Editing Caucasus

{{Short description|Region spanning Europe and Asia}}
{{About|the geographic region in Eurasia|other uses|Caucasus (disambiguation)|and|Caucasia (disambiguation)|a meeting of party supporters|Caucus}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox
| bodyclass = geography
| above     = Caucasus
| image     = [[File:Caucasus topographic map-en.svg|350px]]
| caption   = Topography of the Caucasus
| location  = [[Eastern Europe]] and [[West Asia]]
| label1    = Coordinates
| data1     = {{Coord|42|15|40|N|44|07|16|E|source:kolossus-nlwiki_scale:2000000|display=title,inline}}
| label2    = Countries<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wright |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_2NAgAAQBAJ&q=parts+iran+turkey+in+transcaucasia&pg=PA72 |title=Transcaucasian Boundaries |last2=Schofield |first2=Richard |last3=Goldenberg |first3=Suzanne |date=16 December 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135368500 |page=72 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Caucasus in Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Caucasus &#124; Mountains, Facts, & Map |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|date=20 September 2023 }}</ref>
| data2     = {{ublist|class=nowrap
 |{{flag|Armenia}}
 |{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
 |{{flag|Georgia}}
 |{{flag|Russia}}
 }}
{{Collapsible list
 | title    = Related areas
 | {{flag|Iran}}
 | {{flag|Turkey}}
}}
{{Collapsible list 
 | title    = [[List of states with limited recognition|''De facto'' states with limited recognition]]
 | {{flag|Abkhazia}}
 | [[File:Flag of South Ossetia.svg|border|22px]] [[South Ossetia]]
}}
| label4    = Autonomous republics and federal regions
| data4     =
* [[File:Flag of Abkhazia (GE).svg|border|22px|link=]] [[Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia|Abkhazia]]<br />(since 2008, [[Government in exile|in exile]])
* {{flag|Adjara}}
* {{flag|Adygea}}
* {{flag|Chechnya}}
* {{flag|Dagestan}}
* {{flag|Ingushetia}}
* {{flag|Kabardino-Balkaria}}
* {{flag|Kalmykia}} (partially)
* [[File:Flag of Karachay-Cherkessia.svg|border|22px|link=]] [[Karachay-Cherkessia]]
* {{flag|Krasnodar Krai}}
* [[File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg|border|22px|link=]] [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]]
* [[File:Flag of North Ossetia.svg|border|22px|link=]] [[North Ossetia-Alania]]
* [[File:Flag of Rostov Oblast.svg|border|22px|link=]] [[Rostov Oblast]] (partially)
* {{Flag|Stavropol Krai}}
| label5    = Demonym
| data5     = Caucasian
<!--Please do NOT remove disputed territories from the list. See [[WP:DUEWEIGHT]]; articles must represent all sides.-->
| label6    = Time Zones
| data6     = [[UTC+03:00]], [[UTC+03:30]] and [[UTC+04:00]]
| label7    = Highest mountain
| data7     = [[Mount Elbrus|Elbrus]] ({{convert|5642|m|ft}})
}}
The '''Caucasus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɔ:|k|ə|s|ə|s}}) or '''Caucasia'''<ref>Shamil Shetekauri et al.,  ''Mountain Flowers and Trees of Caucasia''; Pelagic Publishing Limited, 2018, {{ISBN|178427173X}}.</ref><ref>John L. Esposito, Abdulaziz Sachedina (2004). "Caucasus". ''The Islamic World: Past and Present''. Volume 1. Oxford University Press USA. {{ISBN|0195165209}}. [https://archive.org/details/islamicworldpast0000unse_r4t5/page/86/mode/2up p. 86] {{registration required}}.  Accessed 30 June 2021.</ref> ({{IPAc-en|k|ɔ:|ˈ|k|eɪ|ʒ|ə}}), is a region spanning [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Western Asia]]. It is situated between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]], mainly comprising [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and parts of [[Southern Russia]]. The [[Caucasus Mountains]], including the [[Greater Caucasus]] range, have conventionally been considered as a [[Boundaries between the continents#Asia and Europe|natural barrier]] between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]], bisecting the [[Eurasia]]n landmass.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Caucasus - region and mountains, Eurasia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus |access-date=26 November 2018}}</ref>

[[Mount Elbrus]], Europe's highest mountain, is situated in the [[Western Caucasus]] area of [[Russia]].<ref name="cia-russia-geography">{{Cite web |title=Russia, Geography |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |access-date=22 February 2016 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> On the southern side, the [[Lesser Caucasus]] includes the [[Javakheti Plateau]] and the [[Armenian highland]]s, part of which is in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Caucasus - region and mountains, Eurasia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus |access-date=26 November 2018 |quote=West of the Kura-Aras Lowland rises the Lesser Caucasus range, which is extended southward by the Dzhavakhet Range and the Armenian Highland, the latter extending southwestward into Turkey.}}</ref>

The Caucasus is divided into the [[North Caucasus]] and [[South Caucasus]], although the Western Caucasus also exists as a distinct geographic space within the North Caucasus. The Greater Caucasus mountain range in the north is mostly shared by Russia and Georgia as well as the northernmost parts of Azerbaijan. The Lesser Caucasus mountain range in the south is occupied by several independent states, mostly by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, but also extends to parts of northeastern [[Turkey]], and northern [[Iran]].

The region is known for its [[Languages of the Caucasus|linguistic diversity]]:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The languages of the Caucasus|url=https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=531 |work=[[Language Log]] |access-date=2021-01-07}}</ref> aside from [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] languages, the [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]], [[Northwest Caucasian]], and [[Northeast Caucasian]] [[Language family|language families]] are [[Indigenous language|indigenous]] to the area.<ref>{{Cite web |last=King |first=Charles |date=2017-03-23 |title=The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus (Audible Audio Edition) |url=https://www.amazon.com/The-Ghost-of-Freedom-Charles-King-audiobook/dp/B071L8JJYF/ref=tmm_aud_swatch_0?forceMsg=dp_add_success |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=www.amazon.com}}</ref>

