Editing Chain mail

{{Short description|Personal armour of metal links}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Mail shirt, apparently European - Glenbow Museum - DSC00708.JPG|thumb|A European mail shirt.]]

'''Mail''' (sometimes spelled '''maille''' and, since the 18th century, colloquially referred to as '''chain mail''', '''chainmail''' or '''chain-mail''')<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/chain-mail "chain mail" Cambridge dictionaries online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124095223/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/chain-mail |date=2015-11-24 }}</ref> is a type of [[armour]] consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and the 16th century AD in Europe, while it continued to be used militarily in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East as late as the 18th century. Even today it is still in use in industries such as [[Butcher|butchery]] and as protection against the powerful bites of creatures such as [[shark]]s. A coat of this armour is often called a [[hauberk]] or sometimes a byrnie.

==History==
[[File:Gaul warrior Vacheres 2.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The [[Vachères]] warrior, 1st century BC, a statue depicting a Romanized Gaulish warrior wearing mail and a Celtic [[torc]] around his neck, bearing a [[Celtic warfare|Celtic-style]] [[shield]].<ref>Ashton, Kasey. "[http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/themselves/celtsthemselves.html The Celts Themselves]." [[University of North Carolina]]. Accessed 4 November 2018.</ref>]]
[[File:Thueros affresco.jpg|thumb|upright|Fresco of an [[Kingdom of Macedon|ancient Macedonian Greek]] soldier (''[[thorakitai|thorakites]]'') wearing mail armour and bearing a ''[[thureos]]'' shield]]

The earliest examples of surviving mail were found in the [[Carpathian Basin]] at a burial in Horný Jatov, Slovakia dated in the 3rd century BC, and in a chieftain's burial located in [[Ciumești]], [[Romania]].<ref name="urlCeltic Chainmail | Brendan Mac Gonagle - Academia.edu">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/3891226 |title=Celtic Chainmail &#124; Brendan Mac Gonagle - Academia.edu |journal=Balkancelts |last1=Gonagle |first1=Brendan Mac }}</ref><ref name="urlCeltic chainmail – Balkan Celts">{{cite web |url=https://balkancelts.wordpress.com/tag/celtic-chainmail/ |title=Celtic chainmail – Balkan Celts |date=8 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>Rusu, M., "Das Keltische Fürstengrab von Ciumeşti in Rumänien", Germania 50, 1969, pp. 267–269</ref> Its invention is commonly credited to the [[Celts]],<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&dq=laminar+armor&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world'', Richard A. Gabriel, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501212748/https://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79&dq=laminar+armor&hl=en&ei=nOMGTqrNNfGv0AGWpbi6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg |date=2016-05-01 }}</ref> but there are examples of [[Etruscan military history|Etruscan]] pattern mail dating from at least the 4th century BC.<ref>Oriental Armour, H. Russell Robinson, 1967 Walker and Co., New York, pp. 11-12</ref><ref>Catalogue of the Exhibition of Ancient Helmets and Examples of Mail, William Burgess & Baron De Cosson</ref><ref>Stone, G.C. (1934): [[A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms And Armor in All Countries and in All Times]], Dover Publications, New York</ref> Mail may have been inspired by the much earlier [[scale armour]].<ref>Philip Sidnell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=l4KYsLl0sVIC&pg=PA159 ''Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506015307/https://books.google.com/books?id=l4KYsLl0sVIC&pg=PA159 |date=2016-05-06 }}, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006 {{ISBN|1-85285-374-3}}, p.159</ref><ref>Robert E. Krebs, Carolyn A. Krebs, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=PA309 ''Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512032201/https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=PA309 |date=2016-05-12 }}, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003 {{ISBN|0-313-31342-3}}, p.309</ref> Mail spread to North Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Tibet, South East Asia, and Japan.

[[Histories (Herodotus)|Herodotus]] wrote that the ancient Persians wore scale armour, but mail is also distinctly mentioned in the [[Avesta]], the holy scripture of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion that was written in the 6th century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i11HAQAAMAAJ|title=Notes on Turquois in the East|last=Laufer|first=Berthold|date=1914-01-01|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223060132/https://books.google.com/books?id=i11HAQAAMAAJ|archive-date=2017-12-23}}</ref>

Mail continues to be used in the 21st century as a component of stab-resistant [[personal armor|body armour]], cut-resistant gloves for butchers and woodworkers, [[shark]]-resistant [[wetsuit|wet-suit]]s for defense against shark bites, and a number of other applications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neptunic Sharksuit |url=https://neptunic.com/products/sharksuits |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=Neptunic |language=en}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The origin of the word ''mail'' are not fully known. One theory is that it originally derives from the Latin word {{Lang|la|macula}}, meaning 'spot' or 'opacity' (as in [[macula of retina]]). Another theory relates the word to the old French {{Lang|fro|maillier}}, meaning 'to hammer' (related to the modern English word ''malleable'').<ref>{{Cite OED|mail|id = 112479}}</ref> In modern French, ''maille'' refers to a loop or stitch.<ref>[http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/maille "maille"], ''Trésor de la langue française informatisé''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305052520/http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/maille |date=2016-03-05 }}</ref> The Arabic words ''burnus'' ({{lang|ar|برنوس}} '[[Burnous|burnoose]], a hooded cloak', also a [[chasuble]] worn by Coptic priests) and ''barnaza'' ({{lang|ar|برنز}} 'to bronze') suggest an Arabic influence for the Carolingian armour known as [[Hauberk|byrnie]] (see below).

