appeared between 1000 and 400 BCE, and may have evolved from the [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Hellenic]] word {{lang|grk-x-proto|*κικριός}}.<ref name="Mikic2012"/> In [[Ancient Rome]], the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|cicer}} for chickpeas appeared around 700 BCE,<ref name="Mikic2012"/> and is probably derived from the  word {{lang|mis|kickere}} used by the [[Pelasgians]] that inhabited north Greece before Greek-speaking tribes took over.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1987"/>{{rp|13}} The [[Old Armenian]] word {{lang|xcl-latn|siseŕn}} for chickpeas appeared before 400 CE.<ref name="Mikic2012"/>  Over time, [[Linkage (linguistics)|linkages]] between languages led to other descendant words, including the [[Albanian language|Albanian]] word {{lang|sq|qiqër}}, the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] word {{lang|sv|kikärt}}, the [[Slovak language|Slovak]] word {{lang|sk|cícer}}, the [[Estonian language|Estonian]] word {{lang|et|kikerhernes}}, the [[Basque language|Basque]] word {{lang|eu|txitxirio}}, and the [[Maltese language|Maltese]] word {{lang|mt|cicra}}.<ref name="Mikic2011b"/>

The Latin word {{lang|la|cicer}} evolved into words for chickpeas in nearly all extinct and living [[Romance languages]], including the [[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic]] word {{lang|mxi-latn|chíchar}}; the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] words {{lang|ca|ceirons}}, {{lang|ca|cigró}}, {{lang|ca|cigronera}}, {{lang|ca|cigrons}} and {{lang|ca|ciurons}}; the [[Walloon language|Walloon]] words {{lang|wa|poes d' souke}}; the [[Old French]] words {{lang|fro|ceire}} and {{lang|fro|cice}}; and the [[French language|Modern French]] terms {{lang|fr|cicérole}}, {{lang|fr|cicer tete-de-belier}}, and {{lang|fr|pois chiche}}.<ref name="Mikic2019"/>{{rp|50}}  These words were borrowed by many geographically neighboring languages, such as the French term {{lang|fr|pois chiche}} becoming {{lang|ang-latn|chich-pease}} in [[Old English]].<ref name="Cohen1991"/><ref name="Dean2012"/>  The word ''pease'', like the modern words for wheat and corn, was both singular and plural, but since it had an "s" sound at the end of it which became associated with the plural form of nouns, English speakers by the end of the 17th century were starting to refer to a single grain of pease as a ''pea''.<ref name="Dean2012"/>

Other important Proto-Indo-European roots relating to chickpeas are ''{{PIE|*erəgw[h]-}}'', ''{{PIE|eregw(h)o-}}'', and ''{{PIE|erogw(h)o-}}'', which were used to denote both the kernel of a [[legume]] and a pea.<ref name="Mikic2019"/>{{rp|51}}  This root evolved into the [[Greek language|Greek]] word {{lang|grc-latn|erebinthos}}, mentioned in ''[[The Iliad]]'' in around 800 BCE and in ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'' by [[Theophrastus]], written between 350 and 287 BCE.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1987"/>{{rp|13}}  The [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] words {{lang|pt|ervanço}} and {{lang|pt|gravanço}}; the [[Asturian language|Asturian]] word {{lang|ast|garbanzu}}; the [[Galician language|Galician]] word {{lang|gl|garavanzo}}; the French words {{lang|fr|garvanche}}, {{lang|fr|garvance}}, and {{lang|fr|garvane}}; and the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word {{lang|es|garbanzo}} are all related to the Greek term.<ref name="Mikic2019"/>{{rp|51}}<ref name="VanDerMaesen1987"/>{{rp|13}}  In [[American English]], the term ''garbanzo'' to refer to the chickpea appeared in writing as early as 1759,<ref name="Gold2009"/>{{rp|87}} and the seed is also referred to as a garbanzo bean.<ref name="Gold2009"/>{{rp|88}}<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|34}}

==Taxonomy==

Chickpea (''Cicer arietinum'') is a member of the genus ''[[Cicer]]'' and the [[legume]] family, [[Fabaceae]].<ref name="Ahmad2005"/>{{rp|231}}  [[Carl Linnaeus]] described it in the first edition of ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753, marking the first use of [[binomial nomenclature]] for the plant.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|11}}  Linnaeus classified the plant in the genus ''Cicer'', which was the Latin term for chickpeas,<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|2}} crediting [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]]'s 1694 publication {{lang|fr|Elemens de botanique, ou Methode pour connoitre les plantes}} which called it "Cicer arietinum".<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|11}}  Tournefort himself repeated the names of the plant that had been used since antiquity.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|11}}

The specific epithet ''arietinum'' is based on the shape of the seed resembling the head of a ram.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1987"/>{{rp|3}}  In Ancient Greece, [[Theophrastus]] described one of the varieties of chickpea called "rams" in ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]''.<ref name="Theophrastus2"/>{{rp|173}}  The Roman writer on agriculture [[Columella|Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella]] wrote about chickpeas in the second book of ''De re rustica'', published in about 64 CE,<ref name="Columella"/>{{rp|xiv}} and said that the chickpea was called ''arietillum''.<ref name="Columella"/>{{rp|169}}  [[Pliny the Elder]] expanded further in ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]'' that this name was due to the seed's resemblance to the head of a ram.<ref name="Columella"/>{{rp|169}}

''Cicer arietinum'' is the [[type species]] of the genus.<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972"/>{{rp|10}}   The wild species ''[[Cicer reticulatum|C. reticulatum]]'' is interfertile with ''C. arietinum'' and is considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated species.<ref name="Gupta2017"/>  ''[[Cicer echinospermum|C. echinospermum]]'' is also closely related and can be [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridized]] with both ''C. reticulatum'' and ''C. arietinum'', but generally produce [[Sterility (physiology)|infertile]] seeds.<ref name="Gupta2017"/>

==History==

The chickpea was originally domesticated along with [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[peas]], and [[lentils]] during the [[First Agricultural Revolution]] about 10,000 years ago.<ref name="Gupta2017"/>  The closest evolutionary relative to chickpeas is ''Cicer reticulatum'', a plant native to a relatively small area in the Southeastern part of modern-day [[Turkey]] and nearby areas in modern-day [[Syria]].<ref name="Mehmetoglu2023"/><ref name="Ahmad2005"/>{{rp|231}}  Initially, ancient hunter-gatherer cultures harvested wild plants that they encountered, but evidence of the cultivation of some domestic food crops from 7500 BCE and possibly earlier have been documented.<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|1}}