==Origin of the name==
[[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' (77–79 AD) derives the name of the Caucasus from a [[Scythian language|Scythian]] name, ''Croucasis'', which supposedly means 'shimmering with snow'.<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''Natural History'', [http://attalus.org/translate/pliny_hn6a.html#50 vi.(19).50].</ref> German linguist [[Paul Kretschmer]] notes that the [[Latvian language|Latvian]] word ''kruvesis'' also means 'frozen mud'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kretschmer |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kretschmer |date=1928 |title=Weiteres zur Urgeschichte der Inder |trans-title=More about the Pre-History of the Indians |journal=Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen [Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research into Indo-European Philology] |language=de |volume=55 |pages=75–103}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Kretschmer |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kretschmer |date=1930 |title=Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen [Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research into Indo-European Philology] |volume=57 |pages=251–255}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=kruveši {{!}} Tēzaurs |url=https://tezaurs.lv/kruve%C5%A1i:1 |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=tezaurs.lv}}</ref>

[[Isidore of Seville]]'s ''[[Etymologiae|Etymologies]]'' ({{circa|625 AD}}) also says the name means shining white like snow:

{{Blockquote|text=Thus, toward the east, where it rises to a greater height, it is called the Caucasus, due to the whiteness of its snow, for in an eastern language, caucasus means "white," that is, shining white with a very thick snow cover. For the same reason the Scythians, who live next to this mountain range, call it Croacasim, for among them whiteness or snow is called casim. 3. The Taurus range is likewise called the Caucasus by many.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barney, Lewis, Beach, Berghof |first=Stephen A., W. J., J. A., Oliver |title=The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-83749-1 |location=New York, United States |pages=297–298 |language=English}}</ref>}}

In the ''[[Primary Chronicle|Tale of Past Years]]'' (1113 AD), it is stated that [[Old East Slavic]] Кавкасийскыѣ горы (''Kavkasijskyě gory'') came from [[Ancient Greek]] Καύκασος (''Kaúkasos''),<ref name="ReferenceA" /> which, according to M. A. Yuyukin, is a compound word that can be interpreted as the 'mountain of the seagull(s)' (καύ-: καύαξ, καύηξ, -ηκος, κήξ, κηϋξ 'a kind of seagull' + the reconstructed *κάσος 'mountain' or 'rock' richly attested both in place and personal names).<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Yuyukin |first=M. A. |date=18–20 June 2012 |title=О происхождении названия Кавказ |trans-title=On the Origin of the Name of the Caucasus |url=http://philology.ru/linguistics1/yuyukin-12.htm |language=ru |location=[[Saint Petersburg]] |pages=893–899 and 919 |isbn=978-5-02-038298-5 |access-date=19 March 2017 |book-title=Индоевропейское языкознание и классическая филология – XVI (материалы чтений, посвященных памяти профессора И.&nbsp;М.&nbsp;Тронского)}}</ref>

In Georgian tradition, the term Caucasus is derived from [[Caucas]] ({{lang-ka|კავკასოსი}} ''Ḳavḳasosi''), the son of the Biblical [[Togarmah]] and legendary forefather of the [[Nakh peoples]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Qoranashvili|first=G.|title=Questions of Ethnic Identity According to Leonti Mroveli's Historical Chronicles, Studies, Vol. 1|location=Tbilisi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/The_Vainakhs_George_Anchabadze.pdf |title=The Vainakhs (The Chechen and Ingush) |author = George Anchabadze |access-date=November 3, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225132940/https://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/The_Vainakhs_George_Anchabadze.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2012 }}</ref>

According to [[Germany|German]] [[Philology|philologists]] [[Otto Schrader (philologist)|Otto Schrader]] and Alfons A. Nehring, the Ancient Greek word Καύκασος (''Kaukasos'') is connected to [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''hauhs'' 'high' as well as [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''kaũkas'' 'hillock' and ''kaukarà'' 'hill, top', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''куча'' 'heap'.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1953–1958 |title=Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch |encyclopedia=Indogermanische Bibliothek herausgegeben von Hans Krahe. Reihe 2: Wörterbüche [Indo-European Library Edited by Hans Krahe. Series 2: Dictionaries] |publisher=Carl Winter |location=[[Heidelberg]] |last=Vasmer |first=Max Julius Friedrich |author-link=Max Vasmer |volume=1 |language=de |trans-title=Russian Etymological Dictionary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schrader |first=Otto |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dyS5AAAAIAAJ |title=Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde: Grundzüge einer Kultur- und Völkergeschichte Alteuropas |date=1901 |publisher=Karl J. Trübner |location=[[Strasbourg]] |language=de |trans-title=Real Lexicon of the Indo-Germanic Antiquity Studies: Basic Principles of a Cultural and People's History of Ancient Europe |author-link=Otto Schrader (philologist)}}</ref> British linguist Adrian Room claims that *''kau-'' also means 'mountain' in [[Pelasgian language|Pelasgian]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |url=https://archive.org/details/placenamesofworl00room |title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for over 5000 Natural Features, Countries, Capitals, Territories, Cities, and Historic Sites |date=1997 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |isbn=978-0-7864-0172-7 |location=[[Jefferson, North Carolina|Jefferson, NC]] |quote=*kau-meaning. |url-access=registration}}</ref> though this is speculative given that Pelasgian is so poorly known.

==Toponyms==
[[File:Mount Elbrus May 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Elbrus]]]]
[[File:Zemo Svaneti, June, 2018-10.jpg|thumb|right|Caucasus mountains in [[Svaneti]], Georgia]]
The term ''Caucasus'' is not only used for the mountains themselves but also includes [[Ciscaucasia]] (which is part of the [[Russian Federation]]) and [[Transcaucasia]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Caucasus - region and mountains, Eurasia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus |access-date=26 November 2018 |quote=Caucasia includes not only the mountain ranges of the Caucasus proper but also the country immediately north and south of them. The land north of the Greater Caucasus is called Ciscaucasia (Predkavkazye, or “Hither Caucasia”) and south of it is Transcaucasia (Zakavkazye, or “Farther Caucasia”).}}</ref> According to [[Alexander Mikaberidze]], Transcaucasia is a "Russo-centric" term.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mikaberidze |first=Alexander |title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia |date=6 February 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-4146-6}}</ref>