The first attestations of the word ''mail'' are in Old French and Anglo-Norman: ''maille'', ''maile'', or ''male'' or other variants, which became ''mailye'', ''maille'', ''maile'', ''male'', or ''meile'' in Middle English.<ref>[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED26516 "maille"], ''The Middle English Dictionary Online''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731185249/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED26516 |date=2013-07-31 }}</ref>

[[File:Beowulf - byrnu.jpg|thumb|left|In early medieval Europe "byrn(ie)" was the equivalent of a "coat of mail"]]

Civilizations that used mail invented specific terms for each garment made from it. The standard terms for European mail armour derive from French: leggings are called [[chausses]], a hood is a [[mail coif]], and mittens, [[mitons]]. A mail collar hanging from a helmet is a [[Aventail|camail or aventail]]. A shirt made from mail is a [[hauberk]] if knee-length and a [[haubergeon]] if mid-thigh length. A layer (or multiple layers) of mail sandwiched between layers of fabric is called a [[jazerant]].

A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie is unclear, including whether it was constructed of mail or other armour types. Noting that the byrnie was the "most highly valued piece of armour" to the [[Charlemagne|Carolingian]] soldier, Bennet, Bradbury, DeVries, Dickie, and Jestice<ref>Bennet, M., Bradbury, J., DeVries, K., Dickie, I., & Jestice, P. ''Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World''. Thomas Dunne Books, 2005, p. 82.</ref> indicate that:
<blockquote>
There is some dispute among historians as to what exactly constituted the Carolingian byrnie. Relying... only on artistic and some literary sources because of the lack of archaeological examples, some believe that it was a heavy leather jacket with metal scales sewn onto it with strong thread. It was also quite long, reaching below the hips and covering most of the arms. Other historians claim instead that the Carolingian byrnie was nothing more than a coat of mail, but longer and perhaps heavier than traditional early medieval mail. Without more certain evidence, this dispute will continue.
</blockquote>

==In Europe==
[[File:MWP Pancerni 2 polowa 17 wieku.jpg|thumb|upright|Mail armour and equipment of Polish medium cavalryman, from the second half of the 17th century]]
The use of mail as battlefield armour was common during the [[Iron Age]] and the [[Middle Ages]], becoming less common over the course of the 16th and 17th centuries when [[plate armour]] and more advanced [[firearm]]s were developed. It is believed that the [[Roman Republic]] first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in [[Cisalpine Gaul]], now [[Northern Italy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/chainmail.htm |title=Chainmail |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115152240/http://middle-ages.org.uk/chainmail.htm |archive-date=2013-01-15 }}</ref> The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the [[lorica hamata]] which was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period.

[[File:Harold dead bayeux tapestry.png|thumb|upright=1.1|left|Panel from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] showing [[Normans|Norman]] and [[Anglo-Saxon]] soldiers in mail armour. Note the scene of stripping a mail [[hauberk]] from a dead combatant at bottom.]]
After the fall of the Western Empire, much of the infrastructure needed to create [[plate armour]] diminished. Eventually the word "mail" came to be synonymous with armour.<ref>Francis Grose, A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons, London, 1786</ref><ref>Samuel R. Meyrick, A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour, as it Existed in Europe, but Particularly in England, from the Norman Conquest to the Reign of King Charles II: with a Glossary of Military Terms of the Middle Ages, (London, 1824)</ref><ref>Charles Henry Ashdown, British and Foreign Arms and Armour, (London, 1909</ref><ref>Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-duc, Encyclopédie Médiévale and Dictionnaire Raisonne du Mobilier Francais de l'Epoque Carlovingienne a la Renaissance.</ref> It was typically an extremely prized commodity, as it was expensive and time-consuming to produce and could mean the difference between life and death in a battle.<ref name=":0" /> Historically mail makers were often men, but women also undertook the work: [[Alice la Haubergere]] was an armourer who worked in Cheapside in the early 1300s and in York in 1446 [[Agnes Hecche]] inherited her father's mail making tools to continue her work after his death.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-10 |title=The Women who Forged Medieval England {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/women-who-forged-medieval-england |access-date=2024-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910134319/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/women-who-forged-medieval-england |archive-date=2024-09-10 }}</ref> Mail from dead combatants was frequently looted and was used by the new owner or sold for a lucrative price. As time went on and infrastructure improved, it came to be used by more soldiers. The oldest intact mail hauberk still in existence is thought to have been worn by [[Leopold III, Duke of Austria]], who died in 1386 during the [[Battle of Sempach]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Strayer|first=Joseph R.|title=Dictionary of the Middle Ages|year=1982|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons}}</ref>