Archaeological sites in modern [[Syria]], such as [[Idlib|Tell El-Kerkh]] and [[Tell Abu Hureyra]], have revealed remnant traces of peas, lentils, and [[fava beans]], along with grain legumes including chickpeas, [[Vicia ervilia|bitter vetch]], and [[Lathyrus sativus|grass peas]] from the 8th millenium BCE.<ref name="Mikic2011a"/><ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|1}}  Samples from Tell El-Kerkh have been analyzed, revealing traces of both the cultivated ''C. arietinum'' and the wild ''C. reticulatum''.<!--<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|1}}--> Additional discoveries have been made at [[Çayönü]] in Turkey dating from between 7500 and 6800 BCE, and at [[Hacilar]] in Turkey that date from 5450 BCE.<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|1}}  

Cultivation of domesticated chickpea is well documented from 3300 BCE onwards in [[Egypt]] and the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|1-2}}  During the [[Neolithic]] Era, chickpea cultivation spread to the west and was established in present-day [[Greece]] by the late Neolithic Era.<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|2}}  During the [[Bronze Age]], chickpea cultivation spread to Crete and as far as upper Egypt, with specimens from 1400 BCE found at [[Deir el-Medina]].<!--<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|2-4}}--> At the same time, it spread to the east, and chickpeas from 1900 BCE were found at [[Tell Bazmusian]].  In the [[Indian subcontinent]], archaeological evidence of chickpea cultivation at [[Lal Quila]], [[Sanghol]], [[Inamgaon]], [[Nevasa]], [[Hulas]], Senuwar, and [[Daimabad]] date from between 1750 and 1500 BCE.<!--<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|2-4}}-->  By the [[Iron Age]], cultivation had spread as far south as [[Lalibela]] in [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|2-4}}  The Spanish and Portuguese introduced chickpea cultivation to the [[New World]] in the 16th century.<ref name="Redden2007"/>{{rp|5}}

The process of domestication involved the [[selective breeding]] of plants that produced large, palatable seeds that do not require a dormancy period, plants that have seeds that are easy to separate from the [[Glossary of plant morphology#Fruit types|pods]], plants with a predictable ripening period to allow a whole field to ripen at once, and plants with desirable physical forms.<ref name="Ahmad2005"/>{{rp|231}}  This selective breeding produced several different varieties of chickpeas. In Greece, [[Theophrastus]] wrote "Chickpeas{{nbsp}}... differ in size, color, taste, and shape; there are the varieties called 'rams' and 'vetch-like' chickpeas, and the intermediate forms" in ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', written between 350 and 287 BCE.<ref name="Theophrastus2"/>{{rp|173}}   

One key selection factor in the domestication of chickpeas was the selection of a spring-sown cropping season.  The evolutionary relatives of ''Cicer arietinum'' grow during the Winter and are harvested in the Spring.<ref name="Gupta2017"/>  In the Near East, more than 80 percent of annual precipitation occurs between the months of December and February, while the long summers are hot and dry.<ref name="Abbo2003"/>{{rp|38}}  Growing in the damp Winter months made the crops vulnerable to Ascochyta blight caused by ''[[Didymella rabiei]]'', resulting in crop failures.<ref name="Gupta2017"/>  Recorded evidence shows that by the [[Hellenistic period]] and the time of the [[Roman Empire]], summer cropping of chickpeas was being practiced.<ref name="Abbo2003"/>{{rp|38}}

===Genome sequencing===

[[Whole genome sequencing|Sequencing of the genome]] has been completed for 90 chickpea genotypes, including several wild species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrisat.org/newsroom/news-releases/icrisat-pr-2013-media2.htm |publisher=International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics |title=Global research team decodes genome sequence of 90 chickpea lines|date=2013 |access-date=9 October 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304133909/http://www.icrisat.org/newsroom/news-releases/icrisat-pr-2013-media2.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> A collaboration of 20 research organizations, led by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] (ICRISAT),  sequenced CDC Frontier, a ''kabuli'' chickpea variety, and identified more than 28,000 genes and several million genetic markers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Varshney|first1=Rajeev K|last2=Song |first2=Chi |last3=Saxena |first3=Rachit K. |last4=Azam |first4=Sarwar |last5=Yu |first5=Sheng |last6=Sharpe |first6=Andrew G. |last7=Cannon |first7=Steven |last8=Baek |first8=Jongmin |last9=Rosen |first9=Benjamin D. |date=2013-01-27 |title=Draft genome sequence of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) provides a resource for trait improvement |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=240–246 |doi=10.1038/nbt.2491 |pmid=23354103 |s2cid=6649873 |url=https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/98941191/Draft_genome_sequence_of_chickpea_Cicer_arietinum_provides_a_resource_for_trait_improvement.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Description==

{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}

[[File:Chickpeas Plant.jpg|thumb|right|Flowering and fruiting chickpea plant]]
[[File:Chickpea pods.jpg|thumb|right|Chickpea pods]]

The plant grows to 20–50&nbsp;cm (8–20&nbsp;in) high and has small, feathery leaves on either side of the stem. It has white flowers with blue, violet, or pink veins. Chickpeas are a type of [[Legume|pulse]], with one seedpod containing two or three peas.

==Varieties==

The most common variety of chickpea in South Asia, [[Ethiopia]], Mexico, and [[Iran]] is the desi type, also called Bengal gram.<ref name="fao">{{cite web |title=Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/319 |access-date=10 May 2019 |website=www.Feedipedia.org}}</ref> It has small, dark seeds and a rough coat. It can be black, green or speckled. In [[Hindi]], it is called ''desi chana'' 'native chickpea' or ''kala chana'' 'black chickpea', and in [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and Bengali, it is called ''boot'' or ''chholaa boot''. It can be hulled and split to make ''[[Dal#Common ingredients|chana dal]]'', ''[[Jyotisar#Kurukshetra Prasadam - Channa laddu speciality prasadam|Kurukshetra Prasadam]]'' (channa laddu),<ref name="tir14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/chana-laddoo-to-be-kurukshetra-prasadam-49618|title=Chana laddoo to be 'Kurukshetra prasadam'|first=Tribune News|last=Service|website=Tribuneindia News Service|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2023-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320182920/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/chana-laddoo-to-be-kurukshetra-prasadam-49618|url-status=dead}}</ref> and ''bootor daali''.