The [[Transcaucasus]] region and [[Dagestan]] were the furthest points of [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and later [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] expansions, with areas to the north of the [[Greater Caucasus]] range practically impregnable. The mythological [[Mount Qaf]], the world's highest mountain that ancient Iranian lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region. The region is also one of the candidates for the location of [[Airyanem Vaejah]], the apparent homeland of the Iranians of [[Zoroaster]]. In [[Middle Persian]] sources of the Sasanian era, the Caucasus range was referred to as ''Kaf Kof''.<ref name="brillonline">{{Cite web |last=Gocheleishvili |first=Iago |title=Caucasus, pre-900/1500 |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/caucasus-pre-9001500-COM_25472?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Caucasus+Iran |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144345/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/caucasus-pre-9001500-COM_25472?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Caucasus+Iran |archive-date=12 June 2018 |access-date=3 June 2018 |website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE}}</ref> The term resurfaced in Iranian tradition later on in a variant form when [[Ferdowsi]], in his ''[[Shahnameh]]'', referred to the Caucasus mountains as ''Kōh-i Kāf''.<ref name="brillonline" /> "Most of the modern names of the Caucasus originate from the Greek ''Kaukasos'' (Lat., ''Caucasus'') and the Middle Persian ''Kaf Kof''".<ref name="brillonline" />

"The earliest etymon" of the name Caucasus comes from ''Kaz-kaz'', the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] designation of the "inhabitants of the southern coast of the [[Black Sea]]".<ref name="brillonline" />

It was also noted that in [[Nakh languages|Nakh]] Ков гас (''Kov gas'') means "gateway to steppe".<ref>Bolatojha J. "Древняя родина Кавкасов [The Ancient Homeland of the Caucasus]", p. 49, 2006.</ref>

===Endonyms and exonyms===
The modern endonym for the region is usually similar in many languages, and is generally between '''''Kavkaz''''' and '''''Kaukaz'''''.
{{Div col|small=yes}}
*{{langx|ab|Кавказ}} ''Kavkaz''
*{{langx|ady|Къаукъаз/с}} ''Kʺaukʺaz/s''
*{{langx|ar|القوقاز}} ''al-Qawqāz''
*{{langx|hy|Կովկաս}} ''Kovkas''
*{{langx|av|Кавказ}} ''Kawkaz''
*{{langx|az|Qafqaz}}
*{{langx|ce|Кавказ}} ''Kawkaz''
*{{lang-ka|კავკასია}} ''K'avk'asia''
*{{langx|de|Kaukasien}}
*{{langx|el|Καύκασος}} ''Káfkasos''
*{{langx|inh|Кавказ}} ''Kawkaz''
*{{langx|krc|Кавказ}} ''Kavkaz''
*{{langx|kum|Къавкъаз}} ''Qawqaz''
*{{langx|ku-Latn|Qefqasya}}, {{lang|ku-Latn|Qefqas}}
*{{langx|lbe|Ккавкказ}} ''Kkawkkaz''
*{{langx|lez|Къавкъаз}} ''K'awk'az''
*{{langx|xmf|კავკაცია}} ''K'avk'atsia''
*{{langx|os|Кавказ/Каукази}} ''Kavkaz/Kaukazi''
*{{langx|fa|قفقاز}} ''Qafqāz''
*{{langx|ru|Кавказ}} ''Kavkaz''
*{{langx|rut|Qawqaz}} ''Kavkaz''
*{{langx|tr|Kafkas/Kafkasya}}
*{{langx|uk|Кавказ}} ''Kavkaz''
{{col div end}}

==Political geography==
[[File:Caucasus-political en.svg|thumb|Contemporary political map of the Caucasus]]
The [[North Caucasus]] region is also known as the ''Ciscaucasus'', whereas the [[South Caucasus]] region is alternatively known as the ''Transcaucasus''.

The North Caucasus contains most of the [[Greater Caucasus]] mountain range. It consists of [[Southern Russia]], mainly the [[North Caucasian Federal District]]'s autonomous republics and the Krais in Southern Russia, and the northernmost parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]. The North Caucasus lies between the [[Black Sea]] to its west, the [[Caspian Sea]] to its east, and borders the [[Southern Federal District]] to its north. The two [[Federal districts of Russia|Federal Districts]] are collectively referred to as "Southern Russia".

The South Caucasus borders the Greater Caucasus range and [[Southern Russia]] to its north, the Black Sea and [[Turkey]] to its west, the Caspian Sea to its east, and [[Iran]] to its south. It contains the [[Lesser Caucasus]] mountain range and surrounding lowlands. All of [[Armenia]], Azerbaijan (excluding the northernmost parts), and Georgia (excluding the northernmost parts) are in the South Caucasus.

The watershed along the [[Greater Caucasus]] range is considered by some sources to be the [[Boundaries between continents|dividing line]] between [[Europe]] and [[Southwest Asia]]. According to that, the highest peak in the Caucasus, [[Mount Elbrus]] (5,642 meters) located in western Ciscaucasus, is considered the highest point in Europe. The [[Kuma-Manych Depression]], the geologic depression that divides the [[Russian Plain]] from the North Caucasus foreland is often regarded by classical and non-British sources as the natural and historical boundary between Europe and Asia. Another opinion is that the rivers [[Kura (South Caucasus river)|Kura]] and [[Rioni]] mark this border, or even that of the river [[Aras (river)|Aras]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Caucasus {{!}} Mountains, Facts, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Caucasus |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Caucasus is a [[Languages of the Caucasus|linguistically]], culturally and geographically diverse region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Caucasus: Land of Diverse Cultures - The University of Chicago Library News - The University of Chicago Library |url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/about/news/the-caucasus-land-of-diverse-cultures/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=www.lib.uchicago.edu}}</ref> The [[nation state]]s that compose the Caucasus today are the [[post-Soviet states]] Georgia (including [[Adjara]] and [[Abkhazia]]), Azerbaijan (including [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]]), [[Armenia]], and the Russian Federation. The Russian divisions include [[Dagestan]], [[Chechnya]], [[Ingushetia]], {{nowrap|[[North Ossetia–Alania]]}}, {{nowrap|[[Kabardino–Balkaria]]}}, {{nowrap|[[Karachay–Cherkessia]]}}, [[Adygea]], [[Krasnodar Krai]], and [[Stavropol Krai]], in clockwise order.