By the 14th century, articulated [[plate armour]] was commonly used to supplement mail. Eventually mail was supplanted by plate for the most part, as it provided greater protection against windlass crossbows, bludgeoning weapons, and lance charges while maintaining most of the mobility of mail. However, it was still widely used by many soldiers, along with [[brigandine]]s and [[padded jack]]s. These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers, with mail being the most expensive. It was sometimes more expensive than plate armour.<ref>Reed Jr., Robert W. "Armour Purchases and Lists from the Howard Household Books", ''The Journal of the Mail Research Society'', Vol. 1. No. 1, July 2003</ref> Mail typically persisted longer in less technologically advanced areas such as Eastern Europe but was in use throughout Europe into the 16th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/afas17/hd_afas17.htm |title=Fashion in European Armor, 1600–1700 |last=Breiding |first=Dirk H. |publisher=Department of Arms and Armor, The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=2020-10-03 }}</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th century, mail was used as a material for [[Ballistic vest|bulletproof vests]], most notably by the [[Wilkinson Sword]] Company.<ref>{{cite news|title=Men Who Wear Armour.|newspaper=The Daily Mail|year=1886}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Randolph|first=T.H.|title=The Wilkinson Sword Catalog|year=1892|publisher=The Wilkinson Sword Co. Ltd.|pages=41}}</ref> Results were unsatisfactory; Wilkinson mail worn by the [[Isma'il Pasha|Khedive of Egypt]]'s regiment of "Iron Men"<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=KdJn9JbSYygC&dq=khedive+iron+men&pg=PA38 Google Books] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503093840/https://books.google.com/books?id=KdJn9JbSYygC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=khedive+iron+men&source=bl&ots=vvmfcaypMz&sig=f-cvAQJQKn0KZcKYFUEC5W8LVtQ&hl=en&ei=Fh1uTrS4JKra0QGGhOiGBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA |date=2016-05-03 }} Iron Men</ref> was manufactured from split rings which proved to be too brittle, and the rings would fragment when struck by bullets and aggravate the injury.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=H. Russel|title=Oriental Armour|year=2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|pages=85}}</ref> The riveted mail armour worn by the opposing Sudanese Madhists did not have the same problem but also proved to be relatively useless against the firearms of British forces at the [[battle of Omdurman]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stone|first=George Cameron|title=A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor: In All Countries and in All Times|year=1999|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|pages=69}}</ref> During World War I, Wilkinson Sword transitioned from mail to a lamellar design which was the precursor to the [[flak jacket]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnographic Arms & Armour - View Single Post - African knights - African armour collection thread |url=http://www.vikingsword.com/vb/showpost.php?p=189683&postcount=38 |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=www.vikingsword.com}}</ref>

[[File:WWI Splatter Mask.jpg|thumb|alt=a mask with a leather upper with slits on the metal eyepieces, and a chain mail lower, modelled on a dummy head with a metal war helmet|WWI Splatter Mask on display at the Army Medical Services Museum]]
Mail was also used for face protection in World War I. [[Oculist]] Captain Cruise of the British Infantry designed a mail fringe to be attached to helmets to protect the upper face. This proved unpopular with soldiers,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Helmets and body armor in modern warfare |last=Dean |first=Bashford |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1920 |location=New Haven |pages=133 |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/20017513/ |access-date=2023-10-12 |via=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> in spite of being proven to defend against a {{convert|3|oz|g|adj=on|spell=in}} [[Shrapnel shell|shrapnel]] round fired at a distance of {{convert|100|yd|m|spell=in}}.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title='Without the Faces of Men': Facially Disfigured Great War Soldiers of Britain and the Dominions. |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1959.4/55193 |publisher=UNSW Sydney |date=2015 |degree=PhD |language=English |first=Kerry |last=Neale |page=37|hdl=1959.4/55193 }}</ref> Another invention, a "splatter mask" or "splinter mask", consisted of rigid upper face protection and a mail veil to protect the lower face, and was used by early tank crews as a measure against flying steel fragments ([[spalling]]) inside the vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://americanmilitariareference.com/tank-splatter-mask |title=Tank Splatter Mask |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=American Militaria Reference}}{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==In Asia==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-14-13-33, Tibetexpedition, Neujahrsparade, Rta pa.jpg|thumb|upright|Tibetan warrior in mail reinforced by additional [[mirror armour|mirror plate]]]]
Mail armour was introduced to the Middle East and Asia through the Romans and was adopted by the [[Sassanid]] Persians starting in the 3rd century AD, where it was supplemental to the scale and [[lamellar armour]] already used. Mail was commonly also used as horse armour for [[cataphracts]] and heavy cavalry as well as armour for the soldiers themselves. Asian mail could be just as heavy as the European variety and sometimes had prayer symbols stamped on the rings as a sign of their craftsmanship as well as for divine protection.<ref>David G Alexander, Decorated and inscribed mail shirts in the Metropolitan Museum, Waffen- und Kostumkunde 27 (1985), 29–36</ref>

Mail armour is mentioned in the [[Quran]] as being a gift revealed by [[Allah]] to [[David]]:

<blockquote>21:80 It was We Who taught him the making of coats of mail for your benefit, to guard you from each other's violence: will ye then be grateful? (Yusuf Ali's translation)</blockquote>

[[File:Great Mogul And His Court Returning From The Great Mosque At Delhi India - Oil Painting by American Artist Edwin Lord Weeks.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mughal Army]]]]
From the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], mail was quickly adopted in [[Central Asia]] by [[Timur]] (Tamerlane) and the Sogdians and by India's [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Mail armour was introduced by the [[Turkish people|Turks]] in late 12th century and commonly used by [[Turkic peoples|Turk]] and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] and [[Suri Empire|Suri]] armies where it eventually became the armour of choice in India.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Indian mail was constructed with alternating rows of solid links and round riveted links and it was often integrated with plate protection (mail and plate armour).