Around the Mediterranean and in the Middle East, the most common variety of chickpea is the kabuli type. It is large and tan-colored, with a smooth coat. It was introduced to India in the 18th century from Afghanistan and is called ''kabuli chana'' in Hindi''.''<ref>{{cite web |title=Taxonomy and Nomenclature for Family ''Leguminosae Juss., Cicer arietinum subsp. arietinum'' |url=https://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/pls/htmldb_pgrc/f?p=185:46:2650767499563036::NO::module,source,taxid,akzname:mf,volksnam,30808,Cicer%20arietinum%20subsp.%20arietinum |access-date=31 January 2008 |publisher=Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops}}</ref>

An uncommon black chickpea, ''ceci neri'', is grown only in [[Apulia]] and [[Basilicata]], in southern Italy. It is around the same size as garbanzo beans, larger and darker than the 'desi' variety.

==Uses==

{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}

===Culinary===

{{Cookbook}}{{see also|List of chickpea dishes}}

[[File:Bengal gram, chickpea ( ছোলার ডাল).JPG|thumb|Chana dal, split Bengal gram]]
[[File:Hummus from The Nile.jpg|thumb|[[Hummus]] with olive oil]]
[[File:Dhokla on Gujrart.jpg|thumb| [[Dhokla]], steamed chickpea flour snack]]  
Chickpeas are usually rapidly boiled for 10 minutes and then simmered for longer. Dried chickpeas need a long cooking time (1–2 hours) but will easily fall apart when cooked longer. If soaked for 12–24 hours before use, cooking time can be shortened by around 30 minutes. Chickpeas can also be [[pressure cooked]] or ''[[sous vide]]'' cooked at {{convert|90|C}}.

Mature chickpeas can be cooked and eaten cold in [[salad]]s, cooked in [[stew]]s, ground into flour, ground and shaped in balls and fried as ''[[falafel]]'', made into a batter and baked to make [[farinata|''farinata'' or ''socca'']], or fried to make ''[[panelle]]''. Chickpea flour is known as ''[[gram flour]]'' or ''besan'' in South Asia and is used frequently in [[South Asian cuisine]].

In [[Portugal]], chickpeas are one of the main ingredients in ''rancho'', eaten with pasta, meat, or rice. They are used in other hot dishes with ''[[bacalhau]]'' and in soups, meat stews, salads mixed with tuna and vegetables, olive oil, vinegar, hot pepper and salt. In Spain, they are used cold in ''[[tapas]]'' and salads, as well as in ''[[cocido madrileño]]''.

Hummus is the Arabic word for chickpeas, which are often cooked and ground into a paste and mixed with [[tahini]] (sesame seed paste) to make ''[[Hummus|ḥummuṣ bi ṭaḥīna]]'', usually called simply hummus in English. By the end of the 20th century, hummus had become common in American cuisine:<ref name="marks">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food|year=2010|author=Marks, Gil|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|pages=269–271|isbn=978-0470391303}}</ref> by 2010, 5% of Americans consumed it regularly,<ref name="marks"/> and it was present at some point in 17% of American households.<ref name="fox">{{cite web |last=Ferretti |first=Elena |date=5 April 2010 |url=https://www.foxnews.com/food-drink/theres-hummus-among-us |title=There's Hummus Among Us |publisher=Fox News |access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref>

In the Middle East, chickpeas are also roasted, spiced, and eaten as a snack, such as ''[[leblebi]]''.

Chickpeas and Bengal grams are used to make curries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chickpeas: A nutrient-packed powerhouse for health and culinary delights |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/science/health/food/chickpeas-what-is-nutritional-value-and-health-benefits-of-chickpeas/articleshow/102418482.cms |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Business Insider}}</ref> They are one of the most popular vegetarian foods in the Indian subcontinent<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bombay |first=Team |date=2020-09-01 |title=The 5 Most Popular Indian Vegetarian Dishes |url=https://www.bombaymahal.com/post/5-most-popular-indian-vegetarian-dishes |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Bombay Mahal |language=en}}</ref> and in [[diaspora]] communities of many other countries, served with a variety of bread or steamed rice. Popular dishes in Indian cuisine are made with chickpea flour, such as ''[[mirchi bajji]]'' and ''mirapakaya bajji.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amit |first=Dassana |date=2022-11-06 |title=Mirchi Bajji Recipe {{!}} Chilli Bajji {{!}} Mirapakaya Bajji |url=https://www.vegrecipesofindia.com/mirchi-bajji-recip/ |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Dassana's Veg Recipes |language=en-US}}</ref> In India, as well as in the [[Levant]], unripe chickpeas are often picked out of the pod and eaten as a raw snack, and the leaves are eaten as a [[leaf vegetable]] in salads. In India, desserts such as [[Halva#India|besan halwa]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amit |first=Dassana |date=2021-10-23 |title=Besan Ka Halwa |url=https://www.vegrecipesofindia.com/besan-halwa-recipe/ |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=Dassana's Veg Recipes}}</ref> and sweets such as [[mysore pak]], and [[laddu]] are made.

Chickpea flour is used to make "[[Burmese tofu]]", which was first known among the [[Shan people|Shan]] people of [[Myanmar|Burma]]. In South Asian cuisine, chickpea flour ([[Gram flour|besan]]) is used as a batter to coat vegetables before deep frying to make [[pakora]]s. The flour is also used as a batter to coat vegetables and meats before frying or fried alone, such as ''panelle'' (little bread), a chickpea [[fritter]] from [[Sicily]]. Chickpea flour is used to make the Mediterranean flatbread ''[[Farinata|socca]]'' and is called ''panisse'' in Provence, southern France. It is made of cooked chickpea flour, poured into saucers, allowed to set, cut into strips, and fried in olive oil, often eaten during Lent. In Tuscany, chickpea flour (farina di ceci) is used to make an oven-baked pancake: the flour is mixed with water, oil and salt. Chickpea flour, known as kadlehittu in [[Kannada]], is used for making sweet dish [[Mysorepak|Mysore pak]].

In the [[Philippines]], chickpeas preserved in syrup are eaten as sweets and in desserts such as ''[[halo-halo]]''.