Two territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful of entities: [[Abkhazia]], and [[South Ossetia]]. Abkhazia and [[South Ossetia]] are largely recognized by the world community as part of Georgia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Non-recognition and engagement. The EU's policy towards Abkhazia and South Ossetia {{!}} European Union Institute for Security Studies|url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/non-recognition-and-engagement-eus-policy-towards-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia|access-date=2021-01-07|website=www.iss.europa.eu|date=18 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-02|title=The Spectrum of Georgia's Policy Options Towards Abkhazia and South Ossetia|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2020/03/02/the-spectrum-of-georgias-policy-options-towards-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia/|access-date=2021-01-07|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Peoples of the Caucasus}}

{{Further|Languages of the Caucasus}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2018}}
[[File:Caucasus-ethnic-1995.jpg|thumb|upright=1.45|[[Ethno-linguistic group]]s in the Caucasus region as of 1995.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethnolinguistic groups in the Caucasus region. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/95680196/ |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>]]
The region has many different languages and language families. There are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Caucasian peoples |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021862/Caucasian-peoples}}</ref> No fewer than three language families are unique to the area. In addition, Indo-European languages, such as [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]], and [[Turkic languages]], such as [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Kumyk language]] and [[Karachay-Balkar language|Karachay–Balkar]], are spoken in the area. [[Russian language|Russian]] is used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' most notably in the North Caucasus.

The peoples of the northern and southern Caucasus mostly are [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]], [[Sunni Muslims]], [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]] or [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Christians]].

==History==
{{Further|History of the Caucasus}}
Located on the peripheries of [[Turkey]], [[Iran]], and [[Russia]], the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the [[History of Iran|Iranian world]].<ref name="CAUCAIRANICA">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Caucasus and Iran |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/caucasus-index |access-date=3 September 2012 |last=Multiple Authors}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|year=2020|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE|last=Rapp|first=Stephen H.|editor1-last=Fleet|editor1-first=Kate|issn=1873-9830|quote=While Hodgson astutely perceived Caucasia’s cross-cultural condition, subsequent research has exposed the region’s long-term participation in the Iranian and wider Persianate world. This multifaceted association began in the Iron Age, survived the intensive Christianization of Caucasia, and continued until the annexation of Caucasian lands by the Russian Empire in the nineteenth century. (...) Above all, pre-modern Caucasia is characterized by its integration into the Iranian and Persianate socio-cultural world, the Iranian commonwealth, which extended from Central Asia to Anatolia and south to the Arabian Peninsula. Caucasia’s active membership in this commonwealth began under the first “world empire” of the Achaemenids and survived both Christianization and the demise of the Sāsānian empire.|title=Georgia, Georgians, until 1300|editor2-last=Krämer|editor2-first=Gudrun|editor3-first=Denis|editor3-last=Matringe|editor4-last=Nawas|editor4-first=John|editor5-last=Rowson|editor5-first=Everett|publisher=Brill Online|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/georgia-georgians-until-1300-COM_32056?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=georgia|url-access=subscription}}</ref> At the beginning of the 19th century, the [[Russian Empire]] [[Russo-Persian Wars|conquered]] the territory from [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran]].<ref name="CAUCAIRANICA" />

===Prehistory===
[[File:Gobustan ancient Azerbaycan full.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Petroglyphs]] in [[Gobustan National Park|Gobustan]], [[Azerbaijan]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], dating back to 10,000 BC]]
The territory of the Caucasus region was inhabited by Homo erectus since the [[Paleolithic Era]]. In 1991, early [[Hominini]] fossils dating back 1.8&nbsp;million years were found at the [[Dmanisi#Archaeological site|Dmanisi archaeological site]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Scientists now classify the assemblage of fossil skeletons as the subspecies ''[[Homo erectus georgicus]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ferring|first1=Reid|last2=Oms|first2=Oriol|last3=Agustí|first3=Jordi|last4=Berna|first4=Francesco|last5=Nioradze|first5=Medea|last6=Shelia|first6=Teona|last7=Tappen|first7=Martha|last8=Vekua|first8=Abesalom|last9=Zhvania|first9=David|last10=Lordkipanidze|first10=David|date=2011-06-28|title=Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=108|issue=26|pages=10432–10436|doi=10.1073/pnas.1106638108|issn=0027-8424|pmid=21646521|pmc=3127884|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The site yields the earliest unequivocal evidence for the presence of early humans outside the African continent;<ref>Vekua, A., Lordkipanidze, D., Rightmire, G. P., Agusti, J., Ferring, R., Maisuradze, G., et al. (2002). A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. ''Science'', 297:85–9.</ref> and the Dmanisi skulls are the five oldest [[hominins]] ever found outside [[Africa]].

===Antiquity===
[[Kura–Araxes culture]] from about 4000 BC until about 2000 BC enveloped a vast area of approximately 1,000&nbsp;km by 500&nbsp;km, and mostly encompassed, on modern-day territories, the Southern Caucasus (except western Georgia), northwestern Iran, the northeastern Caucasus, eastern Turkey, and as far as Syria.

Under [[Ashurbanipal]] (669–627 BC), the boundaries of the [[Assyrian Empire]] reached as far as the Caucasus Mountains. Later ancient kingdoms of the region included [[Armenia]], [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]], [[Colchis]] and [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]], among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various [[Iran]]ian empires, including [[Medes|Media]], the [[Achaemenid Empire]], [[Parthia]], and the [[Sassanid Empire]], who would altogether rule the Caucasus for many hundreds of years. In 95–55 BC, under the reign of the Armenian king [[Tigranes the Great]], the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] included Kingdom of Armenia, vassals Iberia, Albania, Parthia, [[Atropatene]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Cilicia]], [[Syria]], [[Nabataean kingdom]], and [[Judea]]. By the time of the first century BC, [[Zoroastrianism]] had become the dominant religion of the region; however, the region would go through two other religious transformations. Owing to the strong rivalry between Persia and [[Roman Empire|Rome]], and later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]. The Romans first arrived in the region in the 1st century BC with the annexation of the kingdom of Colchis, which was later turned into the province of [[Lazica|Lazicum]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Theodor Mommsen, William Purdie Dickson, Francis Haverfield |title=The provinces of the Roman Empire: from Caesar to Diocletian |pages=68}}</ref> The next 600 years was marked by a [[Roman–Persian Wars|conflict]] between Rome and [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Empire]] for the control of the region. In western Georgia the eastern Roman rule lasted until the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=W.E.D |title=A history of the Georgian people |year=1932 |pages=123}}</ref>
[[File:Imperio Armenio.gif|upright=1.35|thumb|[[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] at the peak of its might at the beginning of the 1st century B.C.]]