=== China ===
{{multiple images|perrow=2| total_width = 220|align=left
|image1=Xixia Chainmail Armor (41985701161).jpg
|image2=宋朝雕刻 02.jpg|Song axeman in mail and lamellar armour
|footer= ''Left:'' [[Western Xia]] mail armour. 
''Right:'' [[Song dynasty]] axeman in mail and lamellar armour}}
Mail was introduced to [[China]] when its allies in Central Asia paid tribute to the [[Tang dynasty|Tang Emperor]] in 718 by giving him a coat of "link armour" assumed to be mail. Earliest assumed reference to mail can be found in early 3rd century record by [[Cao Zhi]], being called "chained ring armor".<ref>{{cite book |title=曹子建集|chapter=8 |url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B9%E5%AD%90%E5%BB%BA%E9%9B%86/%E5%8D%B7%E5%85%AB|quote= 先帝赐臣铠：黑光、明光各一领、两当铠一领、环锁铠一领、马铠一领。今代以昇平，兵革无事，乞悉以付铠曹自理。 }}</ref>  China first encountered the armour in 384 when its allies in the nation of [[Kuchi]] arrived wearing "armour similar to chains". Once in China, mail was imported but was not produced widely. Due to its flexibility, comfort, and rarity, it was typically the armour of high-ranking guards and those who could afford the exotic import (to show off their social status) rather than the armour of the rank and file, who used more common brigandine, scale, and [[Lamellar armour|lamellar]] types. However, it was one of the few military products that China imported from foreigners. Mail spread to Korea slightly later where it was imported as the armour of imperial guards and generals.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

===Japan===
{{Main|Kusari (Japanese mail armour)}}
[[File:Japanese kusari armor.JPG|thumb|upright|Edo period Japanese (samurai) chain armour or kusari gusoku]]

In [[Japan]], mail is called ''[[Commons:Category:Japanese chain mail|kusari]]'' which means chain. When the word ''kusari'' is used in conjunction with an armoured item it usually means that mail makes up the majority of the armour composition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&dq=kusari&pg=PA70 ''A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor: In All Countries and in All Times'', George Cameron Stone, Courier Dover Publications, 1999 p. 403] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527194906/https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&pg=PA70&dq=kusari&hl=en&ei=509hTfGDMIa0lQfds-CTDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&sqi=2&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBA |date=2016-05-27 }}</ref> An example of this would be ''kusari gusoku'' which means chain armour.  ''Kusari'' [[Commons:Category:Kusari katabira|jackets]], [[Commons:Category:Kusari zukin|hoods]], [[Commons:Category:Kusari han kote|gloves]], [[Commons:Category:Kusari vests|vests]], [[Commons:Category:Kusari suneate|shin guards]], shoulder guards, [[Commons:Category:Kusari haidate|thigh guards]], and other armoured clothing were produced, even ''[[Commons:Category:Kusari tabi|kusari tabi]]'' socks.

''[[Commons:Category:Japanese chain mail|Kusari]]'' was used in [[Japanese armour|samurai armour]] at least from the time of the Mongol invasion (1270s) but particularly from the [[Nambokucho Period]] (1336–1392).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QOH-icuirzAC&dq=Japanese+mail+armor&pg=PA92 ''Brassey's Book of Body Armor'', Robert C. Woosnam-Savage, Anthony Hall, Brassey's, 2002 p.92] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504162308/https://books.google.com/books?id=QOH-icuirzAC&pg=PA92&dq=Japanese+mail+armor&hl=en&ei=P7tgTYPtNIeglAfPrbDnCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAQ |date=2016-05-04 }}</ref> The Japanese used many different weave methods including a square 4-in-1 pattern (''so gusari''), a hexagonal 6-in-1 pattern (''hana gusari'') and a European 4-in-1 (''nanban gusari'').<ref>Ian Bottomley & A.P. Hopson ''Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan'' P.57 & P.186 {{ISBN|1-86222-002-6}}</ref> The rings of Japanese mail were much smaller than their European counterparts; they would be used in patches to link together plates and to drape over vulnerable areas such as the armpits.

''Riveted kusari'' was known and used in Japan. On page 58 of the book ''Japanese Arms & Armor: Introduction'' by H. Russell Robinson, there is a picture of Japanese riveted kusari,<ref>''Japanese Arms & Armor: Introduction'' by H. Russell Robinson, London, Arms & Armour P., p. 58, {{ISBN|9780853680192}}.</ref> and
this quote from the translated reference of [[Sakakibara Kozan|Sakakibara Kozan's]] 1800 book, ''The Manufacture of Armour and Helmets in Sixteenth-Century Japan'', shows that the Japanese not only knew of and used riveted kusari but that they manufactured it as well.