[[Ashkenazi Jews]] traditionally serve whole chickpeas, referred to as ''arbes'' (אַרבעס) in Yiddish, at the ''[[Shalom Zachar]]'' celebration for baby boys. The chickpeas are boiled until soft and served hot with salt and lots of ground black pepper.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Paster |first1=Emily |title=SUMAC ROASTED CHICK PEAS (ARBES) FOR PURIM |url=https://www.westoftheloop.com/2019/03/19/sumac-roasted-chick-peas-arbes-for-purim/ |website=West of the Loop |date=19 March 2019 |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>

''[[Guasanas]]'' or ''garbanza'' is a Mexican chickpea street snack. The beans, while still green, are cooked in water and salt, kept in a steamer to maintain their humidity, and served in a plastic bag.

A chickpea-derived liquid (''[[aquafaba]]'') can be used as an egg white replacement to make [[meringue]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://slate.com/culture/2015/06/aquafaba-baking-with-chickpea-liquid-for-vegan-meringues.html|title=Stop Pouring Your Chickpea Liquid Down the Drain. It's a Magical Ingredient.|last=Krule|first=Miriam|date=2015-06-10|website=Slate Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24}}</ref> or ice cream, with the residual [[pomace]] used as flour.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wweek.com/restaurants/2019/05/07/little-bean-proves-chickpea-ice-cream-isnt-as-weird-as-it-sounds/|title=Little Bean Proves Chickpea Ice Cream Isn't as Weird as It Sounds|first=Shannon|last=Gormley|date=7 May 2019|publisher=Willamette Week|access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref>

In 1793, ground, roasted chickpeas were noted by a German writer as a substitute for coffee in Europe.<ref name="ICARDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.icarda.cgiar.org/Publications/Cook/Chickpea/Chickpea.html |title=Introduction: Chickpeas |publisher=International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas |access-date=28 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718064651/http://www.icarda.cgiar.org/Publications/Cook/Chickpea/Chickpea.html |archive-date=18 July 2012}}</ref> In the [[First World War]], they were grown for this use in some areas of Germany.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crnindia.com/commodity/chickpea.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427141450/http://www.crnindia.com/commodity/chickpea.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 27, 2006 |title=Chickpea (Chana) |work=CRN India |access-date=8 June 2016 }}</ref> They are still sometimes brewed instead of coffee.<ref name="ICARDA"/>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:FOOD Doubles 2.jpg|[[Doubles (food)|Doubles]], a street food in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
File:Potaje de garbanzos y collejas5.JPG|[[Manchego cuisine]]; chickpea and ''[[Silene vulgaris]]'' stew ''(potaje de garbanzos y collejas)''
File:Farinata di ceci 01.jpg|[[Farinata|Farinata di ceci]], a traditional [[Italian Cuisine|Italian]] chickpea snack food
File:Chakhchoukha9.JPG|[[Chakhchoukha]] in [[Algerian cuisine]]; freshly cooked ''marqa'' before mixing with ''rougag''
File:Choleindia.jpg|''[[Chana masala]]'', India
File:Halua of Chickpeas.jpg|[[Halva|''Halua'']] chickpeas, [[Bangladesh]]
File:Aesthetic Fried Gram.jpg|Fried chickpea
</gallery>

===Animal feed===

Chickpeas are an energy and protein source as [[animal feed]].<ref name= Bampidis>{{cite journal |year=2011 |last1=Bampidis |first1=V.A. |last2=Christodoulou |first2=V. |title=Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) in animal nutrition: A review |volume=168 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–20 |journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology |doi=10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.098}}</ref>

Raw chickpeas have a lower [[Trypsin inhibitor|trypsin]] and [[chymotrypsin]] inhibitor content than peas, [[common bean]]s, and [[soybean]]s. This leads to higher nutrition values and fewer digestive problems in non[[ruminants]]. Nonruminant diets can be completed with 200 g/kg of raw chickpeas to promote egg production and growth of birds and pigs. Higher amounts can be used when chickpeas are treated with heat.<ref name= Bampidis/>

Experiments have shown that ruminants grow equally well and produce an equal amount and quality of milk when soybean or cereal meals are replaced with chickpeas. Pigs show the same performance, but growing pigs experience a negative effect of raw chickpea feed; extruded chickpeas can increase performance even in growing pigs. Only young broilers (starting period) showed worse performance in poultry diet experiments with untreated chickpeas. Fish performed equally well when extruded chickpeas replaced their soybean or cereal diet.<ref name= Bampidis/> Chickpea seeds have also been used in rabbit diets.<ref name= "fao" />
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:14em; text-align:center;"
|+ Production of chickpeas – 2022
|-
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | Production<br /><small>(millions of [[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{IND}} || 13.5
|-
| {{TUR}} || 0.6
|-
| {{RUS}} || 0.5
|-
| {{ETH}} || 0.5
|-
| {{MMR}} || 0.4
|-
| {{PAK}} || 0.3
|-
| '''World''' ||'''18.1'''
|-
| colspan="2" |<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title= Chickpea production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2024|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=21 April 2024}}</ref></small>
|}

Secondary components of legumes—such as [[lecithin]], [[polyphenols]], [[oligosaccharides]]; and [[amylase]], [[protease]], trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors—can lead to lower nutrient availability, and thus to impaired growth and health of animals (especially in nonruminants). Ruminants generally have less trouble digesting legumes with secondary components since they can inactivate them in the rumen liquor. Their diets can be supplemented by 300 g/kg or more raw chickpea seeds.<ref name= Bampidis/> However, protein digestibility and energy availability can be improved through treatments such as germination, dehulling, and heat. Extrusion is a very good heat technique to destroy secondary legume components since the proteins are irreversibly denatured. Overprocessing may decrease the nutritional value; extrusion leads to losses in minerals and vitamins, while dry heating does not change the chemical composition.<ref name= Bampidis/>

===Medical===

Ancient people also associated chickpeas with [[medical astrology|Venus]] because they were said to offer medical uses such as increasing semen and milk production, inducing menstruation and urination, and helping to treat [[kidney stone]]s.<ref name=Culpeper>{{cite book |last=Culpeper |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Culpeper |title=Chick-Pease, or Cicers |publisher=Bibliomania, The Complete Herbal (1652, originally titled The English Physitian) |url=http://www.bibliomania.com/2/1/66/113/frameset.html}}</ref> "White cicers" were thought to be especially strong and helpful.<ref name=Culpeper/> The 17th-century botanist [[Nicholas Culpeper]] noted "chick-pease or cicers" are less "[[flatulence|windy]]" than peas and more nourishing.<ref name=Culpeper/>

