Editing Catacombs

{{short description|Subterranean passageways used as burial place}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}

[[Image:A-Procession-in-the-Catacomb-of-Callistus.jpg|thumb|A procession in the [[Pope Callixtus I|San Callistus]] catacombs in [[Rome]], painted by [[Alberto Pisa]]]]

'''Catacombs''' are man-made underground passages primarily used for religious purposes, particularly for burial. Any chamber used as a burial place is considered a catacomb, although the word is most commonly associated with the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Other examples include a [[Neolithic]] [[long barrow]], an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[necropolis]], or modern underground vaults such as the [[Catacombs of Paris]].</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reich |first=Ronny |title=The Architecture of Ancient Israel |last2=Katzenstein |first2=Hannah |date=1992 |publisher=Israel Exploration Society |isbn=978-965-221-013-5 |editor-last=Kempinski |editor-first=Aharon |location=Jerusalem |pages=312 |chapter=Glossary of Archaeological Terms |quote=(Latin: catacumbas - district near ancient Rome where one of the earliest Christian cemeteries was located). Subterranean rock-cut burial complex. |editor-last2=Reich |editor-first2=Ronny |editor-last3= |editor-first3=}}</ref>

==Etymology and history==
The first place to be referred to as ''catacombs'' was the system of underground tombs between the 2nd and 3rd milestones of the [[Appian Way]] in [[Rome]], where the bodies of the apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], among others, were said to have been buried. The name of that place in [[Latin|Late Latin]] was ''catacumbas'' (feminine nominative plural; the singular is ''catacumba'') — a word of obscure origin, possibly deriving from a proper name or a derivation of the Greek phrase ''cata cumbas'', "below the quarries". The word referred originally only to the [[Catacombs of Rome|Roman catacombs]], but was extended by the 19th century to refer to any subterranean receptacle of the dead, as in the 18th-century [[Catacombs of Paris|Paris catacombs]].<ref>"[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Catacombs&searchmode=none Catacombs]", [[Online Etymology Dictionary]], accessed 10 July 2010.</ref> The ancient Christians carved the first catacombs from soft [[tufa]] rock.<ref>World Book Encyclopedia, page 296</ref>

All Roman catacombs were located outside city walls since it was illegal to bury a dead body within the city,<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst |first= John Fletcher |title=History of the Christian Church|volume=1|year=1897|publisher=Eaton and Mains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-lCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR18 }}</ref> providing "a place…where [[Christian martyrs|martyrs]]' tombs could be openly marked" and commemorative services and feasts held safely on sacred days.<ref>{{cite book|last=Webb|first=Matilda|title=The Churches of riles often used these ctacombs, And Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: a Comprehensive Guide|page=xiv, xi–xii|year=2001|publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]]|isbn=9781902210575|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESRnSBbNRGAC}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Around the world==
[[Image:Rom, Domitilla-Katakomben 2.jpg|thumb|Grave niches in the [[Catacombs of Rome#Catacombs of Domitilla|Catacombs of Domitilla]], [[Rome]]]]
[[Image:Paris catacombes.jpg|thumb|[[Paris Catacombs]]]]
[[File:Rom, Domitilla-Katakomben, Fresko "Christus und die 12 Apostel" und Christussymbol "Chi Rho" 1.jpg|thumb|[[Jesus]] and his [[twelve apostles]], fresco with the [[Chi Rho|Chi-Rho symbol <big>☧</big>]], Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome]]
[[File:Rom, Domitilla-Katakomben, Steintafel mit Inschrift, Alpha und Omega und Christussymbol Chi Rho.jpg|thumb|The Chi-Rho symbol <big>☧</big> with [[Alpha and Omega]], Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome]]

Catacombs around the world include:

* [[Austria]] – Catacombs of [[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna]]
* [[Czech Republic]] – [[Znojmo Catacombs|Catacombs of Znojmo]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] – [[Catacombs of Jajce]]
* [[Egypt]] – [[Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa]] (or ''Kom al Sukkfa'', ''Shuqafa'', etc.) in [[Alexandria]]
* [[United Kingdom]] – [[Catacombs of London]] and others
* [[Finland]] – Catacombs of the Helsinki Orthodox cemetery at [[Hietaniemi cemetery]]
* France – [[Catacombs of Paris]]. Mine workings were used at end of the 18th century and had no religious purpose other than as an [[ossuary]] for storing the bones of cleared graveyards.
* [[Greece]] – [[Catacombs of Milos]]
* [[Italy]] – [[Catacombs of Rome]]; [[Catacombs of Naples]]; [[Capuchin catacombs of Palermo]], [[Catacombs of Syracuse]] and others
* [[Israel]] – [[Beit She'arim necropolis]]<ref>Weiss, Z. (2010). Burial practices in Beth She'arim and the question of dating the patriarchal necropolis. ''Follow the Wise": Studies in Jewish History and Culture in Honor of Lee I. Levine. Winona Lake'', 207–231.</ref>
* [[Malta]] – [[Catacombs of Malta]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1113/ |title=Maltese Catacomb Complexes |publisher=[[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |access-date=2008-04-17 }}</ref>
* [[Peru]] – [[Catacombs of Lima]]
* [[Philippines]] – Catacomb of [[Nagcarlan Underground Cemetery]]
*[[Spain]] – Catacombs of [[Sacromonte in Granada]]
* [[Serbia]] – [[Petrovaradin Fortress catacombs]]
* [[Tunisia]] – [[:fr:Catacombes de Sousse|Catacombs of Sousse]]
* [[Ukraine]] – [[Odesa Catacombs]]
* United States – [[Old St. Patrick's Cathedral#Cathedral complex|Old St. Patrick's Cathedral]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeout.com/newyork/things-to-do/take-a-photo-tour-of-the-crypts-underneath-st-patricks-old-cathedral-slide-show |title=Take a photo tour of the crypts underneath St. Patrick's Old Cathedral |website=timeout.com |access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref>
There are also catacomb-like burial chambers in [[Anatolia]], [[Turkey]]; in [[Sousse]], Tunisia; in [[Syracuse, Italy]]; [[Trier]], Germany; [[Kyiv]], Ukraine. [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] catacombs of [[Palermo, Sicily]], were used as late as the 1920s. Catacombs were available in some of the grander English cemeteries founded in the 19th century, such as [[Sheffield General Cemetery]] (above ground) and [[West Norwood Cemetery]] (below ground). There are catacombs in [[Bulgaria]] near [[Aladzha Monastery]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Aladzha Monastery {{!}} Black Sea Coast, Bulgaria {{!}} Attractions |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/bulgaria/golden-sands/attractions/aladzha-monastery/a/poi-sig/1116388/1002749 |website=Lonely Planet |access-date=21 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> and in [[Romania]] as medieval underground galleries in [[Bucharest]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.romanialibera.ro/a71250/retea-strategica-de-buncare-si-tuneluri-dedesubtul-capitalei.html|title=Romania Libera:Network of tunnels under the capital city|access-date=2008-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129210328/http://www.romanialibera.ro/a71250/retea-strategica-de-buncare-si-tuneluri-dedesubtul-capitalei.html|archive-date=29 January 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Ukraine and Russia, catacomb (used in the local languages' plural ''katakomby'') also refers to the network of abandoned caves and [[tunnel]]s earlier used to mine stone, especially [[limestone]].

In Italy, possible Catacombs are also located in [[Alezio]], beside the ''Sanctuary of Santa Maria dell'Assunta'', as well as the basement of ''{{ill|Santa Maria della Lizza Sanctuary|it|Chiesa di Santa Maria della Lizza}}''.{{clarify|date=December 2020}}

==Decorations==
Catacombs, although most notable as underground passageways and cemeteries, also house many decorations. There are thousands of decorations in the centuries-old catacombs of Rome, catacombs of Paris, and other known, some of which include inscriptions, paintings, statues, ornaments, and other items placed in the graves over the years.