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Georgian empire with tributaries.png|upright=1.35|thumb|[[Kingdom of Georgia]] at the peak of its might, early 13th century.]]
As the [[Arsacid dynasty of Armenia]] (an eponymous branch of the [[Arsacid dynasty of Parthia]]) was the first nation to adopt Christianity as [[state religion]] (in 301 AD), and [[Caucasian Albania]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] had become Christian entities, [[Christianity]] began to overtake [[Zoroastrianism]] and pagan beliefs. With the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], large parts of the region [[Arabs in the Caucasus|came under the rule of the Arabs]], and [[Islam]] penetrated the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |title=Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security |date=2004 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |page=3 |quote="(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquest]] of the Iranian Sassanian Empire. " |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

In the 10th century, the [[Alans]] (proto-[[Ossetians]])<ref name="Great Soviet Encyclopedia">[http://bse.sci-lib.com/article009862.html Аланы], [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]</ref> founded the Kingdom of [[Alania]], that flourished in the [[Northern Caucasus]], roughly in the location of latter-day [[Circassia]] and modern [[North Ossetia–Alania]], until its destruction by the [[Mongol invasion]] in 1238–39.

During the Middle Ages, [[Bagratid Armenia]], [[Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget]], [[Kingdom of Syunik]] and [[Principality of Khachen]] organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antique [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. [[Caucasian Albania]] maintained close ties with [[Armenia]] and the [[Church of Caucasian Albania]] shared the same Christian dogmas with the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2013 |title=Caucasian Albanian Church celebrates its 1700th Anniversary |language=en-US |work=The Georgian Church for English Speakers |url=https://georgianorthodoxchurch.wordpress.com/2013/08/09/caucasian-albanian-church-celebrates-its-1700th-anniversary/ |access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref>

In the 12th century, the Georgian king [[David the Builder]] drove the Muslims out of the Caucasus and made the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] a strong regional power. In 1194–1204 Georgian [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]]'s armies crushed new Seljuk Turkish invasions from the southeast and south and launched several successful campaigns into Seljuk Turkish-controlled Southern Armenia. The Georgian Kingdom continued military campaigns in the Caucasus region. As a result of her military campaigns and the temporary fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Georgia became the strongest Christian state in the whole [[Near East]] area, encompassing most of the Caucasus stretching from Northern Iran and Northeastern Turkey to the North Caucasus.

The Caucasus region was conquered by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]], [[Turco-Mongols]], local kingdoms and khanates, as well as, once again, [[Iran]].

===Modern period===
[[File:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky - The mountaineers leave the aul.jpg|thumb|right|A scene from the [[Caucasian War]], by [[Pyotr Gruzinsky]]]]
Up to and including the early 19th century, most of the [[Southern Caucasus]] and southern [[Dagestan]] all formed part of the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]]. In 1813 and 1828 by the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] and the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] respectively, the Persians were forced to irrevocably cede the Southern Caucasus and Dagestan to [[Imperial Russia]].<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728 ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] pp 728–730 ABC-CLIO, 2 Dec. 2014. {{ISBN|978-1598849486}}</ref> In the ensuing years after these gains, the [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus|Russians took the remaining part of the Southern Caucasus]], comprising western Georgia, through several wars from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>Suny, page 64</ref><ref>Allen F. Chew. "An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders", [[Yale University Press]], 1970, p. 74</ref>

In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian Empire also conquered the North Caucasus. In the aftermath of the [[Caucasian Wars]], the Russian military perpetrated an [[ethnic cleansing of Circassians]], expelling this indigenous population from its homeland.<ref>Yemelianova, Galina, Islam nationalism and state in the Muslim Caucasus. Caucasus Survey, April 2014. p. 3</ref><ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. <u>The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future</u>. Routledge. 2008.</ref> Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}}

Having killed and deported most of the Armenians of Western Armenia during the [[Armenian genocide]], the Turks intended to eliminate the Armenian population of [[Eastern Armenia]].<ref>Balakian. ''Burning Tigris'', pp. 319-323.</ref> During the 1920 [[Turkish–Armenian War]], 60,000 to 98,000 Armenian civilians were estimated to have been killed by the Turkish army.<ref>[[Vahakn Dadrian]]. (2003). ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus''. New York: Berghahn Books, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCVJMAVoMM0C&pg=PA360 pp. 360–61]. {{ISBN|1-57181-666-6}}.</ref>

In the 1940s, around 480,000 [[Chechens]] and [[Ingush people|Ingush]], 120,000 [[Karachays|Karachay]]–[[Balkars]] and [[Meskhetian Turks]], thousands of [[Kalmyks]], and 200,000 [[Kurds]] in Nakchivan and [[Caucasus Germans]] were [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported en masse]] to Central Asia and Siberia by the Soviet security apparatus. About a quarter of them died.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitz |first=Eric D. |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofgenocid0000weit |title=A century of genocide: utopias of race and nation |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-691-00913-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofgenocid0000weit/page/82 82] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
[[File:1993 Georgia war1.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Georgian Civil War]] and the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|War in Abkhazia]] in August–October 1993]]

The Southern Caucasus region was unified as a single political entity twice&nbsp;– during the [[Russian Civil War]] ([[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]]) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule ([[Transcaucasian SFSR]]) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]] became independent nations.
[[File:Pictorial Map of the Caucasus.jpg|thumb|Ethnic-administrative borders on the Soviet and Post-soviet Caucasus on the pictorial map of the Caucasus]]

The region has been subject to various territorial disputes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] (1988–1994), the [[East Prigorodny Conflict]] (1989–1991), the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–93)]], the [[First Chechen War]] (1994–1996), the [[Second Chechen War]] (1999–2009), [[Russo-Georgian War]] (2008), and the [[Second Nagorno-Karabakh War]] (2020).

==Mythology==
In [[Greek mythology]], the Caucasus was one of the pillars supporting the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gregović|first=Marko|date=2018-02-21|title=Caucasus — The Mountain Where They Chained Prometheus|url=https://medium.com/@grexovic/caucasus-the-mountain-where-they-chained-prometheus-564c1ef83bab|access-date=2021-06-12|website=Medium|language=en|archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612041744/https://medium.com/@grexovic/caucasus-the-mountain-where-they-chained-prometheus-564c1ef83bab|url-status=dead}}</ref> After presenting man with the gift of fire, [[Prometheus]] (or [[Amirani]] in the [[Georgian mythology|Georgian version]]) was chained there by [[Zeus]], to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle as punishment for defying Zeus's wish to keep the "secret of fire" from humans.