==Production==

In 2022, world production of chickpeas was 18 million [[tonne]]s, led by India with 75% of the global total (table).<ref name=faostat/>

==Nutrition==

{{Infobox nutritional value
|name=Chickpeas, mature seeds, cooked, no salt
|kJ=686
|protein=8.86 g
|fat=2.59 g
|satfat=0.27 g
|monofat=0.58 g
|polyfat=1.16 g
|carbs=27.42 g
|sugars=4.8 g
|fibre=7.6 g
|sodium_mg=7
|potassium_mg=291
|vitA_ug=1
|vitC_mg=1.3
|thiamin_mg=0.12
|riboflavin_mg=0.06
|niacin_mg=0.53
|pantothenic_mg=0.29
|folate_ug=172
|vitE_mg=0.35
|vitK_ug=4
|calcium_mg=49
|iron_mg=2.89
|phosphorus_mg=168
|magnesium_mg=48
|zinc_mg=1.53
|vitB6_mg=0.14
|manganese_mg=1.03 
|water=60.21 g
|source_usda=1
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173757/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Chickpeas, dried seeds, raw
| kJ = 1581
| protein = 20.5 g
| fat = 6.04 g
| satfat = 0.603
| monofat = 1.377
| polyfat = 2.731
| carbs = 62.95 g
| sugars = 10.7 g
| fibre = 12.2 g
| sodium_mg = 24
| potassium_mg = 718
| vitA_ug = 3
| vitC_mg = 4
| thiamin_mg = 0.477
| riboflavin_mg = 0.212
| niacin_mg = 1.541
| pantothenic_mg = 1.588
| folate_ug = 557
| vitE_mg = 0.82
| vitK_ug = 9
| calcium_mg = 57
| copper_mg = 0.656
| iron_mg = 4.31
| magnesium_mg = 79
| phosphorus_mg = 252
| zinc_mg = 2.76
| vitB6_mg = 0.535
| water = 7.68 g
| source_usda = 1
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173756/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food, providing rich content (20% or higher of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[folate]], and certain [[dietary minerals]], such as iron and [[phosphorus]] in a 100-gram reference amount (see adjacent nutrition table). [[Thiamin]], [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]], [[magnesium]], and [[zinc]] contents are moderate, providing 10–16% of the DV. Compared to reference levels established by the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and [[World Health Organization]], proteins in cooked and germinated chickpeas are rich in essential [[amino acid]]s such as [[lysine]], [[isoleucine]], [[tryptophan]], and total [[aromatic amino acids]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Plant Foods Hum Nutr|year=2007|volume=62|issue=1|pages=31–7|title=Nutritional properties of quality protein maize and chickpea extruded based weaning food|vauthors=Milán-Carrillo J, Valdéz-Alarcón C, Gutiérrez-Dorado R, Cárdenas-Valenzuela OG, Mora-Escobedo R, Garzón-Tiznado JA, Reyes-Moreno C|pmid=17243010|doi=10.1007/s11130-006-0039-z|s2cid=11067470}}</ref>

A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off|adj=on|frac=2}} reference serving of cooked chickpeas provides {{convert|686|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]]. Cooked chickpeas are 60% water, 27% [[carbohydrates]], 9% [[protein]] and 3% fat (table).<ref name=Bampidis/> Seventy-five percent of the fat content is [[unsaturated fatty acids]] for which [[linoleic acid]] comprises 43% of the total fat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/legumes-and-legume-products/4326/2|title=Nutrition facts for Chickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt, 100 g, USDA Nutrient Database, version SR-21|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=15 January 2015}}</ref>

===Effects of cooking===

Cooking treatments do not lead to variance in total protein and carbohydrate content.<ref name= El-Adawy>{{cite journal |year=2002 |last1=El-Adawy |first1=T.A. |title=Nutritional composition and antinutritional factors of chickpeas (''Cicer arietinum'' L.) undergoing different cooking methods and germination |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=83–97 |journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition |pmid=11855623|doi=10.1023/A:1013189620528 |s2cid=23259042 }}</ref><ref name= Jukanti>{{cite journal |journal=Br J Nutr |year=2012 |volume=108|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S11–26|doi=10.1017/S0007114512000797|pmid=22916806 |title=Nutritional quality and health benefits of chickpea (''Cicer arietinum'' L.): a review|vauthors=Jukanti AK, Gaur PM, Gowda CL, Chibbar RN |doi-access=free}}</ref> Soaking and cooking of dry seeds possibly induces chemical modification of protein-fibre complexes, which leads to an increase in crude fibre content. Thus, cooking can increase protein quality by inactivating or destroying heat-labile antinutritional factors.<ref name=El-Adawy /> Cooking also increases protein digestibility, essential amino acid index, and protein efficiency ratio. Although cooking lowers concentrations of amino acids such as tryptophan, lysine, total aromatic, and sulphur-containing amino acids, their contents are still higher than proposed by the FAO/WHO reference.<ref name=El-Adawy /> [[Raffinose]] and sucrose and other [[reducing sugars]] diffuse from the chickpea into the cooking water and this reduces or completely removes these components from the chickpea. Cooking also significantly reduces fat and mineral content. The [[B vitamins]] riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, and pyridoxine dissolve into cooking water at differing rates.<ref name=El-Adawy />

===Germination===
Germination of chickpeas improves protein digestibility, although at a lower level than cooking. Germination degrades proteins to simple peptides, improving crude protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and crude fibre content. Germination decreases lysine, tryptophan, sulphur and total aromatic amino acids, but most contents are still higher than proposed by the FAO/WHO reference pattern.<ref name=El-Adawy />

Oligosaccharides, such as stachyose and raffinose, are reduced in higher amounts during germination than during cooking. Minerals and [[B vitamins]] are retained more effectively during germination than with cooking. Phytic acids are reduced significantly, but trypsin inhibitor, tannin, and saponin reduction is less effective than cooking.<ref name=El-Adawy />

===Autoclaving, microwave cooking, boiling ===
In a 2002 study comparing germination and cooking effects on chickpea nutritional values, all treatments of cooking (autoclaving, microwave cooking, boiling) were found to improve protein digestibility. Essential amino acids were slightly increased by boiling and microwave cooking compared to autoclaving and germination. losses in B-vitamins and minerals in chickpeas cooked by microwaving were smaller than in those cooked by boiling and autoclaving.<ref name= El-Adawy/>