<blockquote>...&nbsp;karakuri-namban (riveted namban), with stout links each closed by a rivet. Its invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, pupil, of Hojo Awa no Kami Ujifusa, but it is also said to be derived directly from foreign models. It is heavy because the links are tinned (biakuro-nagashi) and these are also sharp-edged because they are punched out of iron plate<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=s2oiAQAAIAAJ&q=kusari The manufacture of armour and helmets in sixteenth century Japan: (Chūkokatchū seisakuben) Kōzan Sakakibara, C. E. Tuttle, 1964 p.84] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512140812/https://books.google.com/books?ei=07dgTeb5KYH6lwey1JGIDA&ct=result&id=s2oiAQAAIAAJ&dq=kusari+armor&q=kusari |date=2016-05-12 }}</ref></blockquote>

Butted or split (twisted) links made up the majority of ''kusari'' links used by the Japanese. Links were either ''butted'' together meaning that the ends touched each other and were not riveted, or the ''kusari'' was constructed with links where the wire was turned or twisted<ref name=b1>{{cite book|author=George Cameron Stone|title=A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration, and Use of Arms and Armor: In All Countries and in All Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&pg=PA424|access-date=18 February 2011|date=2 July 1999|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-40726-5|page=424|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603190342/https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&pg=PA424|archive-date=3 June 2016}}</ref> two or more times; these split links are similar to the modern split ring commonly used on keychains. The rings were lacquered black to prevent rusting, and were always stitched onto a backing of cloth or leather. The kusari was sometimes concealed entirely between layers of cloth.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=s2oiAQAAIAAJ&q=kusari ''The manufacture of armour and helmets in sixteenth century Japan'': (Chūkokatchū seisakuben) Kōzan Sakakibara, C. E. Tuttle, 1964 p.85] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512140812/https://books.google.com/books?ei=07dgTeb5KYH6lwey1JGIDA&ct=result&id=s2oiAQAAIAAJ&dq=kusari+armor&q=kusari |date=2016-05-12 }}</ref>

''Kusari gusoku'' or chain armour was commonly used during the [[Edo period]] 1603 to 1868 as a stand-alone defense. According to George Cameron Stone

<blockquote>Entire suits of mail ''kusari gusoku'' were worn on occasions, sometimes under the ordinary clothing<ref name="stone61">{{cite book|author=George Cameron Stone|title=A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor: In All Countries and in All Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&pg=PA61|access-date=18 February 2011|date=2 July 1999|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-40726-5|page=61|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501230820/https://books.google.com/books?id=J5PgapzD6FoC&pg=PA61|archive-date=1 May 2016}}</ref></blockquote>

In his book ''Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan'',<ref>Ian Bottomley & A.P. Hopson ''Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan'' pp. 155–156 {{ISBN|1-86222-002-6}}</ref> Ian Bottomley shows a picture of a kusari armour and mentions ''[[Commons:Category:Kusari katabira|kusari katabira]]'' (chain jackets) with detachable arms being worn by samurai police officials during the Edo period. The end of the samurai era in the 1860s, along with the 1876 ban on wearing swords in public, marked the end of any practical use for mail and other armour in Japan. Japan turned to a conscription army and uniforms replaced armour.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zPyswmGDBFkC&dq=meiji+sword+ban&pg=PA43 ''The connoisseur's book of Japanese swords'', Kōkan Nagayama, Kodansha International] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427212530/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPyswmGDBFkC&pg=PA43&dq=meiji+sword+ban&hl=en&ei=gN53TZvlMJT3rAGo79H_CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA |date=2016-04-27 }}, 1998 p. 43</ref>

==Effectiveness==
[[File:Bayeux haubert.JPG|thumb|right|Mail hauberk from the Museum of Bayeux]]

Mail's resistance to weapons is determined by four factors: linkage type ([[rivet]]ed, butted, or [[welded]]), material used (iron versus bronze or steel), weave density (a tighter weave needs a thinner weapon to surpass), and ring thickness (generally ranging from 1.0 to 1.6&nbsp;mm diameter (18 to 14 gauge) wire in most examples). Mail, if a warrior could afford it, provided a significant advantage when combined with competent fighting techniques.

When the mail was not riveted, a thrust from most sharp weapons could penetrate it. However, when mail was riveted, only a strong well-placed thrust from certain spears, or thin or dedicated mail-piercing swords like the [[estoc]], could penetrate, and a [[Pollaxe (polearm)|pollaxe]] or [[halberd]] blow could break through the armour. Strong projectile weapons such as stronger [[self bow]]s, [[recurve bow]]s, and [[crossbow]]s could also penetrate riveted mail.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/eYsr81y0Aeo Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191105095514/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYsr81y0Aeo Wayback Machine]}}{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYsr81y0Aeo| title = Old vs. New - Bows and Crossbows tested on Butted and Riveted Mail Armor ("Chainmail") | website=[[YouTube]]| date = 22 May 2017 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGSL7XApz2s|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223060132/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGSL7XApz2s|archive-date=2017-12-23|title =Arms & Armor 12th Century Spear VS. Riveted Mail and Ballistic Gel|website=[[YouTube]]|date=24 October 2017 }}</ref> Some evidence indicates that during armoured combat, the intention was to actually get around the armour rather than through it—according to a study of skeletons found at the [[Battle of Visby#Archaeological excavation|battle of Visby]], Gotland, a majority of the skeletons showed wounds on less well protected legs.<ref name="thordeman">{{cite book|last=Thordeman|first=Bengt|title=Armour from the Battle of Wisby 1361|year=1940|publisher=Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien|location=Stockholm, Sweden|page=160}}</ref> Although mail was a formidable protection, due to technological advances as time progressed, mail worn under plate armour (and stand-alone mail as well) could be penetrated by the conventional weaponry of another knight.