In [[Persian mythology]], the Caucasus might be associated with the mythic [[Mount Qaf]] which is believed to surround the known world. It is the battlefield of [[Saoshyant]] and the nest of the [[Simurgh]].{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

The [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] poet [[Ovid]] placed the Caucasus in [[Scythia]] and depicted it as a cold and stony mountain which was the abode of personified hunger. The Greek hero [[Jason]] sailed to the west coast of the Caucasus in pursuit of the [[Golden Fleece]], and there met [[Medea]], a daughter of [[Aeëtes|King Aeëtes]] of [[Colchis]].

===Later folklore===
The Caucasus has a rich folklore tradition.<ref name="Rashidvash, pp. 33–34">Rashidvash, pp. 33&ndash;34.</ref> This tradition has been preserved orally&mdash;necessitated by the fact that for most of the languages involved, there was no alphabet until the early twentieth century&mdash;and only began to be written down in the late nineteenth century.<ref>Mayor, p. xx; Hunt, p. 9.</ref> One important tradition is that of the [[Nart sagas]], which tell stories of a race of ancient heroes called the Narts. These sagas include such figures as [[Satanaya]], the mother of the Narts, [[Sosruquo]] a shape changer and trickster, [[Tlepsh]] a blacksmith god, and [[Batradz]], a mighty hero.<ref name="Rashidvash, pp. 33–34" /> The folklore of the Caucasus shows ancient [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[Zoroastrian]] influence, involve battles with ancient [[Goths]], [[Huns]] and [[Khazars]], and contain many connections with ancient [[India]]n, [[Scandinavians|Norse Scandinavian]], and Greek cultures.<ref>Rashidvash, pp. 33&ndash;34; for connections found in the Nart sagas, see Colarusso, pp. 5&ndash;7.</ref>

===Links between Greek mythology and subsequent folklore===
Caucasian folklore contains many links with the myths of the ancient Greeks. There are resemblances between the mother goddess Satanaya and the Greek goddess of love [[Aphrodite]].<ref>Rashidvash, p. 33; Colarusso, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6], 44, 53, 399.</ref> The story of how the trickster Nart Sosruquo, became invulnerable parallels that of the Greek hero [[Achilles]].<ref>When Sosruquo was born burning in flames, the blacksmith god Tlepsh, grabbed Sosruquo and plunged him into water, making him invulnerable except where he was held by tongs, see Rashidvash, pp. 33&ndash;34; Colarusso, pp. 52&ndash;54 (Circassian Saga 8: ''Lady Setenaya and the Shepherd: The Birth of Sawseruquo''), 185&ndash;186 (Abaza Saga 47: ''How Sosruquo Was Born''), 387&ndash;394 (Ubykh Saga 86: ''The Birth of Soseruquo''), cf. pp. 323&ndash;328 (Abkhaz Saga 75: ''The Mother of Heroes'').</ref> The ancient Greek [[Amazons]] may be connected to a Caucasian "warrior Forest-Mother, Amaz-an".<ref>Rashidvash, p. 34; Colarusso, pp. 130, 318.</ref>

Caucasian legends include stories involving giants similar to [[Homer]]'s [[Polyphemus]] story.<ref>Hunt, pp. 9, 13, 201, 210&ndash;229; Bachvarova, [https://books.google.com/books?id=wxd-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 p. 106]; Mayor, pp. xxi; Rashidvash, p. 34; Colarusso. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6&ndash;7], [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170] (Circassian Saga 37: ''A Cyclops Bound atop Was'hamakhwa''), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 200&ndash;202] (Abaza Saga 52: ''How Sosruquo Brought Fire to His Troops'').</ref> In these stories, the giant is almost always a [[shepherd]],<ref>Hunt, p. 13.</ref> and he is variously a one-eyed rock-throwing cannibal, who lives in a cave (the exit of which is often blocked by a stone), kills the hero's companions, is blinded by a hot stake, and whose flock of animals is stolen by the hero and his men, all motifs which (along with still others) are also found in the Polyphemus story.<ref>Hunt, Table 1, pp. 211&ndash;212.</ref> In one example from [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], two brothers, who are being held prisoner by a giant one-eyed shepherd called "One-eye", take a spit, heat it up, stab it into the giant's eye, and escape.<ref>Hunt, pp. 218&ndash;222 (45. The Story of One-eye (''Georgian'')).</ref>

There are also links with the ancient Greek myth of [[Prometheus]].<ref>Mayor, p. xxi; Hunt, pp. 14, 330&ndash;357; Calarusso, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7], [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170], [https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 200&mdash;202]; Rashidvash, p. 34.</ref> Many legends, widespread in the Caucasus, contain motifs shared with the Prometheus story.<ref>Hunt, p. 14. Hunt, p. 330, mentions forty-four versions.</ref> These motifs include a giant hero, his conflict with God or gods, the stealing of fire and giving it to men, being chained, and being tormented by a bird who pecks at his liver (or heart).<ref>Hunt, pp. 330&ndash;331.</ref> The [[Adyghe people|Adyge]]/[[Circassians|Circassian]] Nart Nasran,<ref>Colarusso, pp. 158&ndash;168 (Circassian Saga 34: ''How Pataraz Freed Bearded Nasran, Who Was Chained to the High Mountain''), 168&ndash;169 (Circassian Saga 35: ''Bound Nasran''); Hunt, pp. 355&ndash;356; Rashidvash, p. 34.</ref> the [[Georgians|Georgian]] [[Amirani]],<ref>Hunt, pp. 332&ndash;337, 351&ndash;355; Colarusso, p. 169.</ref> the [[Chechens|Chechen]] [[Pkharmat]],<ref>Hunt, pp. 332, 339&ndash;344.</ref> and the [[Abkhazians|Abkhazian]] [[Abrskil]],<ref>Hunt, pp. 333, 347&ndash;351.</ref> are examples of such Prometheus-like figures.