===Skinning===

Chickpeas contain oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose) which are indigestible to humans but are fermented in the gut by bacteria, leading to [[flatulence]] in susceptible individuals.<ref name= Elango2022>{{cite journal |year=2022 |last1=Elango |first1=Dinakaran |title=Genome-wide association mapping of seed oligosaccharides in chickpea |volume=13 |issue=2022 |pages= |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|pmid=36352859|doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.1024543 |doi-access=free |s2cid= |pmc=9638045 }}</ref> This can be prevented by skinning the  husks from the chickpeas before serving.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vasishtha |first=Hina |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rajendra P. |last3=Verma |first3=Prasoon |date=19 September 2014 |title=Effect of dehusking and cooking on protein and dietary fibre of different genotypes of desi, kabuli and green type chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13197-012-0909-3 |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |language=en |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=4090–4095 |doi=10.1007/s13197-012-0909-3 |issn=0022-1155|pmc=4252399 }}</ref>

===Leaves===

In some parts of the world, young chickpea leaves are consumed as cooked green vegetables. Especially in malnourished populations, it can supplement important dietary nutrients because regions where chickpeas are consumed have sometimes been found to have populations lacking micronutrients.<ref name=Ibrikci>{{cite journal |year=2003 |last1=Ibrikci |first1=H. |last2=Knewtson |first2=S.J.B. |last3=Grusak |first3=M.A. |title=Chickpea leaves as a vegetable green for humans: evaluation of mineral composition |volume=83 |issue=9 |pages=945–950 |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |doi=10.1002/jsfa.1427|bibcode=2003JSFA...83..945I }}</ref> Chickpea leaves have a significantly higher mineral content than either cabbage leaves or spinach leaves.<ref name=Ibrikci/> Environmental factors and nutrient availability could influence mineral concentrations in natural settings. Consumption of chickpea leaves may contribute nutrients to the diet.<ref name=Ibrikci />

===Research===

The consumption of chickpeas is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.<ref name= Jukanti/><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Faridy JM, Stephanie CM, Gabriela MO, Cristian JM|year=2020|title=Biological Activities of Chickpea in Human Health (''Cicer arietinum'' L.). A Review|journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|volume=75|issue=2|pages=142–153|pmid=32239331|doi=10.1007/s11130-020-00814-2|s2cid=214733079}}</ref>

==Heat and nutrient cultivation==

Agricultural yield for chickpeas is often based on [[Genetics|genetic]] and [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] variability, which has recently been influenced by artificial selection.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Naghavi | first1 = M.R. | last2 = Jahansouz | first2 = M.R. | year = 2005 | title = Variation in the agronomic and morphological traits of Iranian chickpea accessions | journal = Journal of Integrative Plant Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 3| pages = 375–79 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2005.00058.x }}</ref> The uptake of [[macronutrient]]s such as [[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] [[phosphorus]] or [[nitrogen]] is vital to the plant development of ''Cicer arietinum'', commonly known as the [[perennial plant|perennial]] chickpea.<ref name=":1" /> Heat cultivation and macronutrient coupling are two relatively unknown methods used to increase the yield and size of the chickpea. Recent research has indicated that a combination of heat treatment along with the two vital macronutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen, are the most critical components to increasing the overall yield of ''Cicer arietinum''.<ref name=":1" />

Perennial chickpeas are a fundamental source of nutrition in animal feed as they are high-energy and protein sources for livestock. Unlike other food crops, the perennial chickpea can change its nutritional content in response to heat cultivation. Treating the chickpea with a constant heat source increases its protein content almost threefold.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Bampidis | first1 = V.A. | last2 = Christodoulou | first2 = V. | year = 2011 | title = Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) in animal nutrition: A review | journal = Animal Feed Science and Technology | volume = 168 | issue = 1–2| pages = 1–20 | doi = 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.098 }}</ref> Consequently, the impact of heat cultivation affects the protein content of the chickpea itself and the ecosystem it supports. Increasing the height and size of chickpea plants involves using macronutrient fertilization with varying doses of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen.<ref name=":0" />

The level of phosphorus that a chickpea seed is exposed to during its lifecycle has a positive correlation relative to the height of the plant at full maturity.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Mishra | first1 = U.S. | last2 = Sirothia | first2 = P. | last3 = Bhadoria | first3 = U.S. | year = 2009 | title = Effects of phosphorus nutrition on growth and yield of chickpea (''Cicer arietinum'') under rainfed conditions | journal = International Journal of Agricultural and Statistical Sciences | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 85–88 }}</ref> Increasing the levels of inorganic phosphorus at all doses incrementally increases the height of the chickpea plant. Thus, the seasonal changes in phosphorus soil content, as well as periods of drought that are known to be a native characteristic of the dry Middle-Eastern region where the chickpea is most commonly cultivated, have a strong effect on the growth of the plant itself. Plant yield is also affected by a combination of phosphorus nutrition and water supply, resulting in a 12% increase in crop yield.<ref name=":0" />

Nitrogen nutrition is another factor that affects the yield of ''Cicer arietinum'', although the application differs from other perennial crops regarding the levels administered on the plant. High doses of nitrogen inhibit the yield of the chickpea plant.<ref name=":2" /> Drought stress is a likely factor that inhibits nitrogen uptake and subsequent fixation in the roots of ''Cicer arietinum''. The perennial chickpea's growth depends on the balance between nitrogen fixation and assimilation, which is also characteristic of many other agricultural plant types. The influence of drought stress, sowing date, and mineral nitrogen supply affect the plant's yield and size, with trials showing that ''Cicer arietinum'' differed from other plant species in its capacity to assimilate mineral nitrogen supply from the soil during drought stress.<ref name=":2">Wery, J., Deschamps, M., & Leger-Cresson, N. (1988). Influence of some agroclimatic factors and agronomic practices on nitrogen nutrition of chickpea (''Cicer arietinum'' L.). Developments in Plants and Soil Sciences, 32: 287–301.</ref> Additional minerals and micronutrients make the absorption process of nitrogen and phosphorus more available. Inorganic [[phosphate]] [[ion]]s are generally attracted towards charged minerals such as iron and aluminium [[oxide]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hinsinger | first1 = P | year = 2001 | title = Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: A review | journal = Plant and Soil | volume = 237 | issue = 2| pages = 173–95 | doi = 10.1023/A:1013351617532 | bibcode = 2001PlSoi.237..173H | s2cid = 8562338 }}</ref>