The flexibility of mail meant that a blow would often injure the wearer,<ref>D. Edge and J. Paddock. ''Arms and Armour of the Medieval Knight'' (London: Bison), 1988</ref> potentially causing serious bruising or fractures, and it was a poor defence against head trauma. Mail-clad warriors typically wore separate rigid [[helmet|helms]] over their mail coifs for head protection. Likewise, blunt weapons such as [[mace (bludgeon)|maces]] and [[war hammer|warhammers]] could harm the wearer by their impact without penetrating the armour; usually a soft armour, such as [[gambeson]], was worn under the hauberk. Medieval surgeons were very well capable of setting and caring for bone fractures resulting from blunt weapons.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mitchell, Piers D. ''Medicine in the Crusades: Warfare, Wounds and the Medieval Surgeon''. Cambridge University Press, 2007.</ref> With the poor understanding of hygiene, however, cuts that could get infected were much more of a problem.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Thus mail armour proved to be sufficient protection in most situations.<ref>Williams, ''The Knight and the Blast Furnace''. pp. 942–943</ref><ref>Horsfall, I. et al., "An Assessment of Human Performance in Stabbing", ''Forensic Science International'', 102 (1999). pp. 79–89.</ref>

==Manufacture==
[[File:Fotothek df tg 0008481 Ständebuch ^ Handwerk ^ Plattner ^ Rüstung ^ Harnisch ^ Kettenhemd.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|An [[engraving]] from 1698 showing the manufacture of mail]]
Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 4-to-1 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In Europe, the 4-to-1 pattern was completely dominant. Mail was also common in East Asia, primarily Japan, with several more patterns being utilised and an entire nomenclature developing around them.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be [[rivet]]ed closed to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Up until the 14th century European mail was made of alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. Sometime during the 14th century European mail makers started to transition from round rivets to wedge-shaped rivets, but continued using alternating rows of solid rings. Eventually European mail makers stopped using solid rings and almost all European mail was made from wedge riveted rings only with no solid rings.<ref name=Example2006>{{Cite journal | last1 = Richardson | first1 = T. | title = Armour in England, 1325–99 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmedhist.2011.06.001 | journal = Journal of Medieval History | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 304–320 | year = 2011 | s2cid = 162329279 }}</ref>

Both were commonly made of [[wrought iron]], but some later pieces were made of heat-treated steel. Wire for the riveted rings was formed by either of two methods. One was to hammer out wrought iron into plates and cut or slit the plates. These thin pieces were then pulled through a [[draw plate]] repeatedly until the desired diameter was achieved. [[Waterwheel]]-powered drawing mills are pictured in several period manuscripts. Another method was to simply forge down an iron [[Billet (bar stock)|billet]] into a rod and then proceed to draw it out into wire. The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet. Guild marks were often stamped on the rings to show their origin and craftsmanship.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

[[Forge welding]] was also used to create solid links, but there are few possible examples known; the only well-documented example from Europe is that of the camail (mail neck-defence) of the 7th-century [[Coppergate Helmet]] found in [[York]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Tweddle | first = Dominic | author-link = Dominic Tweddle | title = The Anglian Helmet from 16–22 Coppergate | series = The Archaeology of York | volume = 17/8 | date = 1992 | publisher = Council for British Archaeology | location = London | isbn = 1-872414-19-2 | url = https://www.collections.yorkarchaeologicaltrust.co.uk/s/publications/item/74497 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240321135711/https://www.collections.yorkarchaeologicaltrust.co.uk/s/publications/item/74497 | archive-date = 21 March 2024 }} {{free access}}</ref> Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as "theta" links from India. Very few examples of historic butted mail have been found, and it is generally accepted that butted mail was never in wide use historically except in Japan, where mail (''kusari'') was commonly made from ''butted'' links.<ref name="b1" /> Butted link mail was also used by the Moros of the Philippines in their [[mail and plate armour]]s.

==Modern uses==

===Practical uses===
[[File:Neptunic shark suit 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Neptunic shark suit]]
Mail is used as protective clothing for butchers against meat-packing equipment. Workers may wear up to {{Convert|8.8|lb|kg|order=flip|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of mail under their white coats.<ref>{{cite magazine
 |url         = https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/fast-food-nation-part-two-meat-and-potatoes-72936/
 |title       = Fast-Food Nation: Meat and Potatoes
 |access-date  = 2020-11-19
 |last        = Schlosser
 |first       = Eric
 |author-link  = Eric Schlosser
 |date        = September 3, 1998
 |magazine        = Rolling Stone
 |issue       = 794
}}</ref> Butchers also commonly wear a single mail glove to protect themselves from self-inflicted injury while cutting meat, as do many oyster shuckers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cocklesandmussels.com/oyster-shucking-gloves/|title = Oyster Shucking Gloves: The Pros Wear them &#91;and you should too&#93;|date = 26 December 2017}}</ref>