==Ecology==
[[File:CAUCASIA~Vegetation Land Cover with ethnic borders~2.jpg|thumb|Caucasus vegetation land cover, 1940]]
[[File:View of the village Zrikh in Dagestan, RF.jpg|thumb|View of the Caucasus Mountains in [[Dagestan]], Russia]]
The Caucasus is an area of great ecological importance. The region is included in the list of 34 world [[biodiversity hotspot]]s.<ref>Zazanashvili N, Sanadiradze G, Bukhnikashvili A, Kandaurov A, Tarkhnishvili D. 2004. Caucasus. In: Mittermaier RA, Gil PG, Hoffmann M, Pilgrim J, Brooks T, Mittermaier CG, Lamoreux J, da Fonseca GAB, eds. Hotspots revisited, Earth's biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions. Sierra Madre: CEMEX/Agrupacion Sierra Madre, 148–153</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=WWF – The Caucasus: A biodiversity hotspot |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/project/projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=GE0026&source=ge |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508212359/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/project/projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=GE0026&source=ge |archive-date=8 May 2013 |access-date=2 August 2012 |website=panda.org}}</ref> It harbors some 6400 species of higher plants, 1600 of which are [[endemism|endemic]] to the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.endemic-species-caucasus.info/|title=Endemic Species of the Caucasus}}</ref> Its wildlife includes [[Persian leopard]]s, [[brown bear]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[bison]], [[East European red deer|marals]], [[golden eagle]]s and [[hooded crow]]s. Among [[invertebrates]], some 1000 [[spider]] species are recorded in the Caucasus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A faunistic database on the spiders of the Caucasus |url=http://caucasus-spiders.info/introduction/checklists/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328225817/http://caucasus-spiders.info/introduction/checklists/ |archive-date=28 March 2009 |access-date=17 September 2010 |publisher=Caucasian Spiders}}</ref><ref name="chaladzeetal2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Chaladze |first1=G. |last2=Otto |first2=S. |last3=Tramp |first3=S. |year=2014 |title=A spider diversity model for the Caucasus Ecoregion |journal=Journal of Insect Conservation |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=407–416 |doi=10.1007/s10841-014-9649-1 |bibcode=2014JICon..18..407C |s2cid=16783553}}</ref> Most of arthropod biodiversity is concentrated on Great and Lesser Caucasus ranges.<ref name=chaladzeetal2014 />

The region has a high level of [[endemism]] and several [[Relict (biology)|relict]] animals and plants, the fact reflecting the presence of refugial forests, which survived the [[Last glacial period|Ice Age]] in the Caucasus Mountains. The Caucasus forest refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian (near Eastern) region.<ref>van Zeist W, Bottema S. 1991. ''Late Quaternary vegetation of the Near East''. Wiesbaden: Reichert.</ref><ref name="tgm">{{Cite journal |last1=Tarkhnishvili |first1=D. |last2=Gavashelishvili |first2=A. |last3=Mumladze |first3=L. |year=2012 |title=Palaeoclimatic models help to understand current distribution of Caucasian forest species |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=105 |pages=231–248 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01788.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> The area has multiple representatives of [[disjunct distribution|disjunct]] relict groups of plants with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America.<ref>Milne RI. 2004. "Phylogeny and biogeography of ''Rhododendron'' subsection ''Pontica'', a group with a Tertiary relict distribution". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' 33: 389–401.</ref><ref>Kikvidze Z, Ohsawa M. 1999. "Adjara, East Mediterranean refuge of Tertiary vegetation". In: Ohsawa M, Wildpret W, Arco MD, eds. ''Anaga Cloud Forest, a comparative study on evergreen broad-leaved forests and trees of the Canary Islands and Japan''. Chiba: Chiba University Publications, 297–315.</ref><ref>Denk T, Frotzler N, Davitashvili N. 2001. "Vegetational patterns and distribution of relict taxa in humid temperate forests and wetlands of Georgia Transcaucasia". ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' 72: 287–332.</ref> Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic.<ref>Pokryszko B, Cameron R, Mumladze L, Tarkhnishvili D. 2011. "Forest snail faunas from Georgian Transcaucasia: patterns of diversity in a Pleistocene refugium". ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' 102: 239–250</ref> Some relict species of vertebrates are [[Caucasian parsley frog]], [[Caucasian salamander]], [[Robert's snow vole]], and [[Caucasian grouse]], and there are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus ''[[Darevskia]]''. In general, the species composition of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia.<ref name=tgm />

The natural landscape is one of [[Caucasus mixed forests|mixed forest]], with substantial areas of rocky ground above the treeline. The Caucasus Mountains are also noted for a [[dog breed]], the [[Caucasian Shepherd Dog]] (Rus. Kavkazskaya Ovcharka, Geo. Nagazi). [[Vincent Evans]] noted that [[minke whale]]s have been recorded from the Black Sea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oceancare.org/en/startpage/|title=OceanCare - Protecting oceans and marine mammals|date=24 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Joseph |title=Biology and Exploitation of the Minke Whale |date=1989 |page=27}}</ref><ref name="GreekCetacea">{{Cite web|year=2003 |title=Current knowledge of the cetacean fauna of the Greek Seas |url=http://cetaceanalliance.org/download/literature/Frantzis_etal_2003.pdf |pages=219–232 |access-date=21 April 2016 |journal= |archive-date=7 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907032339/http://www.cetaceanalliance.org/download/literature/Frantzis_etal_2003.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Energy and mineral resources==
The Caucasus has many economically important [[mineral]]s and [[energy]] resources, such as [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[iron ore]], [[manganese]], [[tungsten]], [[zinc]], [[Petroleum|oil]], [[natural gas]], and [[coal]] (both [[anthracite|anthracite coal]] and [[brown coal|brown]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 2019|title=2015 Minerals Yearbook: EUROPE AND CENTRAL EURASIA|url=https://prd-wret.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/atoms/files/myb3-sum-2015-europe-eurasia.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://prd-wret.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/atoms/files/myb3-sum-2015-europe-eurasia.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=|website=USGS}}</ref>

==Sport==
[[File:Gudauri Ski Resort, Gudauri, Georgia (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|[[Gudauri]] is a popular destination for skiing, [[Heliskiing]], and [[paragliding]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains.]]
[[Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi, Krasnodar Krai|Krasnaya Polyana]] is a popular center of mountain skiing and a snowboard venue.<br> The [[2015 European Games]] is the first in the history of the European Games to be held in [[Azerbaijan]].