Additionally, growth and yield are also limited by the [[micronutrients]] [[zinc]] and [[boron]] deficiencies in the soil. Boron-rich soil increased chickpea yield and size, while soil fertilization with zinc seemed to have no apparent effect on the chickpea yield.<ref>Johnson, S.E., Lauren, J.G., Welch, R.M., & Duxbury, J.M. (2005). A comparison of the effects of micronutrient seed priming and soil fertilization on the mineral nutrition of chickpea (''Cicer arietinum''), lentil (''Lens culinaris''), rice (''Oryza sativa'') and wheat (''Triticum acstiyum'') in Nepal. {{page needed|date=January 2020}}</ref>

==Pathogens==

Pathogens are the main cause of yield loss (up to 90%).{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} One example is the fungus [[Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris|''Fusarium oxysporum'' f.sp. ''ciceris'']], present in most of the major [[Pulse (legume)|pulse crop]]-growing areas and causing regular yield damages between 10 and 15%.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 23273192|year = 2012|last1 = Datta|first1 = J.|title = Application of molecular markers for genetic discrimination of Fusarium wilt pathogen races affecting chickpea and pigeonpea in major regions of India|journal = Cellular and Molecular Biology |volume = 58|issue = 1|pages = 55–65|last2 = Lal|first2 = N.}}</ref> Many plant hosts produce [[heat shock protein 70]]s including ''C. arietinum''.<ref name="Berka-et-al-2022">{{cite journal | last1=Berka | first1=Miroslav | last2=Kopecká | first2=Romana | last3=Berková | last4=Brzobohatý | first4=Břetislav | last5=Černý | first5=Martin | editor-last=Hancock | editor-first=Robert | title=Regulation of heat shock proteins 70 and their role in plant immunity | journal=[[Journal of Experimental Botany]] | publisher=[[Society for Experimental Biology]] ([[Oxford University Press|OUP]]) | volume=73 | issue=7 | date=2022-01-12 | issn=0022-0957 | doi=10.1093/jxb/erab549 | pages=1894–1909| pmid=35022724 | pmc=8982422 }}</ref> In response to ''F. o. ciceris'' Gupta ''et al.'', 2017 finds ''C. arietinum'' produces an [[gene orthology|orthologue]] of [[AtHSP70-1]], an ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]]'' HSP70.<ref name="Berka-et-al-2022" />

From 1978 until 1995, the worldwide number of pathogens increased from 49 to 172, of which 35 were recorded in India. These pathogens originate from groups of bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasma and nematodes and show a high genotypic variation. The most widely distributed pathogens are ''[[Ascochyta rabiei]]'' (35 countries), ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f.sp. ''ciceris'' (32 countries) ''[[Uromyces ciceris-arietini]]'' (25 countries), [[bean leafroll virus]] (23 countries), and ''[[Macrophomina phaseolina]]'' (21 countries).<ref>{{cite journal |year=1996 |last1=Sheila |first1=J. |last2=Sharma |first2=N. |title=A World list of Chickpea and Pigeonpea Pathogens |issue=5 |journal=International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, ICRISAT}}</ref> ''Ascochyta'' disease emergence is favoured by wet weather; spores are carried to new plants by wind and water splash.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/chickpea-gram-pea/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation|title=PlantVillage|access-date=2015-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630055502/https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/chickpea-gram-pea/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_propagation|archive-date=2015-06-30|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The stagnation of yield improvement over the last decades is linked to the susceptibility to pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2003 |last1=Pfaff |first1=T |last2=Kahl |first2=G |title=Mapping of gene-specific markers on the genetic map of chickpea ("Cicer atietinum"L) |volume=269 |issue=2 |pages=243–251 |doi=10.1007/s00438-003-0828-0 |pmid=12756536 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics|s2cid=20347418 }}</ref> Research for yield improvement, such as an attempt to increase yield from {{convert|0.8 to 2.0|MT/ha}} by breeding cold-resistant varieties, is always linked with pathogen-resistance breeding as pathogens such as ''Ascochyta rabiei'' and ''F. o.'' f.sp. ''ciceris'' flourish in conditions such as cold temperature. Research started selecting favourable genes for pathogen resistance and other traits through [[marker-assisted selection]]. This method is a promising sign for the future to achieve significant yield improvements.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2006 |last1=Millan |first1=Teresa |last2=Heather |first2=J.Clarke |last3=Kadambot |first3=H.M.Siddique |display-authors=etal |title=Chickpea molecular breeding:New tools and concepts |volume=147 |issue=1–2 |pages=81–103 |doi=10.1007/s10681-006-4261-4 |journal=Euphytica|s2cid=26048653 |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/929/1/Euphytica147_1_81-103_2006.pdf }}</ref>

==Gallery==

<gallery widths="200px" heights="155px">
File:Cicers farm.jpg|Cicers farm
File:India - Varanasi green peas - 2714.jpg|Lime green chickpeas
File:Chickpea in black colour.jpg|Black chickpeas
</gallery>

==See also==

* [[Chickpeas in Nepal]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em|refs =

<ref name="Abbo2003">{{cite journal | title = The Chickpea, Summer Cropping, and a New Model For Pulse Domestication in the Ancient Near East | journal = The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 78 | number = 4 | date = December 2003 | last1 = Abbo | first1 = Shahal | last2= Shtienberg | first2 = Dan | last3 = Lichtenzveig | first3 = Judith | last4 = Lev-Yadun | first4 = Simcha | last5= Gopher | first5 = Avi | pages = 37-50}}</ref>

<ref name="Ahmad2005">{{cite book | url = https://oar.icrisat.org/6223/1/Ch7_229-267.pdf | last1 = Ahmad | first1 = F. | first2 = P. M. | last2 = Gaur | first3 = Janine | last3 = Croser | chapter = Chickpea (Cicer arietinum l.) | title = Genetic resources, chromosome engineering, and crop improvement-grain legumes 1 | date = 2005 | pages = 187–217 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = Boca Raton, Florida | editor-last1 = Singh | editor-first1 = Ram J. | editor-last2 = Jauhar | editor-first2 = Prem P.}}</ref>