Scuba divers sometimes use mail to protect them from sharkbite, as do animal control officers for protection against the animals they handle. In 1980, marine biologist Jeremiah Sullivan patented his design for Neptunic full coverage chain mail shark resistant suits which he had developed for close encounters with [[sharks]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/chainmail-metal-spikes-and-unbreakable-material-can-we-design-a-shark-proof-wetsuit-27310741/|title = Chainmail, Metal Spikes and Unbreakable Material: Can We Design a 'Shark-Proof' Wetsuit?}}</ref>
Shark expert and underwater filmmaker [[Valerie Taylor (diver)|Valerie Taylor]] was among the first to develop and test [[shark suit]]s in 1979 while diving with sharks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stainless steel chainmail diving suit worn by Valerie Taylor|url=http://collections.anmm.gov.au/objects/137378/stainless-steel-chainmail-diving-suit-worn-by-valerie-taylor;jsessionid=BCB542BB1F6CB3CF67338B6781D8E65D|access-date=2020-10-29|website=collections.anmm.gov.au|language=en}}</ref>

Mail is widely used in industrial settings as shrapnel guards and splash guards in metal working operations.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Electrical applications for mail include RF leakage testing and being worn as a [[Faraday cage]] suit by tesla coil enthusiasts and high voltage electrical workers.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Douglas, David (director)|publisher=Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum|title=Straight Up: Helicopters in Action|date=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Blake|first=Terry|title=Dr Zeus - Testing of HV Suit w Twin Musical Tesla Coils|url=http://www.dr-zeus.com/|work=Daily Planet Segment 2008|publisher=Discovery Channel|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829073945/http://www.dr-zeus.com/|archive-date=2011-08-29|access-date=2011-08-20}}</ref>

====Stab-proof vests====
{{main|Stab vest}}

Conventional textile-based ballistic vests are designed to stop soft-nosed bullets but offer little defense from knife attacks. Knife-resistant armour is designed to defend against knife attacks; some of these use layers of metal plates, mail and metallic wires.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FMgpdulJsGgC&pg=PA368 Illustrated Directory of Special Forces, Ray Bonds, David Miller, Zenith Imprint, 2003 p. 368] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506124655/https://books.google.com/books?id=FMgpdulJsGgC&pg=PA368&dq=chainmail+stab+proof+vest&hl=en&ei=5l2hTay4PIqWtwfj1qCeAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CE4Q6AEwAzgU |date=2016-05-06 }}</ref>

===Historical re-enactment===
[[File:Roman soldier 175 aC in northern province.jpg|thumb|upright|Roman soldier 175 A.D. from a northern province (re-enactment).]]
Many [[historical reenactment]] groups, especially those whose focus is [[Ancient history|Antiquity]] or the [[Middle Ages]], commonly use mail both as practical armour and for costuming. Mail is especially popular amongst those groups which use steel weapons.

One of the drawbacks of mail is the uneven weight distribution; the stress falls mainly on shoulders. Weight can be better distributed by wearing a belt over the mail, which provides another point of support.<ref>{{Cite web|last=magpie|title=Wearing Chainmail|url=http://birdsbeforethestorm.net/2015/08/wearing-chainmail/|access-date=2020-09-29|website=Birds Before the Storm|date=29 August 2015 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Mail worn today for re-enactment and recreational use can be made in a variety of styles and materials. Most recreational mail today is made of butted links which are galvanised or stainless steel. This is historically inaccurate but is much less expensive to procure and especially to maintain than historically accurate reproductions. Mail can also be made of titanium, aluminium, bronze, or copper. Riveted mail offers significantly better protection ability as well as historical accuracy than mail constructed with butted links. Japanese mail (''kusari'') is one of the few historically correct examples of mail being constructed with such ''butted links''.<ref name=b1/>

===Decorative uses===
[[File:Major's shoulder chains.JPG|thumb|Major's shoulder chains]]
[[File:ChainMaille Dragon's Back Bracelet or Roundmaille Weave.jpg|upright|thumb|A modern example of the use of ''mail'', a bracelet using the ''Dragonback Weave'']]
Mail remained in use as a decorative and possibly high-status symbol with military overtones long after its practical usefulness had passed. It was frequently used for the [[epaulette]]s of military uniforms. It is still used in this form by some regiments of the [[British Army]].

Mail has applications in sculpture and jewellery, especially when made out of precious metals or colourful [[anodizing|anodized]] metals. Mail artwork includes headdresses, decorative wall hangings, ornaments, chess sets, macramé, and jewelry. For these non-traditional applications, hundreds of patterns (commonly referred to as "weaves") have been invented.<ref>[http://rescyou.deviantart.com/gallery/ DeviantArt.com]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619085702/http://rescyou.deviantart.com/gallery/ |date=2009-06-19 }}</ref>

Large-linked mail is occasionally used as BDSM clothing material, with the large links intended for fetishistic purposes.

==In popular culture==
===Video games===
Chainmail armor can be found in multiple games, such as ''[[Elden Ring]]'' and ''[[Minecraft]]''. It is typically depicted as less expensive than plate armor, with the tradeoff being an inferior defense. Chainmail may also be purely cosmetic and hold no gameplay advantage.