Mountain-skiing complexes include:
*Alpika-Service
*Mountain roundabout
*[[Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort|Rosa Hutor]]
*[[Tsaghkadzor ski resort|Tsaghkadzor Ski Resort]] in [[Armenia]]
*[[Shahdag Winter Complex]] in [[Azerbaijan]]

The 2017 [[Azerbaijan Grand Prix]] (motor racing) was the first in the history of Formula One to be held in [[Azerbaijan]]. The [[2017 World Rugby Under 20 Championship]] was held in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. In 2017 the U-19 Europe Championship (Football) was held in Georgia. In 2019 the UEFA European Under-19 Championship was held in Armenia.

==See also==
{{portal|Asia|Europe|Geography|Mountains|World}}
* [[Caucasian cuisine]]
* [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]]
* [[Culture of Armenia]]
* [[Culture of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Culture of Georgia (country)]]
* [[Eastern Partnership]]
* [[Eurasian Economic Union]]
* [[Euronest Parliamentary Assembly]]
* [[Khanates of the Caucasus]]
* [[Prometheism]]
* [[Regions of Europe]]
* [[Transcontinental nation]]s

===Tourism-related links===
* [[Tourism in Armenia]]
* [[Tourism in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Tourism in Georgia (country)|Tourism in Georgia]]
* [[Tourism in Russia]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Bachvarova, Mary R., ''From Hittite to Homer: The Anatolian Background of Ancient Greek Epic'', Cambridge University Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0521509794}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Coene |first=Frederick |title=The Caucasus: An Introduction |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-48660-6}}
* [[John Colarusso|Colarusso, John]], ''Nart Sagas from the Caucasus: Myths and Legends from the Circassians, Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs'', Princeton University Press, 2002, 2014. {{ISBN|9781400865284}}.
* Cornell, Susan E., ''Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus''.
*{{Cite book |last=de Waal |first=Thomas |title=The Caucasus: An Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539977-6 |author-link=Thomas de Waal}}
* Golvin, Ivan, ''The Caucasus''.
* Griffin, Nicholas, ''Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam'', University of Chicago Press, 2004. {{ISBN| 9780226308593}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Hamed-Troyansky |first=Vladimir |title=Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2024 |location=Stanford, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-5036-3696-5}}
* Hunt, David, ''Legends of the Caucasus'', Saqi Books, London, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0863568237}}.
* [[Adrienne Mayor|Mayor, Adrienne]] (2016), "Introduction to the Paperback Edition" in ''Nart Sagas: Ancient Myths and Legends of the Circassians and Abkhazians'', by John Colarusso, Princeton University Press, 2016. {{ISBN|978-0691-16914-9}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Suny |first=Ronald Grigor |title=The Making of the Georgian Nation |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=0-253-20915-3 |edition=2nd |author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last= Baumer |first= Christoph |title= History of the Caucasus - Volume 1: At the Crossroads of Empires |publisher= I.B. Tauris |location= London |date= 2021 |type= Hardback |isbn= 9781788310079}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Caucasia | volume= 5 |last= Bealby |first=John Thomas | pages = 546&ndash;550 |short=1}}
* Dubrovin, Nikolai F. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190503193010/https://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3084/ The history of wars and Russian domination in the Caucasus] (История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе). Sankt-Petersburg, 1871–1888, at [[Runivers.ru]] in [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats.
* Fadeev, Rostislav Andreevich (1860). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190504101003/https://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3194/10251/ Sixty years of the Caucasian War] (Шестьдесят лет Кавказской войны). [[Tiflis]], at [[Runivers.ru]] in [[DjVu]] format.
* Gagarin, G. G. (1840). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110216032810/http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book4314/45273/ Costumes Caucasus] (Костюмы Кавказа). [[Paris]],  at [[Runivers.ru]] in [[DjVu]] and [[PDF]] formats.
* Gasimov, Zaur (2011). [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011081894 ''The Caucasus''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], retrieved: 18 November 2011.
* [[Kaziev Shapi]] (2003). [[North Caucasus|Caucasian highlanders]] (Повседневная жизнь горцев Северного Кавказа в XIX в.). [http://www.kaziev.ru/index/highlanders/0-50 Everyday life of the Caucasian Highlanders. The 19th Century (In the co-authorship with I. Karpeev). "Molodaya Gvardiy" publishers. Moscow] {{ISBN|5-235-02585-7}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Caucasus}}
{{wikivoyage|Caucasus}}
* [https://english.caucasianjournal.org/ ''Caucasian Journal'']—a multilingual online journal on South Caucasus
* [http://gotocaucasus.com/ Information for travellers and others about Caucasus and Georgia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190801130007/http://www.cria-online.org/ ''Caucasian Review of International Affairs'']—an academic journal on the South Caucasus
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3632274.stm BBC News: North Caucasus at a glance], 8 September 2005
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050924024959/http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/map/images/caucasus_envsec2_landcoverb.gif United Nations Environment Programme map: Landcover of the Caucasus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050924025007/http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/map/images/caucasus_envsec2_popdensityb.gif United Nations Environment Programme map: Population density of the Caucasus]
* [http://www.foodsec.org/web/regional/europe/overview/en/ Food Security in Caucasus (FAO)] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810031016/http://www.foodsec.org/web/regional/europe/overview/en/ |date=10 August 2013 }})
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012140601/http://iranica.com/newsite/articles/v5f1/v5f1a032.html Caucasus and Iran]}} entry in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080813013133/http://www.oc.unito.it/en/index.html University of Turin-Observatory on Caucasus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090827073642/http://www.circassiandiaspora.com/ Circassians Caucasus Web] {{In lang|tr}}
* [http://www.biodiversity-georgia.net Georgian Biodiversity Database (checklists for ca. 11,000 plant and animal species)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917010002/http://www.biodiversity-georgia.net/ |date=17 September 2020 }}
* [https://caucasusmountains.info/ WHAT TO SEE IN CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024001057/https://caucasusmountains.info/ |date=24 October 2020 }}
* [https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.raex.com%2F~obsidian%2Fcaucasus.html%23Georgian+Patriarchate&download=1#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url The Caucasus], Regnal Chronologies (Wikiwix Archive, 8/21/2008)

{{Caucasus}}
{{Countries and regions of the Caucasus}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Regions of Europe|state=collapsed}}
{{Eastern Europe|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Caucasus| ]]
[[Category:Eastern Europe]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Europe]]
[[Category:Regions of Asia]]
[[Category:Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:West Asia]]