Most of these decorations were used to identify, immortalize and show respect to the dead. Decorations in the catacombs of Rome were primarily decorated with images and words exalting Christ or depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments of the Bible.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|title= Short History of the Christian Church |pages=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog/page/n134 87]–88|year=1900|publisher=[[Harper and Brothers]]|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog}}</ref> Much of the sculpture work and art, other than engravings on the walls or tombs, has been preserved in places such as the [[Museum of Saint John Lateran]], Christian Museum of Berlin University, and the Vatican.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|title= Short History of the Christian Church |page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog/page/n134 87]|year=1900|publisher=[[Harper and Brothers]]|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog}}</ref>

Three representations of Christ as [[Orpheus]] charming animals with peaceful music have been found in the catacombs of Domatilla and St. Callista.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|title= Short History of the Christian Church |page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog/page/n135 88]|year=1900|publisher=[[Harper and Brothers]]|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog}}</ref> Another figure was made of gilded glass and dates back to the fourth century, featuring Jesus with the world balanced in his hand and a scroll at his feet.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|title= Short History of the Christian Church |page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog/page/n136 89]|year=1900|publisher=[[Harper and Brothers]]|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistorychr00hursgoog}}</ref>

===Inscriptions===
Although thousands of inscriptions were lost as time passed, many of those remaining indicate the social rank or job title of its inhabitants; however, most of the inscriptions simply indicate how loving a couple was, or the love of parents and such. A common and particularly interesting one found in Roman catacombs is the [[Ichthys]], or "Monogram of Christ" which reads ΙΧΘΥΣ, standing for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior".<ref name="auto"/>

==Bacteria==
In recent years unique strains of bacteria have been discovered that thrive in catacombs, inducing mineral [[efflorescence]] and decay. These include ''[[Kribbella sancticallisti]]'', ''[[Kribbella catacumbae]]'', and three types of non-thermophilic (low-temperature) ''[[Rubrobacter]]''.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081027140819.htm ScienceDaily], Bacteria Cause Old Buildings To Feel Off-Color
28 October 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080924192443.htm ScienceDaily], New Life Found in Ancient Tombs, 1 October 2008</ref>

==See also==
*[[Cemetery]]
*[[Crypt]]
* [[Ossuary]]
*"[[The Cask of Amontillado]]"
*[[Underground city]]
*[[Necropolis]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[Enid Blyton|Blyton, Enid]] "Five go to Smuggler's Top" Hodder and Stroughton (1945) {{ISBN|978-1-84456-678-5}}
* Éamonn Ó Carragáin, [[Carol Neuman de Vegvar|Carol L. Neuman de Vegvar]] ''Roma felix: formation and reflections of medieval Rome'' Ashgate (14 March 2008) {{ISBN|978-0-7546-6096-5}} p.&nbsp;33 [https://books.google.com/books?id=aW-LnIpVgFQC&dq=catacombs+cults&pg=PA33 Roma Felix: Formation and Reflections of Medieval Rome]
* Nicholson, Paul Thomas (2005) "The sacred animal necropolis at North Saqqara: the cults and their catacombs" In Salima Ikram (ed) ''Divine creatures: animal mummies in Ancient Egypt''. American University in Cairo Press, 2005 pp.&nbsp;44–71. {{ISBN|978-977-424-858-0}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Catacombs}}
*[http://www.catacombe.org The Catacombs of Saint Sebastian]
*[http://www.catacombedinapoli.it The Catacombs of Naples]
*[https://go-catacombs.com/ The Catacombs of Odesa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080703175110/http://www.catacombs.explographies.com/ The Catacombs of Paris]
*[http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Subterranea/Catacombs.html Catacombs]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070417004252/http://www.catacombe.roma.it/index.html The Catacombs of Saint Callist]
*[http://www.subbrit.org.uk/ Subterranean Britannica]
*[http://museocatacumbas.com/ The Catacombs of Lima, Peru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004032034/http://museocatacumbas.com/ |date=4 October 2017 }}

{{Man-made and man-related Subterranea}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Catacombs| ]]
[[Category:Cemeteries]]
[[Category:Subterranean buildings and structures]]