===Film===
{{unreferenced section|date = May 2018}}
In some films, knitted string spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual mail in order to cut down on cost (an example being ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', which was filmed on a very small budget). Films more dedicated to costume accuracy often use [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS plastic]] rings, for the lower cost and weight. Such ABS mail coats were made for [[The Lord of the Rings (film series)|''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy]], in addition to many metal coats. The metal coats are used rarely because of their weight, except in close-up filming where the appearance of ABS rings is distinguishable. A large scale example of the ABS mail used in the ''Lord of the Rings'' can be seen in the entrance to the [[Royal Armouries]] museum in Leeds in the form of a large curtain bearing the logo of the museum. It was acquired from the makers of the film's armour, [[Weta Workshop]], when the museum hosted an exhibition of WETA armour from their films. For the film ''[[Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome]]'', Tina Turner is said to have worn actual mail and she complained how heavy this was. ''[[Game of Thrones]]'' makes use of mail, notably during the "Red Wedding" scene.
<!-- To be relocated: {{cite web |url = http://www.wetanz.com/armour-chainmaille/|title = Weta Workshop Armour & Chainmaille|accessdate = 11 August 2012 }} -->

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" style="text-align:left">
File:Kusari tabi.JPG|Edo period 1800s Japanese (samurai) mail socks or ''kusari tabi'', butted rings.
File:Kusari katabira 6.JPG|Japanese Edo period mail jacket, butted rings ''[[Commons:Category:Japanese chain mail|kusari katabira]]''.
File:Kusari kote.JPG|Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail gauntlets ''kusari han kote'', butted rings.
File:Rriveted kusari kote.jpg|A rare example of Japanese riveted mail, round riveted rings.
File:Kusari examples.JPG|Examples of Edo period Japanese (samurai) mail ''kusari''.
File:Eastern riveted armor.JPG|Riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah bagtar''. Armour of this type was introduced into India under the Mughals.
File:Riveted armor and plate.JPG|Close up of Mughal riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah Bagtar'', 17th century, alternating rows of solid rings and round riveted rings.
File:Eastern riveted hood detail.JPG|Close up detail of Mughal riveted mail hood ''kulah zirah'', 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.
File:Eastern riveted armor 1.JPG|Mughal riveted mail and plate coat ''zirah Bagtar'', 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.
File:Eastern riveted armor hood.JPG|Mughal riveted mail hood ''kulah zirah''. 17th century, alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings.
File:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg|"[[David (biblical king)|David]] rejects the unaccustomed armour" (detail of fol. 28r of the 13th century [[Morgan Bible]]). The image depicts a method of removing a [[hauberk]].
File:Indian theta or bar link mail 1.jpg|Indian theta link mail (bar link mail), alternating rows of solid theta rings and round riveted rings, 17th century.
File:Ottoman krug front plate, detail view.jpg|Ottoman riveted mail, alternating rows of round riveted links and solid links, 16th century.
File:European riveted mail hauberk, close up view.jpg|European wedge riveted mail, showing both sides of the rings, 16th to 17th century.
File:Cota de malha não rebitada.jpg|Man wearing mail in modern days.
</gallery>

==See also==

=== Mail-based armour ===
* [[Banded mail]]
* [[Hauberk]]
* [[Mail and plate armour]]
* [[Kusari (Japanese mail armour)]]
* [[Lorica hamata]]
* [[Lorica plumata]] with scales attached to a backing of mail
* [[Tatami (Japanese armour)]]
* [[Baju Rantai]], type of mail from the Nusantara archipelago

===Armour supplementary to mail===
Typically worn under mail armour if thin or over mail armour if thick:
* [[Gambeson]] (also known as quilted armour or a padded jack)

Can be worn over mail armour:
* [[Brigandine]]
* [[Coat of plates]]
* [[Lamellar armour]]
* [[Mirror armour]] (supplementary plates worn over mail)
* [[Scale armour]]
* [[Splint armour]]
* [[Transitional armour]]

Others:
* [[Cataphract]]
* [[Proofing (armour)]]
* [[Ring armour]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mail (armour)}}
{{Commons category|Kusari (Japanese mail armour)}}
* [http://www.erikds.com/ Erik D. Schmid/The Mail Research Society]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070929141530/http://www.vam.ac.uk/res_cons/conservation/journal/consjournal37/thetreatment/index.html The Treatment of Mail on an Arm Guard from the Armoury of the Shah Shuja: Ethical Repair and in situ Documentation in Miniature]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050305111420/http://www.armatura.connectfree.co.uk/arma/mail.htm Excavated lorica hamata]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131214114205/http://corvuschainmaille.ning.com/ Maillers Worldwide - weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery photos]}}
* [http://mailleartisans.org/ The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL) – Hundreds of weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery pictures]
* [http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_mail.html "Mail: Unchained", an article taking an in-depth look at the construction and usage of European chain mail]
* Construction tips
** {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070711214725/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/trevor.barker/farisles/guilds/armour/mail.htm Butted mail: A Mailmaker's Guide]}}
** [http://www.ringinator.com The Ringinator - Tool for making jump rings]
** [http://realbeer.com/jjpalmer/HowtoChain.html The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail]
* Ancient Roman originals can be seen on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web museum, [http://www.romancoins.info/MilitaryEquipment.html Romancoins.info]
* http://artofchainmail.com/patterns/european/index.html
* http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armor-ii

{{Elements of Medieval armor}}
{{Types of armour}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Body armor]]
[[Category:Medieval armour]]
[[Category:Military equipment of antiquity]]
[[Category:Chains]]