<ref name="Balter2015">{{cite journal | url= https://www.science.org/content/article/mysterious-indo-european-homeland-may-have-been-steppes-ukraine-and-russia | title= Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine and Russia | last= Balter | first= Michael | date= 13 February 2015| website = Science | doi= 10.1126/science.aaa7858 }}</ref>

<ref name="Campbell2020">{{cite book | title = Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, Fourth Edition | last = Campbell | first = Lyle | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | date = 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="Cohen1991">{{cite journal | url = https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ocean/aap/1991/00000012/00000001/art00010# | title =  The Chicken, in History and in the Soup | last = Cohen | first = Sheldon G. | journal = Allergy and Asthma Proceedings | volume = 12 | number = 1 | date = January–February 1991 | pages = 47–56 | doi = 10.2500/108854191778879593}}</ref>

<ref name="Columella">{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/onagriculturewit01coluuoft | via = Archive.org | title = Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella on Agriculture, in Three Volumes: Res Rustica I-IV, with a Recension of the Text and An English Translation By Harrison Boyd Ash, Ph.D. | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | date=1941}}</ref>

<ref name="Dean2012">{{cite web | url = https://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/ingredients/article/the-history-of-the-word-chickpea | title = The History of the Word Chickpea | last = Dean | first = Sam | website = bon appétit | date = 20 September 2012 | accessdate = 28 October 2024}}</ref>

<ref name="Gold2009">{{cite book | title = Studies in Etymology and Etiology: With Emphasis on Germanic, Jewish, Romance and Slavic Languages | last = Gold | first = David L. | date = 2009 | publisher = Universidad de Alicante | isbn = 978-84-7908-517-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l015C5vm1XkC | via = Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="Gupta2017">{{cite journal |title=Draft genome sequence of ''Cicer reticulatum'' L., the wild progenitor of chickpea provides a resource for agronomic trait improvement |year=2017 |last1=Gupta |first1=Sonal |last2=Nawaz |first2=Kashif |last3=Parween |first3=Sabiha |last4=Roy |first4=Riti |last5=Sahu |first5=Kamlesh |last6=Kumar Pole |first6=Anil |last7=Khandal |first7=Hitaishi |last8=Srivastava |first8=Rishi |last9=Kumar Parida |first9=Swarup |last10=Chattopadhyay |first10=Debasis |journal=DNA Research |volume=24 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1093/dnares/dsw042 |pmid=27567261 |pmc=5381347 }}</ref>

<ref name="Mehmetoglu2023">{{cite journal | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-44599-1.pdf | title = The complete chloroplast genome of ''Cicer reticulatum'' and comparative analysis against relative ''Cicer'' species | first1= Ezgi | last1= Mehmetoğlu | first2 = Yasin | last2= Kaymaz | first3 = Duygu |last3 = Ateş | first4 = Abdullah | last4 = Kahraman | first5 = Muhammed Bahattin | last5 = Tanyolaç | volume = 3 | number = 17871 | date = 2023 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-023-44599-1 | journal = Scientific Reports }}</ref>

<ref name="Mikic2011a">{{cite journal | url = https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/158722 | title = An Etymological and Lexicological Note On the Words for Some Ancient Eurasian Grain Legume Crops in Turkic Languages | journal = Turkish Journal of Field Crops | date = 2011 | volume = 16 | number = 2 | pages = 179–182 | last1 = Mikić | first1 = Aleksandar | last2 = Perić | first2 = Vesna}}</ref>

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<ref name="Mikic2012">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0044512 | title = Origin of the Words Denoting Some of the Most Ancient Old World Pulse Crops and Their Diversity in Modern European Languages | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | number = 9 | date = 2012 | last = Mikić | first = Aleksandar | pages = e44512| doi-access = free | pmid = 22973458 | pmc = 3433424 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...744512M }}</ref>

<ref name="Mikic2019">{{cite book | title = Lexicon of Pulse Crops | last = Mikić | first = Aleksandar | date = 2019 | publisher = CRC Press | location = Boca Raton, Florida | isbn = 978-1-138-08951-8}}</ref>

<ref name="Nene2006">{{cite journal | title = Indian Pulses Through the Millenia | last = Nene | first = Y.L. | journal = Asian Agri-History | volume = 10 | number = 3 | date = 2006 | pages = 179–202}}</ref>

<ref name="Redden2007">{{cite book | chapter = History and Origin of Chickpea | last1 = Redden | first1 = R.J. | last2 = Berger | first2 = J.D. | title = Chickpea Breeding and Management | editor-last1 = Yadav | editor-first1 = S.S. | editor-last2 = Redden | editor-first2 = R.J. | editor-last3 = Chen | editor-first3 = W. | editor-last4 = Sharma | editor-first4 = B. | publisher = CAB International | location = Oxfordshire, United Kingdom | date = 2007 | isbn = 978 1 84593 214 5 }}</ref>

<ref name="Theophrastus2">{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/enquiryintoplant02theouoft | via = Archive.org | title = Enquiry into plants and minor works on odours and weather signs, with an English Translation by Sir Arthur Hort, bart | author = Theophrastus | translator-last = Hort | translator-first = Sir Arthur | translator-link=Arthur Hort | volume = II | date = 1916 | publisher = William Heinemann | location = London}}</ref>

<ref name="VanDerMaesen1972">{{cite book | title = ''Cicer'' L., A Monograph of the Genus, With Special Reference to the Chickpea (''Cicer Arietinum'' L.), Its Ecology and Cultivation | last = Van Der Maesen | first = L. J. G. | date = 1972 | publisher = H. Veenman & Zonen N.V. | location = Wageningen | url = https://edepot.wur.nl/195431}}</ref>

<ref name="VanDerMaesen1987">{{cite book | title = The Chickpea | last = Van Der Maesen | first = L. J. G. | date = 1987 | chapter = Origin, history and taxonomy of chickpea | url = https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/304694 | editor-last1 = Saxena | editor-first1 = Mohan C. | editor-last2 = Singh | editor-first2 = K.B. | publisher = C.A.B. International | isbn = 9780851985718}}</ref>

}}

==External links==

{{Commons}}

{{Wikispecies|Cicer arietinum|Chickpea}}

* [http://www.ipga.co.in/Chickpeas India Pulses and Grains Association] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207000901/http://ipga.co.in/chickpeas/ |date=2020-02-07 }})

{{Taxonbar|from=Q81375}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Faboideae]]
[[Category:Founder crops]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Romani cuisine]]